MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Topics:
Research Overview
1. Definition, objectives and motivation of research
2. Engineering Research
Research Preparation
1. Choosing a Research topic and its relevance
2. Research Problem Formulation
3. Writing the Introduction

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define research.
2. Learn the reasons for doing research.
3. Learn about the types of research and its applications.
4. Choose a relevant research topic.
5. Write a research introduction​.

What is Research?
Research ​is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your
day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a
particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories that contribute to the advancement
of your practice and profession.

It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of clinical

observations to explain and find answers for what you perceive, with a view to instituting
appropriate changes for a more effective professional service.

Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet.

Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
 with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Motivation of Research
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Studies have shown that intrinsic motivations like interest, challenge, learning,meaning,
purpose, are linked to strong creative performance;
2. Extrinsic motivating factors like rewards for good work include money, fame, awards,
praise, and status are very strong motivators, but may block creativity..
3. Influences from others like competition, collaboration, commitment, and encouragement
are also motivating factors in research.
4. Personal motivation in solving unsolved problems, intellectual joy, service to community,
and respectability are all driving factors.

Engineering Research
Engineering research ​is the process of developing the perspectives and seeking
improvements in knowledge and skills to enable the recognition, planning, design, and execution
of research in a wide range of forms relevant for engineering and technology investigations and
developments.

Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical

Descriptive Research
● It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
● The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.
● The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
● The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods.

Analytical Research
● The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.

Applied (Action) Research

● It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation.
● The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
 problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

Fundamental (Basic or Pure) Research

● It is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
● Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

Quantitative Research
● It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.
● It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative Research
● It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
● This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association
tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques
 
Conceptual Research
● Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
● It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.

Empirical Research
● It relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory.
● It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment.
● It is also called as an experimental type of research.
● The researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results.
● Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

Research Approaches
1. Quantitative approach - involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
 a. Inferential
● To form a database from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population.
● This usually means survey research where a sample of population is
studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is
then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
b. Experimental
● Characterised by much greater control over the research environment and
in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.
c. Simulation approaches
● Involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information data can be generated.
● This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its
sub-system) under controlled conditions.
2. Qualitative approach- concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour.

What is a Research Problem?

A ​research problem​, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
The components of a research problem are:
1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have
a problem.
3. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s)
one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Choosing a Research Topic and its Relevance

The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or
a subject for research:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subjects should not become the choice of an average researcher.
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a
problem.
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Research Problem Formulation

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study
and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. The research problem should be defined in a
systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points.
The technique for the purpose involves:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem.
3. Surveying the available literature.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions.
5. Rephrasing the research problem.

Other points to consider:

1. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
2. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
3. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
4. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
5. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Writing the Introduction

The ​introduction​ is the first chapter of the report or thesis and its chief function is to
familiarise the reader with your research problem and the relevant literature.
The introduction provides background information for the research (i.e. the problem
being addressed). Information relating to your research question(s) or hypothesis/hypotheses is
typically organised from general to specific.
The background information is provided in the form of a literature review that helps you
set the context for your research to help the reader understand the research questions and
objectives.
Possible format for an Introduction:
• Introduce the area of research
 • Review key research papers
• Identify any gap in knowledge or questions that needs to be answered
• Your hypotheses or research objectives
• Scope of your research project

Components of an Introduction
The Introduction essentially comprises the following three basic components:
1. Establish key ideas and findings of research literature and/or real world context
relevant to your research topic.
2. Present a research problem.
3. Announce how you will specifically address or fix the research problem.
s a content primer which summarises the contents of subsequent sections of the report.

Tips on Writing Style and Language in a Research Proposal

1. Follow the three C’s rule.
Clear:​ Is what you have written intelligible and are your ideas clearly articulated?
Concise:​ Have you written your proposal in a succinct and focused way?
Coherent:​ Are the sections of your proposal clearly linked so that it is clear to the reader
what you want to do, why you want to do it and how you will do it?
2. Revise and edit your writing thoroughly.
Poor grammar and inappropriate style distract your reader and compromise your
credibility as a researcher. Use spell check and grammar check applications.
3. Use transitions:
Signal to the reader as you move through your text by using transition words and
expressions such as ​however, following this, in contrast, consequently​ and so on.
4. Avoid overly hesitant or tentative language.
Sound confident and sure about the work that you are proposing to do. So avoid
excessive use of expressions such as ​it seems that..., it is hoped that..., it might be possible...,
perhaps a​ nd so on.

References
1. Dipankar, Deb. 2019. Engineering Research Methodology: A Practical Insight for
Researchers. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd
2. Leong, E. C., Heah, C. L. H., & Ong, K. K. W. 2015. Guide to research projects for
engineering students: planning, writing and presenting. CRC Press.
3. Ganesan, R., 2019. Research Methodology for Engineers. MJP Publisher.
4. Thiel, D.V., 2014. Research methods for engineers. Cambridge University Press.
 RESEARCH
METHODS

Engr. Vivian D. Guda

Faculty, Civil Engineering and Sanitary Engineering Department
Lesson 1
Introduction to Research
Topics:

Research Overview
1. Definition, objectives and motivation of research
2. Engineering Research
Research Preparation
1. Choosing a Research topic and its relevance
2. Research Problem Formulation
3. Writing the Introduction
At the end of this chapter, the students must be able to:

1. Learn the reasons for doing research.

2. Know about the applications of research.
3. Learn about the types of research.
4. Choose a relevant research topic.
5. Write a research introduction.
 What is Research?
Research is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of
your day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating
guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing
and testing new theories that contribute to the advancement of your
practice and profession.

It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of

clinical observations to explain and find answers for what you perceive,
with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective
professional service.
As a professional you might be interested in finding the answers to
theoretical questions like:

• Which is the most effective intervention for a particular problem?

• What causes X or what are the effects of Y?

• What is the relationship between two phenomena?

Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out
the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.

Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it

(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Motivations of Research

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
1. Studies have shown that intrinsic motivations like interest, challenge,
learning,meaning, purpose, are linked to strong creative performance;
2. Extrinsic motivating factors like rewards for good work include
money, fame, awards, praise, and status are very strong motivators,
but may block creativity..
3. Influences from others like competition, collaboration, commitment,
and encouragement are also motivating factors in research.
4. Personal motivation in solving unsolved problems, intellectual joy,
service to community, and respectability are all driving factors.
Significance of Research

1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the

development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.
2. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether
related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased
in modern times.
3. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.
4. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry,
5. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
Engineering Research

Engineering research is the process of developing the

perspectives and seeking improvements in knowledge and skills to
enable the recognition, planning, design, and execution of research in a
wide range of forms relevant for engineering and technology
investigations and developments.
 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION

Engineering is concerned with problems whose solution is needed

and / or desired by the society. The capacity to innovate, manage
information, and nourish knowledge as a resource will dominate the
economic domain as natural resources, capital and labour ones did.
This places high premium on development of technology and
delivery systems.
The advancement of technology has three
phases.
Invention : The creative act whereby an idea is
conceived
Innovation :The process by which an invention
or idea is translated into successful practice and
is utilized by the economy.
Diffusion : The successive and widespread initiation of successful innovation.

Science based innovation has made significant contributions to the development of

industries like aircraft, computers, plastics and television in developed countries like
USA. Traditionally, engineers play a major role in technological innovation. A strong
basic research is needed to maintain the storehouse of new knowledge and ideas.
Innovation in response to a need of the society has greater probability of success than
innovation in response to technological research opportunity. The scope for doing
applied research is high,

which involves innovative solution to the problem of the society.

Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical

2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
Descriptive vs. Analytical

Descriptive Research Analytical Research

● It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of ● The researcher has to

different kinds. use facts or
● The major purpose of descriptive research is information already
description of the state of affairs as it exists at available, and analyze
present. these to make a critical
● The main characteristic of this method is that the evaluation of the
researcher has no control over the variables; he material.
can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
● The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods.
Applied vs. Fundamental Research
Applied (Action) Research Fundamental (Basic or
Pure) Research

● It aims at finding a solution for an ● It is mainly concerned

immediate problem facing a society or an with generalisations
industrial/business organisation. and with the
● The central aim of applied research is to formulation of a
discover a solution for some pressing theory.
practical problem, whereas basic ● Gathering knowledge
research is directed towards finding for knowledge’s sake.
information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

● It is based on the measurement of ● It is concerned with qualitative

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
phenomena that can be expressed in relating to or involving quality or kind.
terms of quantity. ● This type of research aims at
● It is applicable to phenomena that discovering the underlying motives
can be expressed in terms of and desires, using in depth interviews
quantity. for the purpose. Other techniques of
such research are word association
tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar
other projective techniques
 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

Conceptual Research Empirical Research

● Conceptual research is ● It relies on experience or

that related to some observation alone, often without
abstract idea(s) or theory. due regard for system and theory.
● It is generally used by ● It is data-based research, coming
philosophers and thinkers up with conclusions which are
to develop new concepts capable of being verified by
or to reinterpret existing observation or experiment.
ones. ● It is also called as an
experimental type of research.
Continuation of Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

Empirical Research

● The researcher must first

provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results.
● Such research is thus
characterised by the
experimenter’s control over
the variables under study and
his deliberate manipulation of
one of them to study its
effects.
Research Approaches
There are two basic approaches to research:

1. Quantitative approach
● It involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion.
● It can be further sub-classified into:
○ Inferential approaches
○ Experimental approaches
○ Simulation approaches
2. Qualitative approach
● It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour.
● The techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and
depth interviews are used.
 Quantitative approach

Inferential Approach Experimental Approach Simulation Approach

● The purpose of the ● It is characterised by ● It involves the

research is to form a much greater control construction of an
database from which to over the research artificial environment
infer characteristics or environment and in within which
relationships of this case some relevant information
population. variables are and data can be
● The sample of the manipulated to generated.
population is studied observe their effect ● This permits an
(questioned or observed) on other variables. observation of the
to determine its dynamic behaviour
characteristics, and it is of a system (or its
then inferred that the sub-system) under
population has the same controlled
characteristics. conditions.
What is a Research Problem?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher

experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
The components of a research problem are:
1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
2. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
3. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with

regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research

must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of

the possible alternatives.

5. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty

pertains.
Choosing a Research Topic and its Relevance

The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a

research problem or a subject for research:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a
difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subjects should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and

feasible so that the related research material or sources of

research are within one’s reach.

5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the

training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few

other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.

6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Research Problem Formulation

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a

research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. The research
problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all
relating points.
The technique for the purpose involves:
1. Statement of the problem in a general way.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem.
3. Surveying the available literature.
4. Developing the ideas through discussions.
5. Rephrasing the research problem.
Other points to consider:
1. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
2. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem
should be clearly stated.
3. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria
for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
4. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also
be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
5. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
Writing the Introduction
The introduction is the first chapter of the report or thesis and its chief
function is to familiarise the reader with your research problem and the
relevant literature.
The introduction provides background information for the research (i.e.
the problem being addressed). Information relating to your research
question(s) or hypothesis/hypotheses is typically organised from general to
specific.
The background information is provided in the form of a literature
review that helps you set the context for your research to help the reader
understand the research questions and objectives.
Possible format for an Introduction:
• Introduce the area of research
• Review key research papers
• Identify any gap in knowledge or questions that needs to be
answered
• Your hypotheses or research objectives
• Scope of your research project
Components of an Introduction

The Introduction essentially comprises the following three basic components:

1. Establish key ideas and findings of research literature and/or real world
context relevant to your research topic.
Step A: Statements about the importance or centrality of your research topic
in research and/or the real world.
Step B: Stating a knowledge claim which can be an established fact or a
controversial finding.
Step C: Definitions of technical terms and theoretical constructs in your
research.
2. Present a research problem.
Step A: In this step, you ‘argue for a real-world problem or
need’. This is the most common approach used by engineering
writers—expectedly so as engineering is closely applied in the
real world.
Step B: Here you argue for a research gap that is neglected
which your study will fill.
Step C: You argue for a problem of research insufficiency or
inadequacy.
3. Announce how you will specifically address or fix the research problem.
Step A: Statements of your research aims, objectives or purposes, or a
description of theoretical and/or real-world contributions of your study.
Step B: Statements of research questions or hypotheses are made.
Step C: Summary of the research design especially when the research
method is the central novelty of a research project.
Step D: Include a statement on the key findings of your research.
Step E: The parameters or scope of your research study can be indicated.
Step F: This step is a bold proclamation of your study’s research or real
world worth.
Step G: The last step is a content primer which summarises the contents of
subsequent sections of the report.
Tips on Writing Style and Language in a Research Proposal

1. Follow the three C’s rule.

Clear: Is what you have written intelligible and are your ideas clearly articulated?
Concise: Have you written your proposal in a succinct and focused way?
Coherent: Are the sections of your proposal clearly linked so that it is clear to the reader what
you want to do, why you want to do it and how you will do it?
2. Revise and edit your writing thoroughly.
Poor grammar and inappropriate style distract your reader and compromise your credibility as a
researcher. Use spell check and grammar check applications.
3. Use transitions:
Signal to the reader as you move through your text by using transition words and expressions
such as however, following this, in contrast, consequently and so on.
4. Avoid overly hesitant or tentative language.
Sound confident and sure about the work that you are proposing to do. So avoid excessive use
of expressions such as it seems that..., it is hoped that..., it might be possible..., perhaps and so on.
Activity 1A

Think of a problem in your community. Something related to your specialization. Discuss it in

class.
References:

1. Deb, D., Dey, R., & Balas, V.E. (2019). Engineering Research Methodology : A Practical Insight
for Researchers. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd .
[Link]
2. Eng-Choon Leong, Carmel Lee-Hsia Heah, Kenneth Keng Wee Ong . (2016). GUIDE to
RESEARCH PROJECTS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS: Planning, Writing and Presenting. CRC
Press.
3. Research Methods and Techniques by C.R. Kothari
LESSON 2

Literature Review
Topics

1. Finding and reviewing literature

2. Proper citations
3. Writing literature review
Literature Review

● The primary goal of literature review is to know the use of

content/ideas/approaches in the literature to correctly identify the
problem that is vaguely known beforehand, to advocate a specific
approach adopted to understanding the problem, and to access the
choice of methods used.
● It also helps the researcher understand clearly that the research to
be undertaken would contribute something new and innovative.
Literature Review

● It will be every useful while preparing the thesis if a proper

review of literature gathered is made by the researcher.
● The review should encompass genesis of the problem in the
researcher’s mind, the extent of knowledge already available
and a fairly extensive list of significant papers or other works in
the area along with summary of the relevant findings.
● This can be done easily if the researcher keeps a proper record
of these.
The Literature Review
● It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the one being undertaken.
● It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature,
filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 2010;
Marshall & Rossman, 2016).
● It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the
study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with
other findings.
Types of Literature Review

(a) integrate what others have done and said,

(b) criticize previous scholarly works,

(c) build bridges between related topics, and

(d) identify the central issues in a field.

Sources of Information
The sources of information can be classified as indicated below.

1. Public sources
● Government Agencies
● State and local Government
● Libraries
● Universities
● Internet
2. Private sources

● Non profit organizations and services (professional

societies, trade associations, membership organizations)
● Profit oriented organizations (manufacturers, vendors
catalogs,samples, test data etc., consultants)
● Individuals (Direct conversation or correspondence,
personal friends, faculty)
When we look for information in the library, there are hierarchy of information sources as

given below.

● Technical dictionaries
● Encyclopedias
● Handbooks
● Bibliographies
● Indexing and abstract services
● Translations
● Technical reports
● Books
● Patents
● Catalogs and manufacturer’s brochures.
Citations

● Citations (references) credit others for their work, while allowing

the readers to trace the source publication if needed.
● Any portion of someone else’s work or ideas in papers, patents, or
presentations must be used in any new document only by clearly
citing the source.
● This applies to all forms of written sources in the form of texts,
images, sounds, etc. and failure to do may be considered plagiarism
which will be described in detail in subsequent chapters of this book.
● Authors should cite sources to indicate significance of the work to the
reader. Relevant citations help authors develop an easily understandable
argument and prevent the need to navigate through work irrelevant to
the reader’s interest areas.
● A researcher needs to cite each source twice: (i) in-text citation, in the
text of the article exactly where the source is quoted or paraphrased, and
(ii) a second time in the references, typically at the end of the chapter or
a book or at the end of a research article.
The three main functions of citations:

1. Verification function: Authors have a scope for finding intentional or unintentional

distortion of research or misleading statements. Citation offers the readers a
chance to ascertain if the original source is justified or not, and if that assertion is
properly described in the present work
2. Acknowledgment function: Researchers primarily receive credit for their work
through citations. Citations play crucial role in promotion of individual researchers
and their continued employment. Many reputed organizations and institutes
provide research funding based on the reputations of the researchers. Citations
help all researchers to enhance their reputation and provide detailed background
of the research work.
3. Documentation function: Citations are also used to document scientific concepts
and historical progress of any particular technology over the years
Styles for Citations
1. APA (American Psychological Association) is used by
Education, Psychology, Sciences, Engineering, etc
2. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by
the Humanities, English, Art, Philosophy, etc
3. Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by Business,
History, and the Fine Arts
APA (American Psychological Association)

● APA Style is widely used by students,

researchers, and professionals in the social and
behavioral sciences.
● This citation guide outlines the most important
citation guidelines from the 7th edition APA
Publication Manual (2020).
APA in-text citations

The basics
● In-text citations are brief references in the running text that direct readers to the
reference entry at the end of the paper. You include them every time you quote or
paraphrase someone else’s ideas or words.
● An APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and the year of publication
(also known as the author-date system). If you’re citing a specific part of a source, you
should also include a locator such as a page number or timestamp. For example:
(Smith, 2020, p. 170).
APA in-text citations
Parenthetical vs. narrative citation
The in-text citation can take two forms: parenthetical and narrative. Both
types are generated automatically when citing a source with Scribbr’s APA
Citation Generator.

● Parenthetical citation: According to new research … (Smith, 2020).

● Narrative citation: Smith (2020) notes that …
 APA in-text citations
Multiple authors and corporate authors
● The in-text citation changes slightly when a source has multiple authors or an organization as

an author. Pay attention to punctuation and the use of the ampersand (&) symbol.
APA in-text citations
Missing information
● When the author, publication date or locator is unknown, take the steps outlined below.
Example of APA (American Psychological Association)
 Example Citations: Articles

Journal article from database (with DOI)

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal,

volume number, page range. doi:0000000/000000000000 or

Retrieved from [Link]

Prdziebylo, I. L., Korzybski, C. L., & Gimpelowicz, Z. (1991). Interpersonal cognition and sibling
rivalry in large families. Polish Journal of Psychology, 74, 329-348. doi:
10.1037/2078-6133.25.2.233

Journal article from database (no DOI)

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, Page Range.
[Link]
 Example Citations: Books
General Format
AuthorLastname, F. I. (Date). Book title. Publisher.

Book
DeCarbo, M. A. (1969). Mentorship among older and younger college students. University of
California.

Book with two authors

Druin, A., & Solomon, C. (1996). Designing multimedia environments for children. J. Wiley &
Sons.

Article or chapter in an edited book

Franciscu, J. B., & Chiarini, L. B. (1992). Clarity at last: Including personal spiritual beliefs in
patient motivation evaluation. In R. M. Bright III (Ed.), Aspects of Psychology: Vol. 7.
Psychology and Religion (2nd ed., pp. 24-68). Amicus.
 Example Citations: Articles
Journal article in print (no DOI)
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal,

volume number, page range.

Online Newspaper Article

Newton, C. (2010, Feb. 15). Driving-while-texting ban advances Senate. The
Arizona Republic. [Link]

Newspaper from Print Source

Pearson, S. L. (1997, June 5). Why Johnny can't play. The Arizona Republic, p.
HL1.
 Example Citations: Other Materials

Lecture Presentations

General Format

Author, F.M. (Publication Year).Name or title of lecture [file format]. URL

**If you are citing a classroom presentation, include the same data except the retrieval information

Examples:

Jacobson, T.E. & Mackey, T. (2013). What’s in the name?: Information literacy, metaliteracy, or
transliteracy [Powerpoint slides]. [Link]

Smith, J.F. (2013, Oct. 17). U.S. Political Parties in Perspective [Powerpoint slides and class
handout]. Retrieved from [Link]
 Example Citations: Online Media

General Format
Author Last name, F. I. (Date of Publication). Web article title (if applicable). Title of
Website. Retrieved date, from [Link]

(If no author listed, begin the entry with the web page title)
*include a retrieval date only when the content is designed to change over time*
Web page on a news website

Avramova, N. (2019, January 3). The secret to a long, happy, healthy life? Think
age-positive. CNN.
[Link]
-intl/[Link]
Example Citations: Online Media
Entire Web site
Thaller, M. (2007). Cool Cosmos [website]. Retrieved August 27,
2008, from [Link]

*Some elements may be missing. Provide as much information as

possible.

Podcast

Vedantam, S. (Host). (2015-present). Hidden brain (Audio podcast).

NPR. [Link]
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

1. Begin by identifying key words, which is useful in locating materials

in an academic library at a college or university. These key words may
emerge in identifying a topic or may result from preliminary readings.

2. With these keywords in mind, use your home computer to begin

searching the databases for holdings (i.e., journals and books). Most
major libraries have computerized databases, and we suggest you
focus initially on journals and books related to the topic.
3. Initially, try to locate about 50 reports of research in articles or
books related to research on your topic. Set a priority on the
search for journal articles and books because they are easy to
locate and obtain. Determine whether these articles and books
exist in your academic library or whether you need to send for
them by interlibrary loan or purchase them through a bookstore.

4. Skim this initial group of articles or chapters, and collect those

that are central to your topic. Throughout this process, simply try
to obtain a sense as to whether the article or chapter will make a
useful contribution to your understanding of the literature.
5. As you identify useful literature, begin designing a literature map (to
be discussed more fully later). This is a visual picture (or figure) of
groupings of the literature on the topic that illustrates how your
particular study will add to the existing literature and position your study
within the larger body of research.
6. As you put together the literature map, also begin to draft summaries
of the most relevant articles. These summaries are combined into the
final literature review that you write for your proposal or research study.
Include precise references to the literature using an appropriate style
guide, such as the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010) so that
you have a complete reference to use at the end of the proposal or study.
7. After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature review,
structuring it thematically or organizing it by important concepts.
End the literature review with a summary of the major themes and
suggest how your particular study further adds to the literature and
addresses a gap in the themes. This summary should also point
toward the methods (i.e., data collection and data analysis) that need
to be undertaken to add to the literature. It is at this point as well that
you could advance a critique of the past literature and point out
deficiencies in it and issues in its methods (see Boote & Beile, 2005).
Tips on writing your literature review

• Identify keywords in your research topic.

• Use the keywords to identify publications most relevant to your

research topic. You can start with about 10 publications.

• Read the abstract of the identified publications and zoom in to the

information that is most relevant to your topic.

Tips on writing your literature review

● Take notes and compile the information as a summary list in

chronological order.
● From the summary list, identify common ideas and form
linkages between the publications.
● Write the first draft of the literature review based on the 10
publications.
● Add on to the literature review over time as you read more
publications as your research progresses.
References:
Books

1. Deb, D., Dey, R., & Balas, V.E. (2019). Engineering Research Methodology : A Practical Insight
for Researchers. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd .
[Link]
2. Eng-Choon Leong, Carmel Lee-Hsia Heah, Kenneth Keng Wee Ong . (2016). GUIDE to
RESEARCH PROJECTS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS: Planning, Writing and Presenting. CRC
Press.

Website Links

1. Home - Citation Styles: APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian, IEEE - LibGuides at University of
Pittsburgh
2. Home - Citation Styles & Tools - Library Guides at University of Washington Libraries
([Link])
3. APA Citation Generator (Free) | References & In-text Citations ([Link])
 LESSON 2
(Part 2)

Literature Review

Engr. Vivian D. Guda

Faculty, Civil Engineering and Sanitary Engineering Department
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature
review:
1 . Searching for the existing literature in your area of
study.
2 . Reviewing the selected literature.
3 . Developing a theoretical framework.
4 . Developing a conceptual framework.
Searching for the Existing Literature

1. Books
2. Journals
3. Internet
4. Other sources of information
A Priority for Selecting Literature Material

1. Especially if you are examining a topic for the first time

and unaware of the research on it, start with broad
syntheses of the literature, such as overviews found in
encyclopedias (e.g., Aikin, 1992; Keeves, 1988). You might
also look for summaries of the literature on your topic
presented in journal articles or abstract series (e.g.,
Annual Review of Psychology, 1950–).
2. Next, turn to journal articles in respected national journals, especially
those that report research studies. By research, we mean that the author
or authors pose a question or hypothesis, collect data, and try to answer
the question or hypothesis.

3. Turn to books related to the topic. Begin with research monographs

that summarize the scholarly literature. Then consider entire books on a
single topic by a single author or group of authors or books that contain
chapters written by different authors.
4. Follow this search by looking for recent conference papers. Look
for major national conferences and the papers delivered at them.
Often, conference papers report the latest research developments.

5. If time permits, scan the entries in Dissertation/ Thesis Abstracts.

Dissertations vary immensely in quality, and one needs to be
selective in choosing those to review. A search of the Abstracts might
result in one or two relevant dissertations, and you can request
copies of them.
6. The web also provides helpful materials for a literature review. The easy
access and ability to capture entire articles makes this source of material
attractive. However, screen these articles carefully for quality and be cautious
about whether they represent rigorous, thoughtful, and systematic research
suitable for use in a literature review.

Online journals, on the other hand, often include articles that have undergone
rigorous reviews by editorial boards. You might check to see if the journal has
a refereed editorial board that reviews manuscripts and has published
standards for accepting manuscripts in an editorial statement.
Reviewing the selected literature
● Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start
reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are of relevance to your
study.
● Unless you have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate
sheets of paper for each theme or issue you identify as you go through selected books and
articles.
● Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed
into these themes, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of the framework so far
developed.
● As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the
themes so far developed. Keep in mind that you may need to add more themes as you go
along. While going through the literature you should carefully and critically examine it
with respect to the following aspects:

○ Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been
confirmed beyond doubt.
○ Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics,
measurement procedures, etc.) and the criticisms of them.
○ Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations.
○ Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give
your opinion about the validity of these differences.
○ Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that exist in the body
of knowledge.
Developing a theoretical framework
● Examining the literature can be a never-ending task, but as you have limited time it
is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main
themes pertinent to your research topic.
● As you start reading the literature, you will soon discover that the problem you
wish to investigate has its roots in a number of theories that have been developed
from different perspectives.
● The information obtained from different books and journals now needs to be
sorted under the main themes and theories, highlighting agreements and
disagreements among the authors and identifying the unanswered questions or
gaps.
● You will also realise that the literature deals with a number of aspects that
have a direct or indirect bearing on your research topic.
● Use these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework.
● Your review of the literature should sort out the information, as mentioned
earlier, within this framework.
● Unless you review the literature in relation to this framework, you will not be
able to develop a focus in your literature search: that is, your theoretical
framework provides you with a guide as you read. This brings us to the
paradox mentioned previously: until you go through the literature you cannot
develop a theoretical framework, and until you have developed a theoretical
framework you cannot effectively review the literature.
● The solution is to read some of the literature and then attempt to develop a
framework, even a loose one, within which you can organise the rest of the
literature you read.
● As you read more about the area, you are likely to change the framework.
● However, without it, you will get bogged down in a great deal of unnecessary
reading and notetaking that may not be relevant to your study.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:

1. Universal;
2. more specific (i.e. local trends or a specific programme).
Theoretical Literature

● The theoretical literature review help establish what theories

already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree
the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop
new hypotheses to be tested.
Sample
Developing a conceptual framework

● The conceptual framework is the basis of your research

problem. It stems from the theoretical framework and usually
focuses on the section(s) which become the basis of your study.

● Whereas the theoretical framework consists of the theories or

issues in which your study is embedded, the conceptual
framework describes the aspects you selected from the
theoretical framework to become the basis of your enquiry.
● For instance, in the example cited in Figure 3.1a, the
theoretical framework includes all the theories that
have been put forward to explain the relationship
between fertility and mortality.
● However, out of these, you may be planning to test only
one, say the fear of non-survival.
● Similarly, in Figure 3.1b, the conceptual framework is
focused on indicators to measure the success or failure
of the strategies to enhance community responsiveness.
Hence the conceptual framework grows out of the
theoretical framework and relates to the specific
research problem.
Conceptual Literature

● It contains literature coming from books, journalism, and other

forms of material, concerning or relevant to the study, but are
data-free or non – empirical material, coming from both foreign
and local sources.
Sample of Outline of a Literature Review
Literature Review

● Reviewing the literature is a continuous process. It begins before a

research problem is finalised and continues until the report is finished.
● There is a paradox in the literature review: you cannot undertake an
effective literature review unless you have formulated a research
problem, yet your literature search plays an extremely important role in
helping you to formulate your research problem.
● The literature review brings clarity and focus to your research problem,
improves your research methodology and broadens your knowledge
base.
● Reviewing the literature involves a number of steps: searching for
existing literature in your area of study; reviewing the selected
literature; using it to develop a theoretical framework from which
your study emerges and also using it to develop a conceptual
framework which will become the basis of your investigation. The
main sources for identifying literature are books, journals and the
Internet. There are several sources which can provide information
about locating relevant journals.
● The literature review serves two important function: (1) it
provides theoretical background to your study, and (2) it helps
you to contextualise your findings by comparing them with what
others have found out in relation to the area of enquiry. At this
stage of the research process, only the first function can be
fulfilled. You can only take steps to achieve the second function
when you have analysed your data and are in the process of
writing about your findings.
● Your writing about the literature reviewed should be
thematic in nature, that is based on main themes; the
sequence of these themes in the write-up should follow a
logical progression; various arguments should be
substantiated with specific quotations and citations from the
literature and should adhere to an acceptable academic
referencing style.
References:

Research Methods and Techniques by C.R. Kothari

Other Materials:

1. Deb, D., Dey, R., & Balas, V.E. (2019). Engineering Research Methodology : A Practical Insight
for Researchers. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd .
[Link]
2. Eng-Choon Leong, Carmel Lee-Hsia Heah, Kenneth Keng Wee Ong . (2016). GUIDE to
RESEARCH PROJECTS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS: Planning, Writing and Presenting. CRC
Press.
 LESSON 3
RESEARCH DESIGN

Engr. Vivian D. Guda

Faculty, Civil Engineering and Sanitary Engineering Department
Topics:
Research Design
Research Process, Theoretical and Conceptual framework
Features of a Good Design, Types of Research Designs
Experimental Designs
Sampling Designs
Methods of Data Collection
Processing and Analysis of Data
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

● Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means

concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
● “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.”
● The conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
● The design decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

(vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix) How will the data be analysed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

● One may split the overall research design into the following parts:
a. the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items
to be observed for the given study;
b. the observational design which relates to the conditions under
which the observations are to be made;
c. the statistical design which concerns with the question of how
many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analysed; and
d. the operational design which deals with the techniques by which
the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.
Important features of a research design

A research design must, at least, contain:

1. a clear statement of the research problem
2. procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information
3. the population to be studied; and
4. methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
FUNCTIONS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

● Scientific studies tend to focus on one or the other of two major activities.
○ The first activity consists of exploratory data collection and analysis,
which has two aims. (1) classifying behaviors in a given research area
(2) to identify the variables involved in explaining the behavior of
interest.

○ The second major activity is hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing

consists of forming tentative explanations for behavior and then
testing those tentative explanations.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

● Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the

various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
● We need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis
for our research project.
● Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted
for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time
and money.
● Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually

involves the consideration of the following factors:

1. the means of obtaining information;

2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
3. the objective of the problem to be studied;
4. the nature of the problem to be studied; and
5. the availability of time and money for the research work.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH
DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent variables

2. Extraneous variable
3. Control
4. Confounded relationship
5. Research hypothesis
6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
7. Experimental and control groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10. Experimental unit(s)
Dependent and independent variables

● A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a

variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables.
● Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the
basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s).
● Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in
decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.
● But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in
integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical
language ‘discrete variables’.

● If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other

variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that
is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable.
Extraneous variable

● Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
● Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their
self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social
studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect
the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the
study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous
variable.
Control

● One important characteristic of a good research design

is to minimise the influence or effect of extraneous
variable(s).
● The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the
study minimising the effects of extraneous
independent variables.
● In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to
refer to restrain experimental conditions.
Confounded relationship

● When the dependent variable is not free from the

influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s).
Research hypothesis

● When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.
● The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable.
● Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
and one dependent variable.
● Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed
research hypotheses.
Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research

● When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is

termed as hypothesis-testing research.
● It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental
design.
● Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research
in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called
‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
Experimental and control groups

● In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed

to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is
exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental
group’.
● In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and
the Group B an experimental group.
● If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then
both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’
Treatments

● The different conditions under which

experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’.
Experiment

● The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,

relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment.
● Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and
comparative experiment.
● Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of
designs of experiments.
Experimental unit(s):

● The predetermined plots or the blocks, where

different treatments are used, are known as
experimental units. Such experimental units must be
selected (defined) very carefully.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

It can be categorized as:

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies;

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
Research design in case of exploratory research
studies

● Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research

studies.
● The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for
more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses
from an operational point of view.
● The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and
insights.
● The following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are talked about:

(a) the survey of concerning literature;

(b) the experience survey and

(c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

The survey of concerning literature

● The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and

fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or
developing hypothesis.
● Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
● It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.
● In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by
others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
Experience survey

● Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied.
● The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem.
● For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute new
ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a
representation of different types of experience.
● The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants.
● But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the
respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions
which the investigator has not previously considered
● it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions
to be discussed to the respondents well in advance.
Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples

● Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for

suggesting hypotheses for research.
● It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve
as a guide.
● This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested.
● For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the
unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may
be adopted.
● Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the
ability of the researcher to draw together diverse
information into a unified interpretation are the main
features which make this method an appropriate procedure
for evoking insights.
Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies

● Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with
which something occurs or its association with something else.
● Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples
of descriptive research studies.
● The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated
are examples of diagnostic research studies. Most of the social
research comes under this category.
● The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for
the economical completion of the research study.
● The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the
following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)

(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data
will be adopted?)

(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)

(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)

(e) Processing and analysing the data.

(f) Reporting the findings.

● The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of research
studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under:
Research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies
● Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests
the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
● Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce
bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality.
● Usually experiments meet this requirement.
● Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we
often mean the design of experiments.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local Control
Principle of Replication

● The experiment should be repeated more than once.

● Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By
doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
● The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion
we draw without applying the principle of replication.
● The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results.
● It should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to increase
the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the
main effects and interactions can be estimated.
Principle of Randomization

● It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the

effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
● This principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be
combined under the general heading of “chance.”
● Through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a
better estimate of the experimental error.
Principle of Local Control

● The extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately
over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental
error.
● This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a
two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided
into three components attributed to treatments.
● The principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous
factor(s) from the experimental error.
Important Experimental Designs

● Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an

experiment and as such there are several experimental designs.
● We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, viz.,
informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs.
● Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a
less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes,
whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and
use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
● Important experiment designs are as follows:
a. Informal experimental designs:
i. Before-and-after without control design.
ii. After-only with control design.
iii. Before-and-after with control design.
b. Formal experimental designs:
i. Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
ii. Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
iii. Latin square design (L.S. Design).
iv. Factorial designs.
Before-and-after without control design

● In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent
variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment.
● The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is
measured again after the treatment has been introduced.
● The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the
phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon
before the treatment.
● The design can be represented thus:
After-only with control design

● In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area) are
selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area only.
● The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the
same time.
● Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the
dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area.
Before-and-after with control design

● In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is
measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the
treatment.
● The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the
dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-period after
the introduction of the treatment.
● The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the
dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent
variable in test area.
Completely randomized design (C.R. design)

● Involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication and the
principle of randomization of experimental designs.
● The essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly
assigned to experimental treatments (or vice-versa).
● One-way analysis of variance (or one-way ANOVA)* is used to analyse
such a design.
● Used when experimental areas happen to be homogeneous.
● Two-group simple randomized design: In a two-group simple
randomized design, first of all the population is defined and then
from the population a sample is selected randomly.
○ Further, requirement of this design is that items, after being
selected randomly from the population, be randomly assigned to
the experimental and control groups (Such random assignment of
items to two groups is technically described as principle of
randomization).
○ Thus, this design yields two groups as representatives of the
population.
● Since in the sample randomized design the elements constituting the
sample are randomly drawn from the same population and randomly
assigned to the experimental and control groups, it becomes
possible to draw conclusions on the basis of samples applicable for
the population.
● The two groups (experimental and control groups) of such a design
are given different treatments of the independent variable.
● This design of experiment is quite common in research studies
concerning behavioural sciences.
● Random replications design: The limitation of the two-group
randomized design is usually eliminated within the random
replications design. I
○ In a random replications design, the effect of such differences are
minimised (or reduced) by providing a number of repetitions for
each treatment.
○ Each repetition is technically called a ‘replication’.
○ Random replication design serves two purposes viz., it provides
controls for the differential effects of the extraneous independent
variables and secondly, it randomizes any individual differences
among those conducting the treatments.
● Variables relating to both population characteristics are assumed to
be randomly distributed among the two groups.
● Thus, this random replication design is, in fact, an extension of the
two-group simple randomized design.
Randomized block design (R.B. design)

● An improvement over the C.R. design.

● In the R.B. design the principle of local control can be applied along
with the other two principles of experimental designs. In the R.B.
design, subjects are first divided into groups, known as blocks, such
that within each group the subjects are relatively homogeneous in
respect to some selected variable.
● The variable selected for grouping the subjects is one that is
believed to be related to the measures to be obtained in respect of
the dependent variable.
● The number of subjects in a given block would be equal to the number of
treatments and one subject in each block would be randomly assigned to
each treatment.
● In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold the extraneous factor
fixed, so that its contribution to the total variability of data can be
measured.
● The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this each treatment appears
the same number of times in each block. The R.B. design is analysed by
the two-way analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA)* technique.
Latin square design (L.S. design)

● An experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research.

● The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out
are different from those in other studies for nature plays an important
role in agriculture.
Factorial designs
● Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying
more than one factor are to be determined.
● They are especially important in several economic and social phenomena
where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem.
● Factorial designs can be of two types:

(i) simple factorial designs and

(ii) complex factorial designs.

● Simple factorial designs: In case of simple factorial designs, we
consider the effects of varying two factors on the dependent
variable, but when an experiment is done with more than two
factors, we use complex factorial designs.
○ Simple factorial design is also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial
design’, whereas complex factorial design is known as ‘multi
factor-factorial design.’
○ Simple factorial design may either be a 2 × 2 simple factorial design,
or it may be, say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3 or the like type of simple factorial
design.
● In this design the extraneous variable to be controlled by
homogeneity is called the control variable and the
independent variable, which is manipulated, is called the
experimental variable.
● Then there are two treatments of the experimental variable
and two levels of the control variable.
● Complex factorial designs: Experiments with more than two
factors at a time involve the use of complex factorial designs.
○ A design which considers three or more independent variables
simultaneously is called a complex factorial design.
○ In case of three factors with one experimental variable having
two treatments and two control variables, each one of which
having two levels, the design used will be termed 2 × 2 × 2
complex factorial design which will contain a total of eight cells.
● Factorial designs are used mainly because of the two advantages.

(i) They provide equivalent accuracy (as happens in the case of experiments with
only one factor) with less labour and as such are a source of economy. Using
factorial designs, we can determine the main effects of two (in simple factorial
design) or more (in case of complex factorial design) factors (or variables) in one
single experiment.

ii) They permit various other comparisons of interest. For example, they give
information about such effects which cannot be obtained by treating one single
factor at a time. The determination of interaction effects is possible in case of
factorial designs.
CONCLUSION

● There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of
collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for
his research project.
● He must give due weight to various points such as the type of universe and its nature, the
objective of his study, the resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard of
accuracy and the like when taking a decision in respect of the design for his research
project.
Sampling Design
CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

● All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or

‘Population.’
● A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is
known as a census inquiry.
● It can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items
are covered, no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained.
● When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of
time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents
i.e., selection of only a few items.
● The respondents selected should be as representative of the total
population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section.
The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a
‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The
survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN

● A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers
to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the
sample.
● Sample design is determined before data are collected.
● Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate
for his research study.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

1. Type of universe:
● The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.
● The universe can be finite or infinite.
● In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite.
2. Sampling unit

● A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit

before selecting sample.
● Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state,
district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house,
flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual.
3. Source list
● It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to
be drawn.
● It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of
finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher
has to prepare it.
● Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate.
● It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
4. Size of sample

● This refers to the number of items to be selected from the

universe to constitute a sample.
● The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too
small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which
fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility.
● While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine
the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for
the estimate.
● The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case
of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed.
● The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits
the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs
too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such,
budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into
consideration when we decide the sample size.
5. Parameters of interest

● In determining the sample design, one must consider the

question of the specific population parameters which are of
interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the
proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or
the other measure concerning the population. There may also be
important sub-groups in the population about whom we would
like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.
6. Budgetary constraint

● Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a

major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of
the sample but also to the type of sample.
● This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
7. Sampling procedure

● Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must
decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
● There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of
which the researcher must choose one for his study.
● Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING
PROCEDURE
Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

[Link] sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased

representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will

result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring
device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a
measuring device.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is
that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving
a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of
what is to be estimated.
4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing
them in course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of
time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be
set for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the
speed with which they work if kept unobserved.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the
reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government
taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data
collected by some social organisation. People in general understate their
incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if
asked for social status or their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys,
people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than
revealing their true feelings.
● Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either
direction, their nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of
such errors happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the
size of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population.
Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The measurement of
sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’. If we increase the sample
size, the precision can be improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations
viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data and also enhances the systematic
bias. Thus the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better sampling design
which has a smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost. In practice, however,
people prefer a less precise design because it is easier to adopt the same and also because of the
fact that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way in such a design.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.

(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.

(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGN
● Non-probability sampling
● Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling

● Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the
sample.
● Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling,
purposive sampling and judgement sampling.
● In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher;
his choice concerning the items remains supreme.
● In other words, under non-probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively
choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the
small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the
whole.
Probability sampling

● Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.

● Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from
the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process.
● Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
● The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of
probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results
obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random
sampling design over the deliberate sampling design.
● Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition
and characteristics as the universe.
● This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a
representative sample.
● The implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:

(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample;
and all choices are independent of one another.

(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGN

1. Systematic sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
4. Area sampling
5. Multi-stage sampling
6. Sampling with probability proportional to size
7. Sequential sampling:
Systematic sampling

● Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.

● An element of randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random
numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
● Systematic sampling has certain plus points. It can be taken as an improvement over a
simple random sample in as much as the systematic sample is spread more evenly over the
entire population.
● It is an easier and less costly method of sampling and can be conveniently used even in
case of large populations.
Stratified sampling

● If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous

group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample.
● Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-populations that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations
are called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
● Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get
more precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the
component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole. I
Cluster sampling

● If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample
can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then
to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the
ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
● In cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of relatively small
subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these
clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.
Area sampling

● If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is

better known as area sampling.
● In other words, cluster designs, where the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of
units based on geographic area, are distinguished as area sampling.
● The plus and minus points of cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling.
Multi-stage sampling

● Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling.

● Ordinarily multi-stage sampling is applied in big inquires extending to a considerable large
geographical area, say, the entire country.
● There are two advantages of this sampling design viz.,

(a) It is easier to administer than most single stage designs mainly because of the fact that
sampling frame under multi-stage sampling is developed in partial units.

(b) A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost under multistage sampling
because of sequential clustering, whereas this is not possible in most of the simple
designs.
Sampling with probability proportional to size

● In case the cluster sampling units do not have the same number or
approximately the same number of elements, it is considered
appropriate to use a random selection process where the probability of
each cluster being included in the sample is proportional to the size of
the cluster.
● For this purpose, we have to list the number of elements in each cluster
irrespective of the method of ordering the cluster.
● Then we must sample systematically the appropriate number of
elements from the cumulative totals.
● The actual numbers selected in this way do not refer
to individual elements, but indicate which clusters
and how many from the cluster are to be selected by
simple random sampling or by systematic sampling.
● The results of this type of sampling are equivalent to
those of a simple random sample and the method is
less cumbersome and is also relatively less
expensive.
Sequential sampling

● This sampling design is a complex sample design.

● The ultimate size of the sample under this technique is not
fixed in advance, but is determined according to
mathematical decision rules on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
● This is usually adopted in case of acceptance sampling plan in
context of statistical quality control.
● When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the
basis of a single sample, it is known as single sampling; when
the decision is to be taken on the basis of two samples, it is
known as double sampling and in case the decision rests on
the basis of more than two samples but the number of
samples is certain and decided in advance, the sampling is
known as multiple sampling.
● But when the number of samples is more than two but it is
neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system is
often referred to as sequential sampling.
CONCLUSION

● One should resort to simple random sampling because under it bias is generally
eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated.
● But purposive sampling is considered more appropriate when the universe happens to be
small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively.
● There are situations in real life under which sample designs other than simple random
samples may be considered better (say easier to obtain, cheaper or more informative) and
as such the same may be used. In a situation when random sampling is not possible, then
we have to use necessarily a sampling design other than random sampling.
● At times, several methods of sampling may well be used in the same study.
Measurement and Scaling Techniques

● Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range

according to some rule of correspondence.
● In measuring, we devise some form of scale in the range (in terms of set theory, range may
refer to some set) and then transform or map the properties of objects from the domain
(in terms of set theory, domain may refer to some other set) onto this scale.
● Nominal data are numerical in name only, because they do not share any of the properties
of the numbers we deal in ordinary arithmetic.
● In those situations when we cannot do anything except set up inequalities, we refer to the
data as ordinal data.
● When in addition to setting up inequalities we can also form differences, we refer to the
data as interval data.
● When in addition to setting up inequalities and forming differences we can also form
quotients (i.e., when we can perform all the customary operations of mathematics), we
refer to such data as ratio data. In this sense, ratio data includes all the usual
measurement (or determinations) of length, height, money amounts, weight, volume,
area, pressures etc.
MEASUREMENT SCALES

1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio Scale
Nominal scale

● Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in
order to identify them.
● Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale for their
order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class
of events and as such have no quantitative value.
● Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
Ordinal scale

● The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
● The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of
the scale equal in terms of some rule.
● Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena.
● Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest.
● Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent
ranks may not be equal.
● All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but
more precise comparisons cannot be made.
Interval scale

● The intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis for
making the units equal.
● The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is
based.
● Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but itis not possible to determine for them what
may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin.
● The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the
capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.
● Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale
also incorporates the concept of equality of interval.
Ratio scale:

● Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement.

● The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of
an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time.
● For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of
length or height.
● But an absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a
concept existing only in the scientist’s mind.
● The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a page
of type script represent scores on ratio scales.
●
● Both these scales have absolute zeros and as such all minor traffic violations
● and all typing errors can be assumed to be equal in significance.
● The ratio involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is not
possible in case of an interval scale.
● Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables.
● Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.
● Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that
one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale values.
● Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other scales
mentioned above.
● Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central tendency and

coefficients of variation may also be calculated.

Sources of Error in Measurement

● Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study.

● This objective, however, is often not met with in entirety.
● The following are the possible sources of error in measurement.:
● (a) Respondent:

At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings orit is just possible that he
may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview
of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to respond
accurately and fully.

● (b) Situation:

Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any condition which places a strain
on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is
present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is
not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
● (c) Measurer:

The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His

behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents.
Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may also creep in because
of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the
data-analysis stage.

● (d) Instrument:

Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of complex
words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing,
inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make
the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors. Another type
of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of items of concern.

●
Tests of Sound Measurement

● Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact,
these are the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement
tool.
○ Test of validity
○ Test of reliability
○ Test of practicality
Test of Validity

● Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure
● Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility.
● Validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true
differences among those being tested.
○ Content validity
○ Criterion-related validity
○ Construct validity
Test of Reliability

● Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure.

● The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring
instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results.
● Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need
not be a valid instrument.
Test of Practicality

● Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and

interpretability
● From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it
should be economical, convenient and interpretable.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Methods of Data Collection

Types of Data:

1. Primary Data
● Those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
2. Secondary Data
○ Those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
Collection of Primary Data

1. Observation method
2. Interviews
● Personal interviews
● Telephone interviews
3. Questionnaire
4. Schedules
Observation Method

● The most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioural sciences.
● Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent.
● The main advantage of this method is that:
○ the subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
○ the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
○ independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of
active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method.
● In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed,
the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation.
● When observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in
advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.
● If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is
observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the
observation is called as the participant observation.
● When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to
experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often
termed as non-participant observation.
● If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to
definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same
is then termed controlled observation.
Interview Method

● The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
● Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
● Telephone interviews is a method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH
QUESTIONNAIRES

● This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
● It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public
organisations and even by governments.
● In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
● A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a
form or set of forms.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

● This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma
containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose.
● These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions
from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same in the proforma.
● In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators
may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
● Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the
difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a
particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Warranty cards
● Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products.
2. Distributor or store audits
● Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such
information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern
and so on.
3. Pantry audits
● The investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of
commodities consumed.
4. Consumer panels

● A set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily

records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands.

5. Use of mechanical devices

● The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information by way of
indirect means.

6. Projective techniques

● In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to

project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study.
● Projective techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude
surveys.
○ Word association tests
○ Sentence completion tests
○ Story completion tests
○ Verbal projection tests
7. Depth interviews

● Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying
motives and desires and are often used in motivational research.
● Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents.

8. Content-analysis

● Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials such

as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials
which can be either spoken or printed.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

● Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analysed by someone else.
● They must posses following characteristics:
○ Reliability of data
○ Suitability of data
○ Adequacy of data
Guidelines for Constructing
Questionnaire/Schedule
1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting
point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule.
2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled
respondents and the kind of analysis intended. Questions should be simple and must be
constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation
plan..
3. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving due thought to the
appropriate sequence of putting questions.
4. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for
a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed.
5. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire
may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straightforward directions for the respondents so
that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.
Processing and Analysis of Data
● The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
● This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for
making contemplated comparisons and analysis.
● It refers to editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are
amenable to analysis.
● The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups.
PROCESSING OPERATIONS

1. Editing
● Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.
● Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts
gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged
to facilitate coding and tabulation.
2. Coding

● Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so

that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
● Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be
reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information
required for analysis.

3. Classification

● Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced
into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships.
○ according to attributes
○ according to class-intervals
4. Tabulation

● The process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e.,
in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis.
ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS
● By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along
with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups.
● Categorised as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis
is often known as statistical analysis).
● Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable.
● Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.
● Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables
affect changes in another variable.
● Multiple regression analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependent
● variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent
variables.
● Multiple discriminant analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a
single dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified
into two or more groups on the basis of some attribute.
● Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA) is an extension of two-
way ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group
variance is worked out on a set of variables.
● Canonical analysis can be used in case of both measurable and
non-measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a
set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of
independent variables.
● Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for
testing hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be
said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

● Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with
two major type of problems:
1. the estimation of population parameters
2. the testing of statistical hypotheses.
● The important statistical measures that are used to summarise the survey/research data
are:
1. measures of central tendency or statistical averages - mean, median and mode,
geometric mean and harmonic mean
2. measures of dispersion- variance, standard deviation, mean deviation, range,
coefficient of variation and coefficient of standard deviation
3. measures of asymmetry (skewness and kurtosis)
4. measures of relationship- coefficient of correlation, coefficient of association,
multiple correlation coefficient, partial correlation coefficient, regression analysis
5. other measures - index numbers, analysis of time series, coefficient of contingency
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

● Measures of central tendency (or statistical averages) tell us the point about which items have a tendency
to cluster.
● Such a measure is considered as the most representative figure for the entire mass of data.
● Mean, also known as arithmetic average, is the most common measure of central tendency and may be
defined as the value which we get by dividing the total of the values of various given items in a series by
the total number of items.
● Median is the value of the middle item of series when it is arranged in ascending or descending order of
magnitude.
● Mode is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series.
● Geometric mean is also useful under certain conditions. It is defined as the nth root of the product of the
values of n times in a given series.
● Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the average of reciprocals of the values of items
● of a series.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION

● An averages can represent a series only as best as a single figure can, but it certainly
cannot reveal the entire story of any phenomenon under study.
● Range is the simplest possible measure of dispersion and is defined as the difference
between the values of the extreme items of a series.
● Mean deviation is the average of difference of the values of items from some average of
the series.
● Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is commonly
● denoted by the symbol ‘ s ’ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation is defined as the
square-root of the average of squares of deviations, when such deviations for the values
of individual items in a series are obtained from the arithmetic average.
● When we divide the standard deviation by the arithmetic average of the series, the
resulting quantity is known as coefficient of standard deviation which happens to be a
relative measure and is often used for comparing with similar measure of other series.
● When this coefficient of standard deviation is multiplied by 100, the resulting figure is
known as coefficient of variation.
● The square of standard deviation, known as variance, which is frequently used in the
context of analysis of variation
MEASURES OF ASYMMETRY (SKEWNESS)

● When the distribution of item in a series happens to be perfectly symmetrical, we then

have the following type of curve for the distribution:
● Such a curve is technically described as a normal curve and the relating distribution as
normal distribution.
● Skewness is, thus, a measure of asymmetry and shows the manner in which the items are
clustered around the average
● Kurtosis is the measure of flat-toppedness of a curve.
● A bell shaped curve or the normal curve is Mesokurtic because it is kurtic in the centre;
but if the curve is relatively more peaked than the normal curve, it is called Leptokurtic
whereas a curve is more flat than the normal curve, it is called Platykurtic.
MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP

● In case of bivariate population: Correlation can be studied through (a) cross tabulation; (b)
Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation; (c) Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation;
whereas cause and effect relationship can be studied through simple regression
equations.
● In case of multivariate population: Correlation can be studied through (a) coefficient of
multiple correlation; (b) coefficient of partial correlation; whereas cause and effect
relationship can be studied through multiple regression equations.
● Cross tabulation approach is specially useful when the data are in nominal form. Under it
we classify each variable into two or more categories and then cross classify the variables
in these subcategories.
● Cross tabulation approach is specially useful when the data are in nominal form. Under it
we classify each variable into two or more categories and then cross classify the variables
in these subcategories.
● Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation (or rank correlation) is the technique of
determining the degree of correlation between two variables in case of ordinal data
where ranks are given to the different values of the variables.
● Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (or simple correlation) is the most widely used
method of measuring the degree of relationship between two variables.
SIMPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS

● Regression is the determination of a statistical relationship between two or more

variables.
● In simple regression, we have only two variables, one variable (defined as independent) is
the cause of the behaviour of another one (defined as dependent variable). Regression
can only interpret what exists physically i.e., there must be a physical way in which
independent variable X can affect dependent variable Y.
MULTIPLE CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

● When there are two or more than two independent variables, the analysis concerning
relationship is known as multiple correlation and the equation describing such
relationship as the multiple regression equation.
PARTIAL CORRELATION

● Partial correlation measures separately the relationship between two variables in such a
way that the effects of other related variables are eliminated. In other words, in partial
correlation analysis, we aim at measuring the relation between a dependent variable and
a particular independent variable by holding all other variables constant
REFERENCE:

Research Methods and Techniques by C.R. Kothari

Other Materials;

1. Deb, D., Dey, R., & Balas, V.E. (2019). Engineering Research Methodology : A Practical Insight
for Researchers. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd .
[Link]
2. Eng-Choon Leong, Carmel Lee-Hsia Heah, Kenneth Keng Wee Ong . (2016). GUIDE to
RESEARCH PROJECTS FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS: Planning, Writing and Presenting. CRC
Press.
THANK YOU!!!