Ambo university ECNG 3112

AMBO UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Electrical Machines

Chapter 4: Control of D.C Motors:

Types of DC motor:
(i) Separately excited DC motor
(ii) Self excited DC motor
(a) DC Series motor
(b) DC shunt motor
(c) DC compound motor
Speed-torque characteristic:
DC Series Motor:
A series DC motor is a DC motor whose field windings consists of a relatively few turns
connected in series with armature circuit. Therefore

VT  E A  I A ( RA  Rs )

The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is quite different from that of the shunt motor
since the flux is directly proportional to the armature current (assuming no saturation). An increase in
motor flux causes a decrease in its speed; therefore, a series motor has a dropping torque-speed
characteristic.
The induced torque in a series machine is
 ind  K I A
Since the flux is proportional to the armature current:

  cI A

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where c is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the torque is

 ind  KcI A2
Torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature current. Series motors supply the
highest torque among the DC motors. Therefore, they are used as car starter motors, elevator motors
etc.
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law would be

VT  E A  I A ( RA  RS )  K  ind  RA  RS 
Kc

Speed-torque characteristic:
One serious disadvantage of a series motor is that its
speed goes to infinity for a zero torque.
In practice, however, torque never goes to zero because of
the mechanical, core, and stray losses. Still, if no other loads
are attached, the motor will be running fast enough to cause
damage.

Steps must be taken to ensure that a series motor always has

a load! Therefore, it is not a good idea to connect such
motors to loads by a belt or other mechanism that could
break.

DC Shunt Motor:

Shunt DC motor a field circuit gets its power from the armature terminals of the motor.
For the armature circuit of these motors
VT  E A  I A RA

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For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed. Therefore, the terminal
characteristic of a motor is its output torque vs. speed.
If the load on the shaft increases, the load torque tload will exceed the induced torque tind, and the motor
will slow down. Slowing down the motor will decrease its internal generated voltage (since EA = Kfw),
so the armature current increases (IA = (VT – EA)/RA). As the armature current increases, the induced
torque in the motor increases (since tind = KfIA), and the induced torque will equal the load torque at a
lower speedw.

Assuming that the terminal voltage and other terms are constant, the motor’s speed vary linearly
with torque.

However, if a motor has an armature reaction, flux-weakening reduces the flux when torque
increases. Therefore, the motor’s speed will increase. If a shunt (or separately excited) motor has
compensating windings, and the motor’s speed and armature current are known for any value of load,
it’s possible to calculate the speed for any other value of load.

Calculation of starting resistance:

In order for DC motors to function properly, they must have some special control and protection
equipment associated with them. The purposes of this equipment are:

1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the equipment;
2. To protect the motor against damage from long-term overloads;
3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting currents;
4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the operating speed of the motor.

At starting conditions, the motor is not turning, therefore the internal generated voltage EA = 0V.
Since the internal resistance of a normal DC motor is very low (3-6 % pu), a very high current flows.
For instance, for a 50 hp, 250 V DC motor with armature resistance RA of 0.06 W and a full-load
current about 200 A, the starting current is
V  E A 250  0
IA  T   4167
 A
RA 0.06

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This current is over 20 times the motor’s rated full-load current and may severely damage the
motor.
A solution to the problem of excessive starting current is to insert a starting resistor in series
with the armature to limit the current until EA can build up to limit the armature current. However,
this resistor must be removed from the circuit as the motor speed is high since otherwise such resistor
would cause losses and would decrease the motor’s torque-speed characteristic.
In practice, a starting resistor is made up of a series of resistors that can be successively
removed from the circuit as the motor speeds up.
A shunt motor with an extra starting resistor that can be cut out of the circuit in segments by
closing the 1A, 2A, and 3A contacts.
Therefore, two considerations are needed to be taken into account:
Select the values and the number of resistor segments needed to limit the starting current to
desired ranges; Design a control circuit shutting the resistor bypass contacts at the proper time to
remove particular parts of the resistor from the circuit.

The starting resistor must be selected such that the current flow at the start equals twice the
rated current. As the motor speeds up, an internal voltage EA (which opposes the terminal voltage of
the motor and, therefore, limits the current) is generated. When the current falls to the rated value, a
section of the starting resistor needs to be taken out to increase the current twice. This process (of
taking out sections of the starting resistor) repeats until the entire starting resistance is removed. At
this point, the motor’s armature resistance will limit the current to safe values by itself.
The original resistance in the starting circuit is

VT
Rtot  R1  R2  ...  RA 
I max

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Braking the d.c. Motors

When a motor is switched off it `coasts' to rest under the action of frictional forces.
Braking is employed when rapid stopping is required. In many cases mechanical braking is adopted. The
electric braking may be done for various reasons such as those mentioned below:
1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes.
2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes.
3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy efficiency.
4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly.
5. To improve the throughput in many production processes by reducing the stopping time.
In many cases electric braking makes more brake power available to the braking process where
mechanical brakes are applied. This reduces the wear and tear of the mechanical brakes and reduces the
frequency of the replacement of these parts. By recovering the mechanical energy stored in the rotating
parts and pumping it into the supply lines the overall energy efficiency is improved. This is called
regeneration. Where the safety of the personnel or the equipment is at stake the machine may be
required to stop [Link] large brake power is needed under those conditions. Electric
braking can help in these situations also. In processes where frequent starting and stopping is involved
the process time requirement can be reduced if braking time is reduced. The reduction of the
1. Dynamic
2. Regenerative
3. Reverse voltage braking or plugging
These are now explained briefly with reference to shunt and series motor.
Dynamic braking
(i) Shunt machine
In dynamic braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a
dynamic braking resistance RDB. In and Fig. 49 this is done by changing the switch from
position 1 to 2. The supply to the field should not be removed. Due to the rotation of the
armature during motoring mode and due to the inertia, the armature continues to rotate. An
emf is induced due to the presence of the field and the rotation. This voltage drives a current
through the braking resistance. The direction of this current is opposite to the one which was
owing before change in the connection. Therefore, torque developed also gets reversed. The
machine acts like a brake. The torque speed characteristics separate by excited shunt of the
machine under dynamic braking mode is as shown in Fig. (b) for a particular value of RDB.
The positive torque corresponds to the motoring operation. Fig. shows the dynamic braking
of a shunt excited motor and the corresponding torque-speed curve. Here the machine
behaves as a self-excited generator. Below a certain speed the self-excitation collapses and
the braking action becomes Zero. Process time improves the throughput.
Basically the electric braking involved is fairly simple. The electric motor can be made to work
as a generator by suitable terminal conditions and absorb mechanical energy. This converted mechanical
power is dissipated/used on the electrical network suitably.

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(ii) Series machine

In the case of a series machine the excitation current becomes zero as soon as the armature is
disconnected from the mains and hence the induced emf also vanishes. In order to achieve dynamic
braking the series field must be isolated and connected to a low voltage high current source to provide
the field. Rather, the motor is made to work like a separately excited machine. When several machines
are available at any spot, as in railway locomotives, dynamic braking is feasible. Series connection of all
the series fields with parallel connection of all the armatures connected across a single dynamic braking
resistor is used in that case.

Regenerative braking
In regenerative braking as the name suggests the energy recovered from the rotating masses is
fed back into the d.c. power source. Thus this type of braking improves the energy efficiency of the
machine. The armature current can be made to reverse for a constant voltage operation by increase in
speed/excitation only. Increase in speed does not result in braking and the increase in excitation is
feasible only over a small range, which may be of the order of 10 to 15%. Hence the best method for
obtaining the regenerative braking is to operate, the machine on a variable voltage supply. As the
voltage is continuously pulled below the value of the induced emf the speed steadily comes down. The
field current is held constant by means of separate excitation.
Braking torque can be obtained right up to zero speed. In modern times static Ward-Leonard
scheme is used for getting the variable d.c. voltage. This has many advantages over its rotating machine
counter part. Static set is compact, has higher efficiency, requires lesser space, and silent in operation;
however it suffers from drawbacks like large ripple at low voltage levels, unidirectional power flow and
low over load capacity. Bidirectional power flow capacity is a must if regenerative braking is required.
Series motors cannot be regeneratively braked as the characteristics do not extend to the second
quadrant.

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.
Plugging:
The third method for braking is by plugging. Fig. shows the method of connection
for the plugging of a shunt motor. Initially the machine is connected to the supply with the switch S in
position number 1. If now the switch is moved to position 2, then a reverse voltage is applied across the
armature. The induced armature voltage E and supply voltage V aid each other and a large reverse
current flows through the armature. This produces a large negative torque or braking torque. Hence
plugging is also termed as reverse voltage braking. The machine instantly comes to rest. If the motor is
not switched off at this instant the direction of rotation reverses and the motor starts rotating the reverse
direction. This type of braking therefore has two modes viz. 1) plug to reverse and 2) plug to stop. If we
need the plugging only for bringing the speed to zero, then we have to open the switch S at zero speed.
If nothing is done it is plug to reverse mode. Plugging
is a convenient mode for quick reversal of direction
of rotation in reversible rives. Just as in starting,
during Plugging also it is necessary to limit the
current and thus the torque, to reduce the stress on the
mechanical system and the commutator. This is done
by adding additional resistance in series with the
armature during plugging.

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Series motors
In the case of series motors plugging cannot be employed as the field current too gets reversed
when reverse voltage is applied across the machine. This keeps the direction of the torque produced
unchanged. This fact is used with advantage, in operating a d.c. series motor on d.c. or a.c. supply.
Series motors thus qualify to be called as `Universal motors'.

SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS:

In the case of speed control, armature voltage control and flux control methods are available. The
voltage control can be from a variable voltage source like Ward-Leonard arrangement or by the use of
series armature resistance. Unlike the starting conditions the series resistance has to be in the circuit
throughout in the case of speed control. That means considerable energy is lost in these resistors. Further
these resistors must be adequately cooled for continuous operation. The variable voltage source on the
other hand gives the motor the voltage just needed by it and the losses in the control gear is a minimum.
This method is commonly used when the speed ratio required is large, as also the power rating.
Field control or flux control is also used for speed control purposes. Normally field weakening is
used. This causes operation at higher speeds than the nominal speed. Strengthening the field has little
scope for speed control as the machines are already in a state of saturation and large field mmf is needed
for small increase in the flux. Even though flux weakening gives higher speeds of operation it reduces
the torque produced by the machine for a given armature current and hence the power delivered does not
increase at any armature current. The machine is said to be in constant power mode under field
weakening mode of control. Above the nominal speed of operation, constant ux mode with increased
applied voltage can be used; but this is never done as the stress on the commutator insulation increases.
Thus operation below nominal speed is done by voltage control. Above the nominal speed field
weakening is adopted. For weakening the field, series resistances are used for shunt as well as
compound motors. In the case of series motors however field weakening is done by the use of
„diverters‟. Diverters are resistances that are connected in parallel to the series winding to reduce the
field current without affecting the armature current.

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(i) Speed control of shunt motor

We know that the speed of shunt motor is given by:

where, Va is the voltage applied across the armature and Ø is the flux per pole and is
proportional to the field current If. As explained earlier, armature current Ia is decided by the
mechanical load present on the shaft. Therefore, by varying Va and If we can vary n. For fixed supply
voltage and the motor connected as shunt we can vary Va by controlling an external resistance
connected in series with the armature. If of course can be varied by controlling external field resistance
Rf connected with the field circuit. Thus for shunt motor we have essentially two methods for
controlling speed, namely by:
1. varying armature resistance.
2. varying field resistance.

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1. Speed control by varying armature resistance

The inherent armature resistance ra being small, speed n versus armature current Ia characteristic
will be a straight line with a small negative slope as shown in figure . In the discussion to
follow we shall not disturb the field current from its rated value. At no

load (i.e., Ia = 0) speed is highest and Note that for shunt motor voltage applied
to the field and armature circuit are same and equal to the supply voltage V. However, as the motor is
loaded, Iara drop increases making speed a little less than the no load speed n0. For a well-designed
shunt motor this drop in speed is small and about 3 to 5% with respect to no load speed. This drop in
speed from no load to full load condition expressed as a percentage of no load speed is called the
inherent speed regulation of the motor.

It is for this reason, a d.c shunt motor is said to be practically a constant speed motor (with no
external armature resistance connected) since speed drops by a small amount from no load to full load
condition.
Since for constant operation, Te becomes simply proportional to Ia. Therefore, speed vs. torque
characteristic is also similar to speed vs. armature current characteristic as shown in figure.
The slope of the n vs Ia or n vs Te characteristic can be modified by deliberately connecting
external resistance rext in the armature circuit. One can get a family of speed vs. armature curves as
shown in figures for various values of rext. From these characteristics it can be explained how speed
control is achieved. Let us assume that the load torque TL is constant and field current is also kept
constant. Therefore, since steady state operation demands Te = TL, Te = a k I ö too will remain
constant; which means Ia will not change. Suppose rext = 0, then at rated load torque, operating point
will be at C and motor speed will be n. If additional resistance rext1 is introduced in the armature
circuit, new steady state operating speed will be n1 corresponding to the operating point D. In this way
one can get a speed of n2 corresponding to the operating point E, when rext2 is introduced in the
armature circuit. This same load torque is supplied at various speeds. Variation of the speed is smooth
and speed will decrease smoothly if rext is increased.

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Obviously, this method is suitable for controlling speed below the base speed and for supplying
constant rated load torque which ensures rated armature current always. Although, this method provides
smooth wide range speed control (from base speed down to zero speed), has a serious draw back since
energy loss takes place in the external resistance rext reducing the efficiency of the motor.

2. Speed control by varying field current

In this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a d.c shunt motor. Let us
rewrite .the basic equation to understand the method.

If we vary If, flux will change, hence speed will vary. To change If an external resistance is
connected in series with the field windings. The field coil produces rated flux when no external
resistance is connected and rated voltage is applied across field coil. It should be understood that we can
only decrease flux from its rated value by adding external resistance. Thus the speed of the motor will
rise as we decrease the field current and speed control above the base speed will be achieved.

Speed versus armature current characteristic is shown in figure for two flux values Ø and Ø 1
Since Ø1 < Ø , no load speed no for flux value Ø1 is than the no load speed no corresponding to Ø .
However, this method will not be suitable for constant load torque. To make this point clear, let us
assume that the load torque is constant at rated value. So from the initial steady condition, we have

If load torque remains constant and flux is reduced to Ø1 new

armature current in the steady state is obtained from

Therefore new armature current is

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But the fraction, hence new armature current will be greater than the rated armature
current and the motor will be overloaded. This method therefore, will be suitable for a load whose
torque demand decreases with the rise in speed keeping the output power constant as shown in figure.
Obviously this method is based on flux weakening of the main field.

Therefore at higher speed main flux may become so weakened, that armature reaction effect will
be more pronounced causing problem in commutation.

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(ii) Speed control of series motor:

1. Speed control below base speed

For constant load torque, steady armature current remains constant, hence flux also remains
constant. Since the machine resistance a s r +re is quite small, the back emf Eb is approximately equal
to the armature terminal voltage Va. Therefore, speed is proportional to Va. If Va is reduced, speed too
will be reduced. This Va can be controlled either by connecting external resistance in series or by
changing the supply voltage.
Series-parallel connection of motors:
If for a drive two or more (even number) of identical motors are used (as in traction), the motors
may be suitably connected to have different applied voltages across the motors for controlling speed. In
series connection of the motors shown in figure , the applied voltage across each motor is V/2 while in
parallel connection shown in figure, the applied voltage across each motor is V. The back emf in the
former case will be approximately half than that in the latter case. For same armature current in both the
cases (which means flux per pole is same), speed will be half in series connection compared to parallel
connection.

2. Speed control above base speed

Flux or field current control is adopted to control speed above the base speed. In a series motor,
independent control of field current is not as obvious as armature and field coils are in series. However,
this can be achieved by the following methods:
1. Using a diverter resistance connected across the field coil.
In this method shown in figure 39.19, a portion of the armature current is diverted through the
diverter resistance. So field current is now not equal to the armature current; in fact it is less than the
armature current. Flux weakening thus caused, raises the speed of the motor.

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2. Changing number of turns of field coil provided with tapings:

In this case shown figure 39.20, armature and field currents are same. However provision is kept
to change the number of turns of the field coil. When number of turns changes, field mmf se f N I
changes, changing the flux hence speed of the motor.

Solid-state drive of D.C motor:

In summary, two general statements can be made relative to DC motor performance. 

1. Motor Speed is primarily determined by Applied Armature Voltage. 

2. Motor Torque is controlled by Armature Current (amperes). 

Understanding these two concepts of DC motors provides the key to understanding total drive
performance. 

REGULATORS (CONTROLS)
The control provides two basic functions: 

1. It rectifies AC power converting it to DC for the DC motor.

2. It controls the DC output voltage and amperage in response to various control and feedback
signals thereby regulating the motor's performance, both in speed and torque. 

RECTIFYING FUNCTION
The basic rectifying function of the control is accomplished by a combination of power semiconductors
(Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and Diodes) that make up the "power bridge" assembly. 

REGULATING FUNCTION
The regulating function is provided by a relatively simple electronic circuit that monitors a number of
inputs and sums these signals to produce a so called "error" signal. This error signal is processed and
transformed into precisely timed pulses (bursts of electrical energy). These pulses are applied to the
gates of the SCR's in the power bridge thereby regulating the power output to the DC motor. 

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For most purposes it is not necessary to understand the electronic details of the regulator, however, in
order to appreciate the regulator function it is good to understand some of the input signals that are
required to give the regulator its capabilities, these are shown diagrammatically in Figure 4. 

The AC to DC power flow is a relatively simple straight through process with the power being
converted from AC to DC by the action of the solid state power devices that form the power bridge
assembly. 

The input and feedback signals need to be studied in more detail. 

SET POINT INPUT

In most packaged drives this signal is derived from a closely regulated fixed voltage source applied to a
potentiometer. 10 volts is a very common reference.  

The potentiometer has the capability of accepting the fixed voltage and dividing it down to any value of
from, for example, 10 to zero volts, depending on where it is set. A 10 volt input to the regulator from
the speed adjustment control (potentiometer) corresponds to maximum motor speed and zero volts
corresponds to zero speed. Similarly any speed between zero and maximum can be obtained by
adjusting the speed control to the appropriate setting. 

SPEED FEEDBACK INFORMATION

In order to "close the loop" and control motor speed accurately it is necessary to provide the control with
a feedback signal related to motor speed. 

The standard method of doing this in a simple control is by monitoring the armature voltage and feeding
it back into the regulator for comparison with the input "set point" signal. 

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When armature voltage becomes high, relative to the set point, established by the speed potentiometer
setting, an "error" is detected and the output voltage from the power bridge is reduced to lower the
motor's speed back to the "set point". Similarly when the armature voltage drops an error of opposite
polarity is sensed and the control output voltage is automatically increased in an attempt to re-establish
the desired speed. 

The "Armature Voltage Feedback System" which is standard in most packaged drives is generally called
a "Voltage Regulated Drive". 

A second and more accurate method of obtaining the motor speed feedback information is called
"Tachometer Feedback". In this case the speed feedback signal is obtained from a motor mounted
tachometer. The output of this tachometer is directly related to the speed of the motor. Using
Tachometer Feedback generally gives a drive improved regulation characteristics. When "tach
feedback" is used the drive is referred to as a "Speed Regulated Drive". Most controls are capable of
being modified to accept tachometer signals for operation in the tachometer feedback mode. 

In some newer high performance "digital drives" the feedback can come from a motor mounted encoder
that feeds back voltage pulses at a rate related to motor speed. These (counts) are processed digitally
being compared to the "set point" and error signals are produced to regulate the armature voltage and
speed. 

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AMBO UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Electrical Machines

Chapter 5: Control of A.C Motors:

The complete torque-speed characteristic of Induction motor

In order to estimate the speed torque characteristic let us suppose that a sinusoidal voltage is
impressed on the machine. Recalling that the equivalent circuit is the per-phase
representation of the machine, the current drawn by the circuit is given by

Where Vs is the phase voltage phasor and Is is the current phasor. The magnetizing current is
neglected. Since this current is owing through , the air-gap power is given by

The torque may be plotted as a function of `s' and is called the torque-slip (or torque- speed,
since slip indicates speed) characteristic | a very important characteristic of the induction machine.
Equation 16 is valid for a two-pole (one pole pair) machine. In general, this expression should be
multiplied by p, the number of pole-pairs. A typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in _g. 22. This
plot corresponds to a 3 kW, 4 pole,60 Hz machine. The rated operating speed is 1780 rpm.

With respect to the direction of rotation of the air-gap flux, the rotor maybe driven to higher speeds by a
prime mover or may also be rotated in the reverse direction. The torque-speed relation for the machine under
the entire speed range is called the complete speed-torque characteristic. A typical curve is shown in fig for a
four-pole machine, the synchronous speed being 1500 rpm. Note that negative speeds correspond to slip
values greater than 1, and speeds greater than 1500 rpm correspond to negative slip. The plot also shows the
operating modes of the induction machine in various regions. The slip axis is also shown for convenience.

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Restricting ourselves to positive values of slip, we see that the curve has a peak point. This is the
maximum torque that the machine can produce, and is called as stalling torque. If the load torque is
more than this value, the machine stops rotating or stalls. It occurs at a slip ^s, which for the machine of
fig is 0.38. At values of slip lower than ^s, the curve falls steeply down to zero at s = 0. The torque at
synchronous speed is therefore zero. At values of slip higher than s = ^s, the curve falls slowly to a
minimum value at s = 1. The torque at s = 1 (speed = 0) is called the starting torque

Need for Starters in IM:

The main problem in starting induction motors having large or medium size lies mainly in the
requirement of high starting current, when started direct-on-line (DOL). Assume that the distribution
line is starting from a substation (Fig.), where the supply voltage is constant. The line feeds a no. of
consumers, of which one consumer has an induction motor with a DOL starter, drawing a high current
from the line, which is higher than the current for which this line is designed. This will cause a drop
(dip) in the voltage, all along the line, both for the consumers between the substation and this consumer,
and those, who are in the line after this consumer. This drop in the voltage is more than the drop
permitted, i.e. higher than the limit as per ISS, because the current drawn is more than the current for
which the line is designed. Only for the current lower the current for which the line is designed, the drop

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in voltage is lower the limit. So, the supply authorities set a limit on the rating or size of IM, which can
be started DOL. Any motor exceeding the specified rating, is not permitted to be started DOL, for which
a starter is to be used to reduce the current drawn at starting.

Starters for Cage IM:

(i) Star – Delta Starter:

The starting current in IM is proportional to the input voltage per phase to the motor

(stator), i.e. where, as the voltage drop in the stator impedance is small
compared to the input voltage, or if the stator impedance is neglected. This has been shown
earlier. So, in a (squirrel) cage induction motor, the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage to
the motor so as to decrease the starting current. As described later, this also results in decrease of
starting torque.

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This type is used for the induction motor, the stator winding of which is nominally delta-
connected (Fig. 33.2a). If the above winding is reconnected as star (Fig. 33.2b), the voltage per phase
supplied to each winding is reduced by 1/√3 (.577). This is a simple starter, which can be easily
reconfigured as shown in Fig. 33.2c. As the voltage per phase in delta connection is Vs, the phase
current in each stator winding is where is the impedance of the motor per phase at standstill
or start (stator impedance and rotor impedance referred to the stator, at standstill). The line current or the
input current to the motor is which is the current, if the motor is started
direct-on-line (DOL). Now, if the stator winding is connected as star, the phase or line current drawn
from supply at start (standstill) is which is of the starting current,
if DOL starter is used. The voltage per phase in each stator winding is now (. 3 / s V ). So, the starting
current using star-delta starter is reduced by 33.3%. As for starting torque, being proportional to the
square of the current in each of the stator windings in two different connections as shown earlier, is also
reduced by ( 2 ) 3 / 1 ( 3 / 1 = ), as the ratio of the two currents is ( 3 / 1 ), same as that (ratio) of the
voltages applied to each winding as shown earlier. So, the starting torque is reduced by 33.3%, which is
a disadvantage of the use of this starter. The load torque and the loss torque, must be lower than the
starting torque, if the motor is to be started using this starter. The advantage is that, no extra component,
except that shown in Fig. 33.2c, need be used, thus making it simple. As shown later, this is an auto-
transformer starter with the voltage ratio as 57.7%. Alternatively, the starting current in the second case
with the stator winding reconnected as star, can be found by using star-delta conversion as given in
lesson #18, with the impedance per phase after converting to delta, found as ( s Z · 3 ), and the starting
current now being reduced to (1/3 ) of the starting current obtained using DOL starter, with the stator
winding connected in delta.
(ii) Auto-transformer Starter:

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An auto-transformer, whose output is fed to the stator and input is from the supply
(Fig. 33.3), is used to start the induction motor. The input voltage of IM is , which is the output voltage
of the auto-transformer, the input voltage being Vs. The output voltage/input voltage ratio is x , the value
of which lies between 0.0 and 1.0 Let be the starting current, when the motor is
started using DOL starter, i.e applying rated input voltage. The input current of IM, which is the output
current of auto-transformer, when this starter is used with input voltage as . The input current of auto-
transformer, which is the starting current drawn from the supply, is, obtained by equating input and
output volt-amperes, neglecting losses and assuming nearly same power factor on both sides. As
discussed earlier, the starting torque, being proportional to the square of the input current to IM in two

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cases, with and without auto-transformer (i.e. direct), is also reduced by , as the ratio of the two currents
is same as that (ratio) of the voltages applied to the motor as shown earlier. So, the starting torque is
reduced by the same ratio as that of the starting current.
If the ratio is , both starting current and torque are %) 80 ( 8 . 0 = x %) 64 ( 64 . 0 ) 8 . 0 ( 2 2 = =
x times the values of starting current and torque with DOL starting, which is nearly 2 times the values
obtained using star-delta starter. So, the disadvantage is that starting current is increased, with the result
that lower rated motor can now be started, as the current drawn from the supply is to be kept within
limits, while the advantage is that the starting torque is now doubled, such that the motor can start
against higher load torque. The star-delta starter can be considered equivalent to an autotransformer
starter with the ratio, %) 7 . 57 ( 577 . 0 = x . If %) 70 ( 7 . 0 = x , both starting current and torque are
times the values of starting current and torque with DOL starting, which is nearly 1.5 times the values
obtained using star delta starter.
(iii) Rotor Resistance Starters for Slip-ring (wound rotor) IM
In a slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motor, resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit via slip
rings (Fig. 33.4), so as to increase the starting torque. The starting current in the rotor winding is

where = Additional resistance per phase in the rotor circuit.

The input (stator) current is proportional to the rotor current as shown earlier. The starting current
(input) reduces, as resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. But the starting torque

increases, as the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased.

Though the starting current decreases, the total resistance increases, thus resulting in increase of starting
torque as shown in Fig. 32.2b, and also obtained by using the expression given earlier, for increasing
values of the resistance in the rotor circuit. If the additional resistance is used only for starting, being

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rated for intermittent duty, the resistance is to be decreased in steps, as the motor speed increases.
Finally, the external resistance is to be completely cut out, i.e. to be made equal to zero (0.0), thus
leaving the slip-rings short-circuited. Here, also the additional cost of the external resistance with
intermittent rating is to be incurred, which results in decrease of starting current, along with increase of
starting torque, both being advantageous. Also it may be noted that the cost of a slip-ring induction is
higher than that of IM with cage rotor, having same power rating. So, in both cases, additional cost is to
be incurred to obtain the above advantages. This is only used in case higher starting torque is needed to
start IM with high load torque. It may be observed from Fig. 32.2b that the starting torque increases till
it reaches maximum value, the external resistance in the rotor circuit is increased,
the range of total resistance being The range of external resistance is between
zero (0.0) and 2 r x -). The starting torque is equal to the maximum value, i.e.
if the external resistance inserted is equal to if the external resistance in

the rotor circuit is increased further, the starting torque decreases. This is,

because the This is, because the starting current decreases at a faster rate, even if the
total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased.

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES:

We have seen the speed torque characteristic of the machine. In the stable region of operation in the
motoring mode, the curve is rather steep and goes from zero torque at synchronous speed to the stall torque
at a value of slip s = ^s. Normally ^s may be such that stall torque is about three times that of the rated
operating torque of the machine, and hence may be about 0.3 or less. This means that in the entire loading
range of the machine, the speed change is quite small. The machine speed is quite with respect to load
changes. The entire speed variation is only in the range ns to (1 _ ^s)ns, ns being dependent on supply
frequency and number of poles.
The foregoing discussion shows that the induction machine, when operating from mains is essentially
a constant speed machine. Many industrial drives, typically for fan or pump applications, have typically
constant speed requirements and hence the induction machine is ideally suited for these. However, the
induction machine, especially the squirrel cage type, is quite rugged and has a simple construction. Therefore
it is good candidate for variable speed applications if it can be achieved.
1. Speed control by changing applied voltage
From the torque equation of the induction machine , we can see that the torque depends on the square of the
applied voltage. The variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied voltage is shown in Fig.
These curves show that the slip at maximum torque ^s remains same, while the value of stall torque comes
down with decrease in applied voltage. The speed range for stable operation remains the same.
Further, we also note that the starting torque is also lower at lower voltages. Thus, even if a given
voltage level is sufficient for achieving the running torque, the machine may not start. This method of trying
to control the speed is best suited for loads that require very little starting torque, but their torque requirement
may increase with speed.

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Figure : Speed-torque curves: voltage variation

Figure also shows a load torque characteristic | one that is typical of a fan type of load. In a fan
(blower) type of load, the variation of torque with speed is such that T /! 2. Here one can see that it may be
possible to run the motor to lower speeds within the range ns to (1 _ ^s) ns. Further, since the load torque at
zero speed is zero, the machine can start even at reduced voltages. This will not be possible with constant
torque type of loads. One may note that if the applied voltage is reduced, the voltage across the magnetizing
branch also comes down. This in turn means that the magnetizing current and hence ux level are reduced.
Reduction in the ux level in the machine impairs torque production (recall explanations on torque
production). If, however, the machine is running under lightly loaded conditions, then operating under rated
flux levels is not required. Under such conditions, reduction in magnetizing current improves the power
factor of operation. Some amount of energy saving may also be achieved. Voltage control may be achieved
by adding series resistors (a lossy, inefficient proposition), or a series inductor / autotransformer (a bulky
solution) or a more modern solution using semiconductor devices. A typical solid-state circuit used for this
purpose is the AC voltage controller or AC chopper. Another use of voltage control is in the so-called `soft-
start' of the machine. This is discussed in the section on starting methods.
2. Rotor resistance control
The reader may recall the expression for the torque of the induction machine. Clearly, it is dependent on the
rotor resistance. Further, that the maximum value is independent of the rotor resistance. The slip at maximum
torque dependent on the rotor resistance. Therefore, we may expect that if the rotor resistance is changed, the
maximum torque point shift to higher slip values, while retaining a constant torque. Figure shows a family of
torque-speed characteristic obtained by changing the rotor resistance.
Note that while the maximum torque and synchronous speed remain constant, the slip at which maximum
torque occurs increases with increase in rotor resistance, and so does the starting torque. Whether the load is
of constant torque type or fan-type, it is evident that the speed control range is more with this method.
Further, rotor resistance control could also be used as a means of generating high starting torque.
For all its advantages, the scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in order to vary the rotor
resistance, it is necessary to connect external variable resistors (winding resistance itself cannot be changed).
This, therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine, since only in that case rotor terminals are available outside.
For cage rotor machines, there are no rotor terminals. Secondly, the method is not very efficient since the
additional resistance and operation at high slips entails dissipation resistors connected to the slip-ring brushes
should have good power dissipation capability. Water based rheostats may be used for this. A `solid-state'
alternative to a rheostat is a chopper controlled resistance where the duty ratio control of the chopper
presents a variable resistance load to the rotor of the induction machine.

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Figure: Speed-torque curves : rotor resistance variation

3. Cascade control
The power drawn from the rotor terminals could be spent more usefully. Apart from using the heat generated
in meaning full ways, the slip ring output could be connected to another induction machine. The stator of the
second machine would carry slip frequency currents of the first machine, which would generate some useful
mechanical power. A still better option would be to mechanically couple the shafts of the two machines
together. This sort of a connection is called cascade connection and it gives some measure of speed control
as shown below.
Let the frequency of supply given to the first machine be f1, its number poles be p1, and its slip of
operation be s1. Let f2; p2 and s2 be the corresponding quantities for the second machine. The frequency of
currents owing in the rotor of the first machine and hence in the stator of the second machine is s1f1.
Therefore f2 = s1f1. Since the machines are coupled at the shaft, the speed of the rotor is common for both.
Hence, if n is the speed of the rotor

Figure: Generalized rotor control

in radians,

Note that while giving the rotor output of the first machine to the stator of the second, the resultant
stator mmf of the second machine may set up an air-gap flux which rotates in the same direction as that of
the rotor, or opposes it. This results in values for speed as

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If the rotor terminals are shorted, it behaves like a normal induction machine. This is equivalent to saying
that across the rotor terminals a voltage source of zero magnitude is connected. Different situations could
then be considered if this voltage source Er had a
non-zero magnitude. Let the power consumed by that source be Pr. Then considering the
rotor side circuit power dissipation per phase

Clearly now, the value of s can be changed by the value of Pr. For Pr = 0, the machine is like a
normal machine with a short circuited rotor. As Pr becomes positive, for all other circuit conditions
remaining constant, s increases or in the other words, speed reduces. As Pr becomes negative, the right
hand side of the equation and hence the slip decreases. The physical interpretation is that we now have an
active source connected on the rotor side, which is able to supply part of the rotor copper losses. When Pr
= _I02 2 R2 the entire copper loss is supplied by the external source. The RHS and hence the slip is zero.
This corresponds to operation at synchronous speed. In general the circuitry connected to the rotor may
not be a simple resistor or a machine but a power electronic circuit, which can process this power
requirement. This circuit may drive a machine or recover power back to the mains. Such circuits are called
static kramer drives.
Pole changing schemes
Sometimes induction machines have a special stator winding capable of being externally connected to
form two different number of pole numbers. Since the synchronous speed of the induction machine is
given by ns = fs=p (in rev./s) where p is the number of pole pairs, this would correspond to changing the
synchronous speed. With the slip now corresponding to the new synchronous speed, the operating speed
is changed. This method of speed control is a stepped variation and generally restricted to two steps.
If the changes in stator winding connections are made so that the air gap flux remains constant, then at
any winding connection, the same maximum torque is achievable. Such winding arrangements are
therefore referred to as constant-torque connections. If however such connection changes result in air gap
flux changes that are inversely proportional to the synchronous speeds, then such connections are called
constant-horsepower type. The following figure serves to illustrate the basic principle. Consider a
magnetic pole structure consisting of four pole faces A, B, C, D in fig. Coils are wound on A & C in the
directions shown. The two coils on A & C may be connected in series in two different ways | A2 may be
connected to C1 or C2. A1 with the other terminal at C then form the terminals of the overall
combination. Thus two connections result as shown in fig.

5. Stator frequency control

The expression for the synchronous speed indicates that by changing the stator frequency also it can be changed.
This can be achieved by using power electronic circuits called inverters, which convert dc to ac of desired
frequency. Depending on the type of control scheme of the inverter, the ac generated may be variable-

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frequency-fixed-amplitude or variable-frequency- variable-amplitude type. Power electronic control

achieves smooth variation of voltage and frequency of the ac output. This when fed to the machine is
capable of running at a controlled speed. However, consider the equation for the induced emf in the
induction machine.

where N is the number of the turns per phase, _m is the peak flux in the air gap and f is the frequency. Note
that in order to reduce the speed, frequency has to be reduced. If the frequency is reduced while the voltage is
kept constant, thereby requiring the amplitude of induced emf to remain the same, flux has to increase. This
is not advisable since the machine likely to enter deep saturation. If this is to be avoided, then flux level must
be maintained constant which implies that voltage must be reduced along with frequency. The ratio is held
constant in order to maintain the flux level for maximum torque capability.
Actually, it is the voltage across the magnetizing branch of the exact equivalent circuit that must be
maintained constant, for it is that which determines the induced emf. Under conditions where the stator
voltage drop is negligible compared the applied voltage, is valid.
In this mode of operation, the voltage across the magnetizing inductance in the 'exact' equivalent circuit reduces
in amplitude with reduction in frequency and so does the inductive reactance. This implies that the current
through the inductance and the flux in the machine remains constant. The speed torque characteristics at any
frequency may be estimated as before. There is one curve for every excitation frequency considered
corresponding to every value of synchronous speed. The curves are shown below. It may be seen that the
maximum torque remains constant.

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