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MILLER/SPOOLMAN
LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH
CHAPTER 4
Biodiversity and Evolution
Core Case Study: Why Should We
Protect Sharks?
• 400 known species
• 6 deaths per year from shark attacks
• 79-97 million sharks killed every year
• Fins
• Organs, meat, hides
• Fear
• 32% shark species threatened with extinction
• Keystone species
• Cancer resistant
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Threatened Sharks
Fig. 4-1, p. 80
Classifying Homo Sapiens
Supplement 5, Fig. 2, p. S19
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Natural Capital: Major Components of
the Earth’s Biodiversity
Fig. 4-2, p. 82
Functional Diversity The biological and Ecological Diversity The
chemical processes such as energy flow variety of terrestrial and
and matter recycling needed for the survival aquatic ecosystems
of species, communities, and ecosystems. found
in an area or on the
earth.
Solar
Chemical
nutrients
energy
Heat (carbon dioxide,
oxygen,
nitrogen,
minerals)
Heat Heat
Decomposers Producers
(bacteria, fungi) (plants)
Consumers
(plant eaters,
Heat meat eaters) Heat
Genetic Diversity The Species Diversity The number
variety and abundance of species
of genetic material within present in different communities. Fig. 4-2, p. 82
a
species or a population.
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Major Biomes
Denver
Baltimore
San
Francisco
Las
Vegas St. Louis
Coastal Sierra Great Rocky Great Mississippi Appalachian
mountain Nevada American Mountains Plains River Valley Mountains
ranges Desert
Coastal Coniferous Desert Coniferous Prairie Deciduous
chaparral forest forest grassland forest
and scrub
Fig. 4-5, p. 84
Science Focus: Have You Thanked the
Insects Today?
• Bad rep: sting us, bite us, spread disease, eat our
food, invade plants
• Pollination: lets flowering plants reproduce sexually
• Free pest control: insects eat other insects
• We need insects more than they need us
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Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time
• Fossils
• Physical evidence of ancient organisms
• Reveal what their external structures looked like
• Fossil record: entire body of fossil evidence
• Only have fossils of 1% of all species that lived on
earth
Fossilized Skeleton of an Herbivore that Lived during
the Cenozoic Era
Fig. 4-6, p. 86
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Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time
• Biological evolution: how earth’s life changes over time
through changes in the genetic characteristics of populations
• Darwin: Origin of Species
• Natural selection: individuals with certain traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce under a certain set of
environmental conditions
• Huge body of evidence
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Evolution of Life on Earth
Supplement 5, Fig. 2, p. S18
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Evolution by Natural Selection Works
through Mutations and Adaptations
• Populations evolve by becoming genetically different
• Genetic variations
• First step in biological evolution
• Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells
• Mutations: random changes in DNA molecules
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Evolution by Natural Selection Works
through Mutations and Adaptations
• Natural selection: acts on individuals
• Second step in biological evolution
• Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction
• Genetic resistance: ability of one or more members of
a population to resist a chemical designed to kill it
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Evolution by Natural Selection
A group of bacteria, Eventually the
including genetically resistant strain
resistant ones, are The genetically replaces the strain
exposed to an Most of the normal resistant bacteria affected by
antibiotic bacteria die start multiplying the antibiotic
Normal Resistant
bacterium bacterium
Stepped Art
Fig. 4-7, p. 87
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Adaptation through Natural Selection
Has Limits
• Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the
environmental conditions
• Reproductive capacity
• Species that reproduce rapidly and in large numbers
are better able to adapt
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Three Common Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection
1. “Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the
strongest”
2. Organisms do not develop traits out of need or
want
3. No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation
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Geologic Processes Affect Natural
Selection
• Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of
life on earth
• Locations of continents and oceans have shifted
• Species physically move, or adapt, or form new
species through natural selection
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
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Movement of the Earth’s Continents
over Millions of Years
Fig. 4-8, p. 89
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Climate Change and Catastrophes
Affect Natural Selection
• Ice ages followed by warming temperatures
• Collisions between the earth and large asteroids
• New species
• Extinctions
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Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere
During the last 18,000 Years
Fig. 4-9, p. 89
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Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right
for Life to Thrive
• Temperature range: supports life
• Orbit size: moderate temperatures
• Liquid water: necessary for life
• Rotation speed: sun doesn’t overheat surface
• Size: gravity keeps atmosphere
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How Do New Species Evolve?
• Speciation: one species splits into two or more
species
• Geographic isolation: happens first; physical
isolation of populations for a long period
• Reproductive isolation: mutations and natural
selection in geographically isolated populations lead
to inability to produce viable offspring when
members of two different populations mate
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Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive
Isolation
Fig. 4-10, p. 91
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Extinction is Forever
• Extinction
• Biological extinction
• Local extinction
• Endemic species
• Found only in one area
• Particularly vulnerable
• Background extinction: typical low rate of extinction
• Mass extinction: 3-5 over 500 million years
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Science Focus: Changing the Genetic
Traits of Populations
• Artificial selection
• Use selective breeding/crossbreeding
• Genetic engineering, gene splicing
• Consider
• Ethics
• Morals
• Privacy issues
• Harmful effects
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Artificial Selection
Fig. 4-C, p. 92
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Desired trait (color)
Cross
Pear breeding Apple
Offspring
Best result
Cross
breeding
New
offspring
Desired
result
Fig. 4-C, p. 92
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Genetically Engineered Mice
Fig. 4-D, p. 92
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Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place
• Species diversity
• Species richness:
• The number of different species in a given area
• Species evenness:
• Comparative number of individuals
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Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place
• Diversity varies with geographical location
• The most species-rich communities
• Tropical rain forests
• Coral reefs
• Ocean bottom zone
• Large tropical lakes
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Global Map of Plant Biodiversity
Supplement 8, Fig. 6, p. S36
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Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be
Productive and Sustainable
• Species richness seems to increase productivity and
stability or sustainability, and provide insurance
against catastrophe
• How much species richness is needed is debatable
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Each Species Plays a Unique Role
in Its Ecosystem
• Ecological niche, niche
• Pattern of living: everything that affects survival and
reproduction
• Water, space, sunlight, food, temperatures
• Generalist species
• Broad niche: wide range of tolerance
• Specialist species
• Narrow niche: narrow range of tolerance
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Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches
Fig. 4-13, p. 95
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Specialized Feeding Niches of Various Bird Species in a
Coastal Wetland
Herring
gull is a
Brown pelican Ruddy
tireless
dives for fish, turnstone
Avocet sweeps bill scavenger
which it locates searches
through mud and Dowitcher probes
Black skimmer from the air under shells
surface water in deeply into mud in
seizes small fish and pebbles
search of small search of snails,
at water surface for small
crustaceans, marine worms, and
invertebrates
insects, and seeds small crustaceans
Flamingo Scaup and other Louisiana Oystercatcher feeds Knot (sandpiper) Piping plover
feeds on diving ducks heron wades on clams, mussels, picks up worms feeds on insects
minute feed on into water to and other shellfish and small and tiny
organisms mollusks, seize small into which it pries crustaceans left crustaceans on
in mud crustaceans, fish its narrow beak by receding tide sandy beaches
and aquatic
vegetation
Fig. 4-14, p. 96
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Species Can Play Five Major Roles
within Ecosystems
• Native species
• Nonnative species
• Indicator species
• Keystone species
• Foundation species
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Indicator Species Serve as Biological
Smoke Alarms
• Indicator species
• Provide early warning of damage to a community
• Can monitor environmental quality
• Trout
• Birds
• Butterflies
• Frogs
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Keystone Species Play Critical Roles in
Their Ecosystems
• Keystone species: roles have a large effect on the
types and abundances of other species
• Pollinators
• Top predators
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Foundation Species Help to Form the
Bases of Ecosystems
• Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit
others
• Elephants
• Beavers
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Three Big Ideas
1. Populations evolve when genes mutate and give
some individuals genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and to produce offspring with
these traits (natural selection).
2. Human activities are decreasing the earth’s vital
biodiversity by causing the extinction of species and
by disrupting habitats needed for the development
of new species.
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Three Big Ideas
3. Each species plays a specific ecological role
(ecological niche) in the ecosystem where it is
found.
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