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3.1 INTRODUCTION High-speed, wide-bandwidth op-amps. These op-amps have high slew
rate and wide bandwidth specifications. High slew rate (rate of change of
An operational amplifier (abbreviated as op-amp) is a direct- output voltage with changes in the input frequency) is an advantage in high
coupled amplifier with high voltage gain. It normally consists of one or more frequency applications especially in comparators, oscillators, and filters.
differential amplifier stages followed by a level-shifting stage and an output
stage. A feedback circuit is also generally added to control the overall Op-amp comparators. These op-amps are especially designed for use in
response characteristics of op-amps. The name operational amplifier is comparator applications. They have a very fast response time (typically
applied when a very stable amplifier is used to implement a wide variety of from a few nanoseconds to several tens of nanoseconds) compared to the
linear and non-linear functions. A linear circuit is one that preserves the general purpose op-amps (typically 1 microsecond).
shape of the input signal, for example, if the input signal is sinusoidal, the Norton op-amps. This op-amp, also known as current differencing op-
output signal is also sinusoidal. In a non-linear application, the shape of the amp, differs from a conventional op-amp in its internal structure. In a
output signal is different from that of the input. Examples of non-linear conventional op-amp, the input stage is a differential amplifier to achieve
circuits are clamper, clipper, comparator and others. Circuit functions can inverting and non-inverting input functions. In the case of a Norton op-amp,
be changed to suit a variety of applications, by merely changing a few the non-inverting input function is derived from the inverting input function
external elements, such as ac and dc signal amplification, active filters, by using a configuration called the current mirror.
oscillators, comparators, regulators, etc. Operational amplifiers are widely
Instrumentation op-amps. This type of op-amp has a very high input
applied because they approach ideal amplifier, especially for dc and low
impedance, very large CMRR and extremely low values of offsets and
frequency signals.
offset drifts. It is a precision op-amp with singleended output and
The op-amp was originally designed for performing analog differential input gain block. It is internally a combination of three op-amps,
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and two at the input wired as buffers and the third at the output wired as a
integration. Thus, the name operational amplifier has been derived from differential amplifier.
this original usage for these mathematical operations. The present-day
Isolation op-amps. The output of this op-amp is electrically isolated from
integrated operational amplifier is a versatile device, predictable, and an
the input. It is a differential input, single-ended output amplifier. Isolation
economic system building block. It offers the advantages of small size, high
impedances of the order of 1012 W and isolation voltages of about 1000 V
reliability, reduced cost, temperature tracking, and low offset voltage and
are common.
current.
Figures 3.1(a) to 3.1(d) show circuit symbols of general purpose op-amps,
Based on their performance specifications and the internal
Norton op-amps, instrumentation op-amps, and isolation op-amps,
structure, op-amps are classified into the following groups.
respectively.
General purpose op-amps. These op-amps have moderate to reasonably
good values for the key parameters. This op-amp has a JFET based input
differential amplifier stage resulting in high input impedance and good
noise specifications.

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Other manufacturers, namely Motorola produces the MC1741, National

Semiconductor the LM741, and Texas Instruments the SN72741. All these
monolithic op-amps are equivalent to the mA741 because they are
manufactured to the same specifications. For convenience, most people
drop the prefix mA and refer to this widely used op-amp simply as the 741.
The features of the 741 are:
• No external frequency compensation required
• Short-circuit protection
• Offset null capability
• Low power consumption
• Large common mode and differential voltage ranges
3.2 INTERPRETING THE MA741 OP-AMP SERIES • No latch-up problem
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation introduced its mA709 IC op- Properties of an ideal op-amp. The properties of an op-amp are:
amp in 1965. It was the first widely used monolithic op-amp. Although • Input resistance, Rin →  (open circuited). Consequently, no current
successful, this first generation op-amp had many disadvantages. This led enters either of the input terminals.
to an improved op-amp known as the mA741. The mA741 has been an
• Output resistance, Rout @ 0
enormous success as it is inexpensive and easy to use. A mA741 op-amp
series includes the 741, 741A, 741C, and 741E models; the schematic • Voltage gain, Av → – . The output voltage, vout = – Avvin(off), is infinite.
diagrams and electrical parameters for all of them are the same, with only Thus, as Av → – , it is required that the input offset voltage vin(off) @ 0
the values of the parameters differing from one model to another. For • Input offset voltage, vin(off) @ 0
instance, the 741A has the best tolerances (tightly controlled parameters)
• The amplifier responds equally at all frequencies. Hence, the bandwidth is
and costs the most. At the other extreme, the 741C has the worst infinite.
tolerances and consequently costs the least. Figures 3.2(a) and 3.2(b)
represent the pinout diagrams of the mA741 IC op-amp, i.e. 8 pin mini DIP • The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR = difference mode
gain/common mode gain) is infinite.
and 8 pin metal can, respectively.
• Characteristics do not drift with temperature.
• Input offset current, iin(off) @ 0
• Perfect balance: vout @ 0, when vin1 = vin2 (vin1 and vin2 are the common
mode signals).

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Properties of real op-amp Equivalent circuit of an op-amp. An op-amp consists of an input

The properties of a real op-amps are resistance Rin connected between two inputs (i.e. Pin 2 and Pin 3) as
shown in Fig. 3.3. The output circuit consists of a controlled voltage
• Input resistance Rin is high (> 1 MΩ).
source of magnitude – Avvin(off) in series with an output resistance Rout
• Output resistance Rout is low (< 100 Ω). connected between the output terminal (Pin 6) and ground (Pin 8). The
• Open-loop voltage gain Av is very high (>10 000). output voltage vout is the amplified difference signal (i.e. v in(off) = vin1 –
• Input offset voltage vin(off) is low (60 dB). vin2). The (–) and (+) symbols at the inputs of the opamp refer to the
inverting and non-inverting inputs, respectively. If v in2 = 0, then the
• Bandwidth is dominant pole ( 10 Hz).
output voltage vout is 180° out of phase (inverted) with respect to the
Pin configuration of the 741C op-amp. The pin configuration of the 741C input signal vin1. Similarly, when vin1 = 0, the output voltage vout and the
op-amp is described below: input signal vin2 are in phase (noninverting).
Pin 1 and Pin 5 These pins are marked as – offset null and + offset null,
respectively. A 10 kW potentiometer can be connected between pins 1 and
5, and the wiper of the potentiometer can be connected to the negative
supply, – VEE. By adjusting the potentiometer, the output offset voltage
(output voltage without any input applied) can be reduced to 0 V.
Pin 2 and Pin 3 These two pins are called inverting and non-inverting
inputs, respectively. The op-amp has differential inputs, with voltages vin1
and vin2 applied to the inverting and noninverting terminals, respectively,
as shown in Fig. 3.2(c).
Pin 4 and Pin 7 An operational amplifier circuit is powered by a dual
supply, one positive, +VCC (Pin 7), with respect to ground and the other
negative, –VEE (Pin 4), with respect to ground. So Pin 4 and Pin 7 are
power supply pins.
Pin 6 The output vout is obtained from the output Pin 6.
Pin 8 This is known as the ground pin (GND). In the circuit diagram of the
741 IC op-amp, it is marked as NC (i.e. no connection). This means it has
a common path with potential zero.

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3.3 OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS Input offset voltage drift. The input offset voltage drift is the ratio of the
change in the input offset voltage to the change in temperature. It is also
As an op-amp is a direct coupled amplifier, both dc and ac referred to as thermal voltage drift. Its unit is mV/°C. Let
characteristics have to be considered in designing op-amp circuits. The
electrical characteristics that affect the op-amp performance are as follows: vin(off)1 be the input offset voltage at temperature t1

The ideal op-amp is perfectly balanced (i.e. the output voltage, vout vin(off)2 be the input offset voltage at temperature t2
= 0) when the input voltages vin1 and vin2 are equal. A real op-amp, Therefore, the input offset voltage drift is given by
however, exhibits an imbalance caused by mismatch of the input
transistors. This mismatch results in unequal bias currents, I B1 and IB2,
flowing through the input terminals and consequently in unequal base-
emitter voltages, VB1 and VB2, as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The simplified circuit Input bias current. The input bias
of this op-amp with both input terminals grounded, i.e. without any input current is the average of the two input bias currents, I B1 and IB2 entering the
applied is shown in Fig. 3.4(b). For instance, the data sheet of a typical two input terminals of a balanced amplifier [see Fig. 3.4(c)]. The input bias
741C lists a maximum input offset voltage of ± 2 mV. This difference of 2 current when vout = 0 is, therefore, given by
mV is an unwanted input signal that gets amplified to produce a voltage at
the output terminal. Hence, it requires an input offset voltage to be applied
between the two input terminals for balancing the amplifier output to zero. Even though both the input
transistors are identical, it is not possible to have IB1 and IB2 exactly equal to
Input offset voltage. The input offset voltage vin (off) is the differential input
each other because of the internal imbalance between the two inputs.
voltage that exists between the two input terminals of an op-amp without
any external inputs applied. In other words, it is that voltage which must be Input bias current drift. The input bias current drift is the ratio of the
applied between the two input terminals to balance the amplifier, i.e. to change in the input bias current to the change in temperature. It is also
force the output voltage to zero. For example, a voltage of 2 mV can be known as thermal bias current drift. Its unit is pA/°C. Therefore, the input
applied at the inverting input to nullify the output voltage [see Fig. 3.4(c)]. bias current drift is given by
The input offset voltage when vout = 0 is given by
vin(off) = VB2 ~ VB1………(3.1)
where VB2 and VB1are the two base-emitter voltages. Input offset current. The input offset
current is the difference in the two base currents, entering the input
terminals of a balanced amplifier. For instance, Fig. 3.4(d) shows a
resistance RB between the non-inverting input and ground. Since there is a
base current IB2 through RB, a voltage v2 = IB2 RB appears at the non-
inverting input.

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If the inverting input is grounded i.e. v1 = 0, then the input offset voltage is, Output offset voltage. The voltage that appears at the output of an op-
vin(off) = IB2 RB. This unwanted input voltage is amplified to produce an output amp, caused by an imbalance in the differential amplifier as discussed
voltage. A method of nullifying the voltage at the output is to add an equal above in cases where VB1 VB2 and IB1 IB2, is known as the output offset
resistance to other input as shown in Fig. 3.4(e). voltage. That is,

Output offset voltage drift. The output offset voltage drift is the ratio of
the change in the output offset voltage to the change in temperature. It is
also referred to as thermal drift in the output offset voltage. Its unit is
mV/°C. Let
vout(off)1 be the output offset voltage at temperature t1
vout(off)2 be the output offset voltage at temperature t2
Therefore, the output offset voltage drift is given by
In Fig. 3.4(e), the input offset voltage is given by
vin(off) = IB1RB – IB2RB
vin(off) = (IB1 – IB2)RB = Iin(off) RB Input common mode
where Iin(off) = IB1 – IB2 = input offset current. voltage range. The input common mode voltage range is the range of
common mode voltages over which an op-amp remains linear. For the
Therefore, the input offset current is given by
741C op-amp, the range of the input common mode voltage is ±13 V
Iin(off) = vin(off) /RB (3.5) maximum. This means that the common mode voltage applied to both
Input offset current drift. The input offset current drift is the ratio of the input terminals can be as high as +13 V or as low as –13 V without
change in input offset current to the change in temperature. It is also disturbing the proper functioning of the op-amp.
known as thermal drift in the input offset current. Its unit is pA/°C. Let Input differential mode range. It is the maximum difference mode signal
Iin(off)1 be the input offset current at temperature t1 that can be safely applied to the input terminals of the op-amp.
Output voltage range. This is the maximum output voltage swing that can
Iin(off)2 be the input offset current at temperature t2
be obtained without significant distortion (at a given load resistance).
Therefore, the input offset current drift is given by
Offset voltage adjustment range. The offset voltage adjustment range is
the range through which the input offset voltage can be adjusted by varying
the 10 kW potentiometer which is connected between offset null Pin 1 and

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Pin 5 as shown in Fig. 3.2(c). For the 741C, the offset voltage adjustment (vd = vin(off)). Because the output signal amplitude is much larger than the
range is ± 15 mV. input signal, the voltage gain is commonly called large-signal voltage gain.
Output voltage swing (AC output compliance). The ac output 3.4 OPEN-LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATION
compliance indicates the values of positive and negative saturation output
voltages of the op-amp. The output voltage never exceeds these limits for The term open loop signifies that there is no connection, either
the given supply voltages, +VCC and –VEE. Its capacity to swing depends on direct or via another network, between the output and input terminals. That
the load resistance RL. For example, the output voltage swing of the 741C is, the output signal is not fed back in any form to the input terminal, and
is guaranteed to be between +13 V and –13 V for R L ≥ 2 kW, giving a 26 V the loop that would have been formed otherwise with feedback is open.
peak-to-peak undistorted (unclipped) sine wave for ac input signals. As the When connected in open-loop configuration, the op-amp simply functions
load resistance decreases, the slope of the ac load line changes and the as a high-gain amplifier. There are three open-loop configurations: (1)
ac output compliance decreases. The ac output compliance is differential amplifier, (2) inverting amplifier, and (3) non-inverting
approximately 27 V for an RL of 10 kW, 25 V for 1 kW, and 7 V for 100 kW. amplifier.

Power supply rejection ratio, PSRR. The power supply rejection ratio is Open-loop voltage gain. The open-loop voltage gain (AOL = Av) is the ratio
the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage Dvin(off) to the vout / vin with the feedback path open as shown in Fig. 3.5(a). When
corresponding change in one of the power supply voltages DV, with all the calculating AOL, the impedances on each terminal must not be disturbed.
remaining power supply voltages held constant. For this reason, the inverting input terminal is returned to ground through
an equivalent resistance RB = R1||R2, and the output terminal is loaded by
A variety of terms equivalent to PSRR are used by different manufacturers, an equivalent resistance, RTL= (R1 + R2)||RL. Usually, RL is much greater
such as the supply voltage rejection ratio (SVRR) and the power supply than the output impedance of the amplifier so that the open-loop voltage
sensitivity (PSS). These parameters are expressed either in microvolts per gain AOL is approximately equal to the differential voltage gain Ad. The
volt or in decibels. Therefore, open-loop voltage gain of a 741C op-amp is typically 100,000.
PSRR = Dvin(off) /DV………(3.9)
Short-circuit output current. If the output terminal of the op-amp is
accidentally grounded, the current through the short will certainly be much
higher in value than either IB or Iin(off). This high current may damage the op-
amp if it does not have output short-circuit protection. The 741 family op-
amps, however, have built-in short-circuit protection circuitry. The short-
circuit current Isc = 25 mA for the 741C op-amp. It means that the built-in
short-circuit protection is guaranteed to withstand 25 mA of output current
in protecting the op-amp.
Large-signal voltage gain. Since an op-amp amplifies the difference
voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain of the amplifier is
defined as the ratio of the output voltage v out to the differential input voltage
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3.5 CLOSED-LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATION The difference input voltage or error voltage is given by

An op-amp that uses feedback is called a feedback amplifier. A feedback vd = verror = vin – vf = vin – kvout
amplifier is sometimes called a closed-loop amplifier because the Again, the output voltage is
feedback forms a closed loop between the input and the output. A
vout = Avvd = Av(vin – kvout) or
feedback amplifier, therefore, essentially consists of two parts — an op-
amp and a feedback circuit as shown in Fig. 3.5(b). The feedback circuit Vout + Avkvout = Avvin or
can take several different forms depending on the designed application of vout (1 + kAv) = Avvin
the amplifier. It means that the feedback circuit may be made up of either
Hence, the closed-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is given by
passive components, or active components, or a combination of both.
Closed-loop voltage gain. An op-amp always amplifies the difference
input voltage (vin(off) = vd), which is vd = vin – vf as shown in Fig. 3.5(b). As the
feedback voltage vf opposes the input voltage vin, the feedback is said to The product kAv is called loop gain
be negative. The feedback voltage applied to the inverting input is given by because it represents the voltage gain going all the way around the circuit,
from input to output and back to input. When the loop gain kA v is much
greater than 1, the closed loop voltage gain will be Av f = vout/vin = 1/k, which
depends on the values of R1 and R2. The quantity (1 + kAv) is sometimes
= kvout called desensitivity of a feedback amplifier as it indicates how much the
where k = R2/(R1 + R2) = feedback fraction. voltage gain is reduced by the negative feedback.

3.6 TERMINOLOGIES OF OP-AMP

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The operation of the op-amp circuit may now be described by the terms A frequency related parameter of the op-amp is the slew rate. The
introduced in the following subsections. slew (i.e. change) rate is the time rate of change of the closed-loop
amplifier output voltage under large signal conditions. It indicates how
3.6.1 Virtual Ground rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to the change in
Ideally, the negative voltage feedback implies that: (a) the error frequency. Slew rate affects the high frequency performance of an op-amp,
voltage (input offset voltage vin(off) is zero and (b) the current into the op-amp i.e. it limits the size of the output voltage at high frequencies. The slew rate
(input offset current, iin(off) is zero. The high open-loop voltage gain Av is the changes with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at unity gain.
basis for the first implication. The high input resistance of the op-amp is the The charging current in a capacitor is given by, i = C(dv/dt). Therefore, the
reason for the second point. An ordinary ground has zero voltage and can rate of change of voltage in a capacitor will be given by dv/dt = i/C. The
sink infinite current. A virtual ground has zero voltage and zero current. greater the charging current, the faster the capacitor charges up. If for any
The term virtual is used to imply that although the feedback from output to reason the charging current is limited to a maximum value, the rate of
input through feedback resister R2 serves to keep the input offset voltage voltage change is also limited to a maximum value.
vin(off) at zero, input and feedback currents are algebraically added at Pin 2 Assuming that a current of value, Imax = 40 mA charges the
as shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Therefore, the inverting terminal (Pin 2) is called capacitor CC = 20 pF as shown in Fig. 3.6(b). Because this current is
the summing point. Because the virtual ground draws no current, all the constant, the capacitor voltage increases linearly as shown in Fig. 3.6(c).
input current iin has to pass through R2. The voltage across R2, therefore, The maximum rate of change of capacitor voltage is given by
equals iinR2. Since the virtual ground has approximately zero voltage to
ground, KVL tells us that the output voltage is, vout = iinR2.

Thus, the output voltage across the capacitor changes at a

maximum rate of 2 V/ms. The voltage cannot change faster than this
unless Imax is either increased or CC is decreased. Therefore, the slew rate,
SR = Imax /CC is the maximum rate of change of output voltage. The slew
rate of an opamp is fixed. Therefore, if the output signal is required to
change at a rate faster than the slew rate, distortion will be observed. Thus
slew rate is one of the important factors in selecting the op-amp for ac
applications, particularly at relatively high frequencies.

3.6.2 Slew Rate

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Slew rate is a large signal phenomenon, that is, it is indicative of the ability
of an op-amp to handle large signals without distortion. A large signal is
one whose amplitude is comparable to the power supply voltage. Slew rate
is caused by current limiting and the saturation of the internal stages of an
op-amp when a high frequency, large amplitude signal is applied. A
capacitor requires a finite amount of time to charge and discharge. This
means that internal capacitors prevent the output voltage from responding
immediately to a fast changing input.
Slew rate equation. Figure 3.7(a) shows a voltage follower circuit. It is
Slew rate distortion. If an input sine wave has an initial slope of 2 V/ms assumed that the input is a high frequency sine wave of large magnitude,
and the slew rate is 3 V/ms, the amplifier can respond fast enough to i.e. vin = Vm sin wt as shown in Fig. 3.7(b). Now, the output voltage is v out =
produce the required output slope of 2 V/ms as shown in Fig. 3.6(d). But vin = Vm sin wt. The rate of change of output voltage is, dv out/dt = Vm w cos
when the initial slope of the sine wave (assumed, 3 V/ms) is greater than wt and the maximum rate of change of output voltage occurs when wt = 0°.
SR (2 V/ms), then the amplifier does not respond fast enough to produce Therefore, the slew rate is given by
the required output slope of 3 V/ms. In this case, the slew rate distortion
makes the output voltage look more triangular than sinusoidal as shown in
Fig. 3.6(e). If there were no slew rate problems, the output voltage would
follow the input dotted waveform shown in Fig. 3.6(e). With further increase
in the frequency of the input waveform, the output signal swing becomes where f is the
even more triangular. frequency in Hz.

Causes of
slew rate.
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For distortionless output, the slew rate determines the maximum frequency Adding Eqs. (3.16) and (3.18),
of operation for a desired output swing. Unless stated differently, with a 2vin2 = vd + 2vc or vin2 = vc + (vd/2)
lower frequency the slew rate determines the maximum undistorted output
voltage swing. Thus, as long as the value of the right-hand side of Eq. Subtracting Eq. (3.16) from Eq. (3.18),
(3.13) is less than the designed value of slew rate, the output waveform will 2vin1 = 2vc – vd or vin1 = vc – (vd /2)
always be undistorted. Therefore, maximum frequency is given by
Substituting the values of vin1 and vin2 in Eq. (3.15),

3.6.3 Common Mode Rejection Ratio

(CMRR) The output vout of Fig. 3.7(c) can
be expressed as a linear combination of the two input voltages vin1 and
vin2. The output voltage is thus given by Therefore, vout = Advd + Acvc
vout = Ain1vin1 + Ain2vin2 (3.15) Where
where Ain1(or Ain2) is the voltage amplification from input 1(or 2) to the Ac = common mode voltage gain = A2 + A1
output under the condition that input 2(or 1) is grounded.
Ad = difference mode voltage gain = (A2 – A1)/2
It is always preferred to have a large Ad, whereas ideally, Ac should be
equal to zero. A quantity called the common mode rejection ratio which
serves as the figure of merit r for an op-amp, is given by

The difference mode signal vd is the difference between the two input
voltages vin1 and vin2.
Therefore, vd = vin2 – vin1 (3.16)
The common mode signal vc is the average of the two input voltages vin1
and vin2.
Therefore, vc = (vin2 + vin1)/2 (3.17) or
vin1 + vin2 = 2vc (3.18)

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3.7 TYPICAL PARAMETERS OF MONOLITHIC MA741C 3.8 LINEAR APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL

OP-AMP AMPLIFIER
The typical specifications for the mA741C op-amp are listed below: In a linear circuit, the output signal is a replica of the input
Electrical characteristic: Supply voltage, VS = ± 15 V, Ambient signal. For example, if the input signal is a sine wave, then the output
temperature, TA = 25°C, unless otherwise specified. signal is also a sine wave. The linear applications of op-amps are now
discussed in the subsections below. 3.8.1 The Inverting Amplifier or
Negative Scale Changer or Scale Changing Amplifier The circuit shown
in Fig. 3.8(a) is an inverting amplifier stage, utilizing an ideal op-amp.
Because the input offset current i in(off) is zero, the current iin flows
through both R1 and Rf. Further, a virtual ground exists at the op-amp
input, i.e. input current, iin = – if. The input current and feedback current
are given, respectively, by
iin = vin/R1 and if = vout/Rf
Thus, vin/R1 = – vout/Rf (∵ iin = –if)
Hence, the closed-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is given by

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The closed-loop voltage gain Avf, thus, depends only on the ratio of Now, vin = R1iin or R1 = vin/iin (3.22)
the resistors Rf and R1. The result is an amplified output of opposite From Eqs. (3.21) and (3.22), rin * R1
polarity. Hence, such a circuit acts as a phase- inverting amplifier, or as an
op-amp that operates as a negative scale changer. It multiplies the input Instead of assuming that the op-amp is ideal, the closed-loop input
voltage by a negative constant factor. If Rf/R1 = k, which is a real constant, impedance from the equivalent circuit of the inverting amplifier as shown in
then Avf = – k and the scale has been multiplied by a factor of – k. By Fig. 3.8(c) is given by
varying the value of k, the scale can be changed. Hence, the circuit in Fig. rin = R1 + (Rin || rf)
3.8(a) is a scale-changing amplifier. Since the output voltage vout is out of
where rf = – vd /if.
phase with respect to the input signal vin, the inverting amplifier is also
called phase shifter. Since no current enters into either of the inputs (i.e. i in(off) = 0), iin = if.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the loop which includes
Input impedance of the inverting amplifier
Rf, – vd – Rf if – Rout if – Advd = 0
The input impedance of the op-amp is the impedance seen looking
into the amplifier input terminals as shown in Fig. 3.8(b). The closed-loop
input impedance is given by
rin = vin/iin (3.21)
In order to evaluate the closed-loop input impedance in terms of the circuit
elements, Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied around the input loop,
vin – R1iin + vin(off) (or vd) = 0
In an ideal op-amp, the input offset voltage is zero, i.e. vin(off) = 0. Therefore,

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rout = vout/iout
The current iout consists of i1 and i2. The current drawn by the combination
is
iout = i1 + i2

Since (1 + Ad) is very large

compared to the factor (Rf +
Rout), the factor (Rf + Rout)/(1 +
Ad) approaches zero. In
practice, rf << Rin and rin << R1, Or
so that rin R1 is the value
obtained for an ideal op-amp.

Output impedance of the

inverting amplifier
The output impedance of the op-
amp is the impedance seen
looking into the amplifier output
terminal. The output impedance
of the amplifier shown in Fig. 3.8(b) is found by setting the input voltage
source vin = 0, inserting a test voltage source of magnitude v out at the output
terminal, and measuring the current drawn from the test source. Such a
circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 3.8(d). The closed-loop output
impedance of the amplifier is given by
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3.8.2 Noninverting Amplifier

The op-amp as shown in Fig. 3.9(a) is used as a non-inverting
amplifier stage and the voltage at the inverting input is given by

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

or

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch

ECEN20074 Industrial Electronics – Instructional Material for BSEE Curriculum

Polytechnic University of the Philippines – Sto. Tomas Branch