PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

MODULE 7A
Sub Module 7.18

DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND ASSEMBLY

TECHNIQUES

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

Contents
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………1
TYPES OF DEFECTS…………………………………………1
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES……………………..9
CORROSION REMOVAL, ASSESSMENT AND
REPROTECTION…………………………………………….13
GENERAL REPAIR METHODS…………………………….16
STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUAL (SRM)………………....20
INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR AGEING FLEET
STRUCTURES PROGRAMMES…………………………...30
CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMES……………….…31
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING/INSPECTION (NDT/NDI)
TECHNIQUES………………………………………….……..38
PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD)……………….…44
MAGNETIC FLAW DETECTION……………………….…..45
EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION………………….…47
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION…………………..…….49
RADIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION……………………..……52
BOROSCOPE INSPECTION……………………………….…….58
DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES…...64
FAULT DIAGNOSIS – TROUBLE SHOOTING…...…...….71

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DEFECTS
Preventative maintenance is concerned with the early detection
of defects (using whatever inspection techniques are specified An operational aircraft can suffer from many defects and these
by the aircraft or component manufacturers) and the repair or can be defined as any event or occurrence, which reduces the
modification of the defective parts. serviceability of the aircraft below 100%.

The inspection techniques may call for the disassembly of The manufacturer should specify the inspection areas and the
components (before or after cleaning) so that more detailed faults, which are expected to be found. In most instances the
inspections can be done. inspector is looking for indications of abnormality in the item
being inspected. Typical examples are:
Assessment, of the effect of the defect on the continued
integrity of the part, will also be required and, following the Metal Parts: as applicable to all metal parts, bodies or casings
repair, modification or rejection of the part, re-assembly of units in systems and in electrical, instrument and radio
techniques will be used to restore the aircraft to the appropriate installations, metal pipes, ducting, tubes, rods and levers. These
level of serviceability. would be inspected for:
 Cleanliness and external evidence of damage
Troubleshooting techniques are used in the process of  Leaks and discharge
identifying the cause of a fault, eliminating the fault and  Overheating
returning the aircraft to service.  Fluid ingress
 Obstruction of drainage or vent holes or overflow pipe
orifices
 Correct seating of panels and fairings and serviceability
of fasteners
 Distortion, dents, scores, and chafing
 Pulled or missing fasteners, rivets, bolts or screws
 Evidence of cracks or wear
 Separation of adhesive bonding
 Failures of welds or spot welds
 Deterioration of protective treatment and corrosion
 Security of attachments, fasteners, connections, locking
and bonding.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
 Cleanliness, obvious damage
 Rubber, Fabric, Glass Fibre and Plastic Parts: such as  Evidence of overheating
coverings, ducting, flexible mountings, seals, insulation  Corrosion and security of attachments and
of electrical cables, windows. These parts would, connections
typically, be inspected for:  Cleanliness, scoring and worn brushes,
adequate spring tension after removal of
 Cleanliness protective covers
 Cracks, cuts, chafing, kinking, twisting,  Overheating and fluid ingress
crushing, contraction – sufficient free length  Cleanliness, burning and pitting of contacts
 Deterioration, crazing, loss of flexibility  Evidence of overheating and security of
 Overheating contacts after removal of protective covers
 Fluid soakage
 Security of attachment, correct connections External Damage
and locking.
Damage to the outside of the airframe can occur by interference
 Control System Components: cables, chains, pulleys, between moving parts such as flying controls and flaps,
rods and tubes would be inspected for: although this is quite rare. The most common reasons for
airframe damage is by being struck by ground equipment or
 Correct alignment – no fouling severe hail in flight.
 Free movement, distortion, evidence of
bowing During ground servicing many vehicles need to be manoeuvred
 Scores, chafing, fraying, kinking close to the airframe and some have to be in light contact with it
 Evidence of wear, flattening to work properly. Contact with the airframe by any of these
 Cracks, loose rivets, deterioration of vehicles can cause dents or puncturing of the pressure hull,
protective treatment and corrosion resulting in a time-consuming repair.
 Electrical bonding correctly positioned,
undamaged and secure Inlets and Exhausts
 Attachments, end connections and locking
Any inlet or exhaust can be a potential nest site for wildlife. The
secure.
damage done by these birds, rodents and insects can be very
 Electrical Components: actuators, alternators and
expensive to rectify. Other items that have been known to block
generators, motors, relays, solenoids and contactors.
access holes include branches, leaves and polythene bags.
Such items would be inspected for:

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
A careful check of all inlets and exhausts, during inspections, Some hydraulic oils, especially the phosphate ester based
must be made, to ensure that there is nothing blocking them. A fluids, are very toxic and require personnel protection when
blocked duct can result in the overheating of equipment, or working on and replenishing their systems. Some oils used are
major damage to the internal working parts of the engine. slightly toxic so care must be taken if there is a large leak.

Liquid Systems Potable water tanks are often permanently pressurised, so that
a leak that starts somewhere between the tank and the services
Liquid systems usually have gauges to ascertain the quantity in will continue, even if the aircraft is not flying. Once the pressure
that particular system. A physical quantity check is often done in is removed, the leak can be investigated, cured and the tank re-
addition to using the gauges, as the gauges are not always filled.
reliable.
The physical signs of water inside the aircraft or dripping from
These systems usually include oil tanks for the engine, APU the hull should be the signs of a leak that requires investigation.
and Integrated Drive Generators (IDG), and also the hydraulics, The unpredictable passenger consumption of water means that
fuel and potable water tanks. the tank level is no indication of a leak in the system.

The cause of a lower-than-expected level should be Windscreen de-icers are usually in the form of a pressurised
immediately investigated, bearing in mind, that some systems container, which supplies fluid on demand to the spray nozzles.
consume specific amounts of fluids during normal operation. If the fluid leaks onto the flight deck it will give off a distinctive
The consumption rate must be calculated before instigating any odour in the enclosed space. As the containers are replaced
trouble-shooting. A low hydraulic system should not be when low, it is more likely that the pipe work will be the likely
replenished without first investigating the cause of the leak. cause of the leak.

External leaks of oil and fuel systems are normally easy to

locate. The rectification of an external leak is usually achieved Gaseous Systems
by simply replacing the component, seal or pipe work at fault,
and completing any tests required by the AMM. These include gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and air. If the
gas is to be used from a system during flight, a leak will be very
If the leak is internal, then a much more thorough inspection of hard to confirm unless a physical check is carried out using a
the component must be made, as the problem is more difficult leak detector such as ‘Snoop’ or ‘Sherlock’.
to find. The symptoms are usually signalled by a slower
movement of the services or by the erratic operation of services,
due to the return line being pressurised.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

A leak from an oxygen system is extremely dangerous, due to Dimensions

the chances of an explosion, if it comes into contact with oil or
grease. Once the leak has been cured, the system can be re- There are a number of places where checking the measurement
charged and leak tested. of a component can establish its serviceability. Landing gear
oleo shock struts can be checked for correct inflation, by
Nitrogen, used in hydraulic accumulators, can leak into the measuring their extension. If the dimension is less than quoted
liquid part of the hydraulic system. This will make the hydraulic in the manual, then it may be low on pressure and further
system feel spongy and reduce the response of the operating checks will be required. These checks are usually only done
actuators. during line maintenance, with checking of the pressure being
required for trouble shooting or hangar maintenance.
If the gas leaks into the atmosphere, the system will not function
correctly and the efficiency of the system may be reduced. The Combined hydraulic and spring dampers, fitted to some landing
main cause of accumulators leaking externally is due to faulty gears, often have one or more engraved lines on the sliding
seals or gauges. portion of the unit. This can indicate whether the hydraulic pre-
charge is correct or requires replenishment.
Accumulators assist the hydraulic system as an emergency
backup, which only works correctly if it is charged to the correct Tyres
pressure.
Tyres have their serviceability indicated by the depth of the
Pneumatic systems contain high-pressure air of a stated groove in the tyre tread. The AMM gives information of what
pressure, and should have the same pressure at the end of the constitutes a worn or damaged tyre.
flight as at the start. If the pressure is low at the end of the flight,
then the compressor could be suspected. Apart from normal wear, other defects, that can affect a tyre, are
cuts, blisters, creep and low pressure.
If the pressure falls between flights, it is probably due to a slow
leak in the storage system, and this can be investigated using Most tyres can be re-treaded a number of times after they have
leak-detecting fluids. reached their wear limits, but the re-tread can only be
completed if the complete tyre has not been damaged badly.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

Creep is the movement of a cover around the rim, in very small Wheels
movements, due to heavy braking action. This movement is
dangerous if the tyre is fitted with a tube, as the movement can Defects to aircraft wheels are usually due to impact damage
tear the charging valve out of the tube, causing a rapid loss of from heavy landings or from items on the runway hitting the
pressure. wheel rim. Other problems can arise from corrosion starting as
a result of the impact damage and the shearing of wheel bolts,
To provide an indicator, small white marks are painted across which hold the two halves of a split wheel together. Wheels are
the wheel rim and the tyre side wall cover so, if creep takes usually inspected thoroughly during tyre replacement and it is
place, the marks will split in half and indicate clearly that the tyre very unusual for serious defects to be found during normal
cover has moved in relation to the wheel rim. inspections of a wheel.

The installation of tubeless covers has reduced the problem of Brakes

creep, as the valve is permanently fitted to the wheel. It is still
possible for tyres to creep a small amount, but the air remains in Brake units are normally attached onto the axle of an
the tyre as the seal remains secure. undercarriage leg, and located inside the well of the main
wheels. During braking operation, they absorb large amounts of
Tyre-inflation devices usually consist of high-pressure bottles energy as heat. This results in the brake rotors and stators
fitted with a pressure-reducing valve or a simple air compressor. wearing away and, if they become too hot, the stator material
The pressure a tyre should be inflated to depends on various may break up.
factors such as the weight of the aircraft.
Inspection of brake units between flights is essential, to check
The correct pressure for a specific aircraft is given in the for signs of excessive heating and to ensure that they have not
relevant AMM for the aircraft in question. It is possible for a tyre worn beyond their limits.
to lose a small amount of pressure overnight. A pressure drop
of less than 10% of the recommended pressure is not unusual, Wear results in the total thickness of the brake pack being
but the exact figures are given in the AMM. reduced, which means that by measuring either the thickness of
the pack, the amount of wear can be monitored. Once the
If a tyre is completely deflated with the weight of the aircraft on amount of wear reaches a set figure, the brake pack will be
it, or is one of a pair on a single landing gear leg, which has run overhauled.
without pressure, all the tyres concerned must be replaced due
to the possible, unseen damage within the cover. Again, the
AMM will dictate the conditions.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

If the pads are breaking up there will be signs of debris,

excessive amounts of powder and, in extreme cases, scoring of
the discs. This will require immediate replacement of the
complete brake unit.

A rejected take-off at maximum weight will produce the Gas Bottle and Pressure
maximum possible amount of heat and wear. It is usual to Relief Valve
replace all brake units and main wheels after this has
happened, but again the AMM will give the required information
on what must be changed and when.

Landing Gear Locks Retaining Ring

These items are normally fitted to the aircraft’s undercarriage as

a safety device to prevent them inadvertently collapsing. They
are usually fitted when the aircraft is to stay on the ground for
some time, and removed before the next flight. The most likely
defects will be damage to the locking pin ball bearing device or
the loss of the high visibility warning flags. These flags will,
hopefully, attract attention to themselves to ensure that they are Frangible Disc
not left in position when the aircraft next goes flying.

Indicators

The most common type of indicator is the ‘blow-out’ disc used in Gas Bottle Bursting Disc
fire extinguishing and oxygen systems. This shows that a high-
pressure gas bottle has discharged its contents overboard, Fig. 1
blowing the disc from its flush housing in the aircraft’s skin.

The reason for the ruptured disc (refer Fig. 1) could be due to a
fire extinguisher having been operated or the extinguishant
having been discharged due to an excessive pressure being
reached.
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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
External Probes
Most fasteners have a ‘positive’ form of closing or locking, whilst
There are several different types of probe, projecting into the the more important installations use an indication system (such
airflow, to send information to the flight deck. These can include as painted lines and flush fitting catches) to ensure correct
the pitot/static probes and the angle-of attack (AOA) probes. closure. These must be regularly checked and, when found
worn; they should be repaired or replaced. Losing a panel in
To prevent these from freezing they have electrical heating flight is dangerous enough, but may be more so if it is drawn
elements built into them and, occasionally, they can become into one of the engines, and causes its destruction.
overheated. Usually this is when they are left switched ‘on’ on
the ground with a faulty weigh-on-wheels (WOW) switch. Panels and Doors

This switch is designed to reduce or remove power to the These items can be of any size and can be faulty for several
probes when on the ground, and to increase or restore it in reasons. They can be damaged by excessive use and their
flight. On smaller aircraft there is no WOW switch and it is up to frames can become damaged where items have to be passed
the pilot to turn them off after landing. If the elements overheat through them (such as with baggage hold doors).
they can burn out and the probes will show this by discoloration.
If the latches are poorly designed or badly adjusted, they may
Probes are designed to project out from the aircraft skin, and have been operated with incorrect tools during service and may
this makes them vulnerable to physical damage. Probes need to have been damaged.
be regularly inspected for signs of physical damage or
discoloration.

Handles and Latches

Handles and latches usually wear through constant use. The

handles and latches of cargo bays and baggage holds, which
are operated every time the aircraft lands, are particularly prone
to wear. Technicians have to be aware that all panel fasteners
will wear slowly and these panels must be secured in flight.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
Emergency System Indication
Light Bulbs
Some systems use protective covers, to prevent inadvertent
operation of a switch. These covers are usually held closed by These have to be checked regularly, to ensure they remain
some form of frangible device that will indicate the system has serviceable at all times. Most bulbs with important functions like
been operated when it is broken. Thin copper wire is, fire warning lights and undercarriage indication will be
sometimes, used to hold the protective cover closed on fire duplicated. This can be achieved either by using two separate
extinguisher switches. A broken wire will indicate that the cover bulbs or by a single, twin-filament type. The bulb covers can
has been lifted and the system may have been operated. Any also be damaged, leading to broken glass or plastic on the flight
indication like this must be thoroughly investigated. deck, with its subsequent foreign object damage (FOD) hazard.

Lifed Items Permitted Defects

There are a number of items on the aircraft that have a specific All aircraft have a list of permitted defects that do not have to be
length of time in service (known as a ‘life’). They would be major immediately corrected. These defects can be left outstanding by
airframe and engine components with finite fatigue lives. The the operator until a more convenient time can be found to rectify
company technical department monitors these and they will be them.
replaced during major servicing.

The components which can become unserviceable due to life

expiry may include, engine fire bottles, cabin fire extinguishers,
first aid kits, portable oxygen bottles and emergency oxygen
generators.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
VISUAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

Often the first stage in the examination of a component is visual

inspection. Examination by naked eye will only reveal relatively
large defects, which break the surface, but the effectiveness of
visual inspection for external surfaces can be improved
considerably through use of a hand lens or stereoscopic
microscope. Generally, high magnifications are not necessary
for this type of inspection. Optical inspection probes, both rigid
and flexible, which can be inserted into cavities, ducts and
pipes, have been developed for the inspection of internal
surfaces. An optical inspection probe comprises an objective
lens system at the working end and a viewing eyepiece at the
other end, with a fibre optic coherent image guide linking the
two.

Illuminating light is conveyed to the working end of the probe

through an (Figure A) optical fiber light guide, and both the
optical and illumination systems are contained within either a
stainless-steel tube, for rigid probes, or a flexible plastic or
braided metal sheathing in the case of flexible probes.
Inspection probes are made in many sizes with, for rigid probes,
diameters ranging from about 2 mm up to about 20 mm. The
minimum diameter for flexible probes is about 4 mm. Probe
lengths may vary considerably also, and the maximum working
length for a 2-mm probe is about 150 mm. The maximum
permissible working length increases as probe diameter
increases and may be up to 5 m for a 20-mm diameter probe.
Inspection probes can be designed to give either direct viewing
ahead of the probe end, or to give a view at some angle to the
line of the probe. It is possible to mount a miniature TV camera Figure A
in place of the normal eyepiece lens system and display an
image on a monitor screen.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

Locations of corrosion in aircraft

Special attention should be given, particularly in a corrosive
Certain locations in aircraft are more prone to corrosion than environment, to obstructions and crevices in the path of cooling
others. The rate of deterioration varies widely with aircraft air. These must be treated, as soon as is practical.
design, build, operational use and environment. External
surfaces are open to inspection and are usually protected by Landing Gear
paint. Magnesium and aluminium alloy surfaces are particularly
susceptible to corrosion along rivet lines, lap joints, fasteners, Landing gear bays are exposed to flying debris, such as water
faying surfaces and where protective coatings have been and gravel, and require frequent cleaning and touching-up.
damaged or neglected. Careful inspection should be made of crevices, ribs and lower-
skin surfaces, where debris can lodge. Landing gear assemblies
Exhaust Areas should be examined, paying particular attention to magnesium
alloy wheels, paint-work, bearings, exposed switches and
Fairings, located in the path of the exhaust gases of gas turbine electrical equipment.
and piston engines, are subject to highly corrosive influences.
This is particularly so where exhaust deposits may be trapped in Frequent cleaning, water-dispersing treatment and re-lubrication
fissures, crevices, seams or hinges. Such deposits are difficult will be required, whilst ensuring that bearings are not
to remove by ordinary cleaning methods. contaminated, either with the cleaning water or with the water-
dispersing fluids, used when re-lubricating.
During maintenance, the fairings in critical areas should be
removed for cleaning and examination. All fairings, in other
exhaust areas, should also be thoroughly cleaned and
inspected. In some situations, a chemical barrier can be applied
to critical areas, to facilitate easier removal of deposits at a later
date, and to reduce the corrosive effects of these deposits.

Engine Intakes and Cooling Air Vents

The protective finish, on engine frontal areas, is abraded by

dust and eroded by rain. Heat-exchanger cores and cooling fins
may also be vulnerable to corrosion.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
Bilge and Water Entrapment Areas
Magnesium Alloy Skins
Although specifications call for drains wherever water is likely to
collect, these drains can become blocked by debris, such as These, give little trouble, providing the protective surface
sealant or grease. Inspection of these drains must be frequent. finishes are undamaged and well maintained. Following
Any areas beneath galleys and toilet/wash-rooms must be very maintenance work, such as riveting and drilling, it is impossible
carefully inspected for corrosion, as these are usually the worst to completely protect the skin to the original specification. All
places in the whole airframe for severe corrosion. The magnesium alloy skin areas must be thoroughly and regularly
protection in these areas must also be carefully inspected and inspected, with special emphasis on edge locations, fasteners
renewed if necessary. and paint finishes.

Recesses in Flaps and Hinges Aluminium Alloy Skins

Potential corrosion areas are found at flap and speed brake The most vulnerable skins are those which have been integrally
recesses, where water and dirt may collect and go unnoticed, machined, usually in main-plane structures. Due to the alloys
because the moveable parts are normally in the ‘closed’ and to the manufacturing processes used, they can be
position. If these items are left ‘open’, when the aircraft is susceptible to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion.
parked, they may collect salt, from the atmosphere, or debris,
which may be blowing about on the airfield. Thorough Small bumps or raised areas under the paint sometimes
inspection of the components and their associated stowage indicate exfoliation of the actual metal. Treatment requires
bays, is required at regular intervals. removal of all exfoliated metal followed by blending and
restoration of the finish.
The hinges, in these areas, are also vulnerable to dissimilar
metal corrosion, between the steel pins and the aluminium
tangs. Seizure can also occur, at the hinges of access doors
and panels that are seldom used.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

Spot-Welded Skins and Sandwich Constructions Control Cables

Corrosive agents may become trapped between the metal Loss of protective coatings, on carbon steel control cables can,
layers of spot-welded skins and moisture, entering the seams, over a period of time, lead to mechanical problems and system
may set up electrolytic corrosion that eventually corrodes the failure. Corrosion-resistant cables can also be affected by
spot-welds, or causes the skin to bulge. Generally, spot-welding corrosive, marine environments.
is not considered good practice on aircraft structures.
Any corrosion found on the outside of a control cable should
Cavities, gaps, punctures or damaged places in honeycomb result in a thorough inspection of the internal strands and, if any
sandwich panels should be sealed to exclude water or dirt. damage is found, the cable should be rejected.
Water should not be permitted to accumulate in the structure
adjacent to sandwich panels. Inspection of honeycomb Cables should be carefully inspected, in the vicinity of bell-
sandwich panels and box structures is difficult and generally cranks, sheaves and in other places where the cables flex as
requires that the structure be dismantled. there is more chance of corrosion getting inside the cables
when the strands are moving around (or being moved by) these
Electrical Equipment items.

Sealing, venting and protective paint cannot wholly obviate the

corrosion in battery compartments. Spray, from electrolyte,
spreads to adjacent cavities and causes rapid attack on
unprotected surfaces. Inspection should also be extended to all
vent systems associated with battery bays.

Circuit-breakers, contacts and switches are extremely sensitive

to the effects of corrosion and need close inspection.

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Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

CORROSION REMOVAL, ASSESSMENT AND General treatments for corrosion removal include:
REPROTECTION
 Cleaning and stripping of the protective coating in the
Due to the high cost of modern aircraft, operators are expecting corroded area
them to last much longer than perhaps even the manufacturer  Removal of as much of the corrosion products as
anticipated. As a result, the manufacturers have taken more possible
care in the design of the aircraft, to improve the corrosion-  Neutralisation of the remaining residue
resistance of aircraft. This improvement includes the use of new  Checking if damage is within limits
materials and improved surface treatments and protective  Restoration of protective surface films
finishes. The use of preventative maintenance has also been  Application of temporary or permanent coatings or paint
emphasised more than previously. finishes.
Preventative maintenance, relative to corrosion control, should Cleaning and Paint Removal
include the:
It is essential that the complete suspect area be cleaned of all
 Adequate and regular cleaning of the aircraft grease, dirt or preservatives. This will aid in determining the
 Periodic lubrication (often after the cleaning) of moving extent of corrosive spread. The selection of cleaning materials
parts will depend on the type of matter to be removed.
 Regular and detailed inspection for corrosion and failure
of protective treatments Solvents such as trichloroethane (trade name ‘Genklene’) may
 Prompt treatment of corrosion and touch-up of damaged be used for oil, grease or soft compounds, while heavy-duty
paint removal of thick or dried compounds may need
 Keeping of drain holes clear solvent/emulsion-type cleaners.
 Draining of fuel cell sumps
 Daily wiping down of most critical areas General-purpose, water-removable stripper is recommended for
 Sealing of aircraft during foul weather and ventilation on most paint stripping. Adequate ventilation should be provided
sunny days and synthetic rubber surfaces such as tyres, fabrics and acrylics
 Use of protective covers and blanks. should be protected (remover will also soften sealants).
Rubber gloves, acid-repellent aprons and goggles, should be
worn by personnel involved with paint removal operations. The
following represents a typical paint stripping procedure:

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 Brush the area with stripper, to a depth of approximately Abrasive papers, power buffers, steel wool and wire brushes
0.8 mm – 1.6 mm (0.03 in – 0.06 in). Ensure that the are all acceptable methods of removing rust on lightly stressed
brush is only used for paint stripping areas. Residual rust usually remains in pits and crevices. Some
 Allow the stripper to remain on the surface long enough (dilute) phosphoric acid solutions may be used to neutralise
for the paint to wrinkle. This may take from 10 minutes to oxidation and to convert active rust to phosphates, but they are
several hours not particularly effective on installed components.
 Re-apply the stripper to those areas which have not
stripped. Non-metallic scrapers may be used to assist the Corrosion on high-stressed steel components may be
stripping action dangerous and should be removed carefully with mild abrasive
 Remove the loosened paint and residual stripper by papers or fine buffing compounds. Care should be taken not to
washing and scrubbing the surface with water and a overheat parts during corrosion removal. Protective finishes
broom or brush. Water spray may assist, or the use of should be re-applied immediately.
steam cleaning equipment may be necessary.
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
Note: Strippers can damage composite resins and plastics, so
every effort should be made to 'mask' these vulnerable areas. Corrosion attack, on aluminium surfaces, gives obvious
indications, since the products are white and voluminous. Even
Ferrous Metals in its early stages, aluminium corrosion is evident as general
etching, pitting or roughness.
Atmospheric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous
oxide (rust) to be deposited. Some metal oxides protect the Aluminium alloys form a smooth surface oxidation, which
underlying base metal, but rust promotes additional attack by provides a hard shell, that, in turn, may form a barrier to
attracting moisture and must be removed. corrosive elements. This must not be confused with the more
serious forms of corrosion.
Rust shows on bolt heads, nuts or any unprotected hardware.
Its presence is not immediately dangerous, but it will indicate a General surface attack penetrates slowly, but is speeded up in
need for maintenance and will suggest possible further the presence of dissolved salts. Considerable attack can take
corrosive attack on more critical areas. The most practical place before serious loss of strength occurs. Three forms of
means of controlling the corrosion of steel is the complete attack, which are particularly serious, are:
removal of corrosion products by mechanical means.

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 Penetrating pit-type corrosion through the walls of tubing Corrosion-free areas must be masked off and the appropriate
 Stress corrosion cracking under sustained stress remover (usually a phosphoric acid-based fluid) applied,
 Intergranular attack, characteristic of certain improperly normally with the use of a stiff (nylon) bristled brush, to the
heat-treated alloys. corroded surface, until all corrosion products have been
removed. Copious amounts of clean water should, next, be
Treatment involves mechanical or chemical removal of as much used to flood the area and remove all traces of the acid, then
of the corrosion products as possible and the inhibition of the surface should be dried thoroughly.
residual materials by chemical means.
Note: A method of checking that the protective aluminium
This, again, should be followed by restoration of permanent coating remains intact is by the application of one drop of
surface coatings. diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. If the alclad has been
removed, the aluminium alloy core will show as a black stain,
Alclad whereas, if the cladding is intact, the caustic soda will cause a
white stain.
WARNING: USE ONLY APPROVED PAINT STRIPPERS IN
THE VICINITY OF REDUX BONDED JOINTS. CERTAIN The acid must be neutralised and the area thoroughly washed
PAINT STRIPPERS WILL ATTACK AND DEGRADE RESINS. and dried before a protective coating (usually Alocrom 1200 or
USE ADEQUATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT similar) is applied to the surface.
WHEN WORKING WITH CHEMICALS. USE ONLY THE
APPROVED FLUIDS FOR REMOVING CORROSION Further surface protection may be given by a coat of suitable
PRODUCTS. INCORRECT COMPOUNDS WILL CAUSE primer, followed by the approved top coat of paint.
SERIOUS DAMAGE TO METALS. Magnesium Alloys

Obviously great care must be taken, not to remove too much of The corrosion products are removed from magnesium alloys by
the protective aluminium layer by mechanical methods, as the the use of chromic/sulphuric acid solutions (not the phosphoric
core alloy metal may be exposed, therefore, where heavy acid types), brushed well into the affected areas. Clean, cold
corrosion is found, on clad aluminium alloys, it must be removed water is employed to flush the solution away and the dried area
by chemical methods wherever possible. can, again, be protected, by the use of Alocrom 1200 or a
similar, approved, compound.

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GENERAL REPAIR METHODS

The definitions of the different types of repairs that have
There are two classifications of repairs in this SRM: not been evaluated and analyzed for damage tolerance are
as follows:
(1) Repairs that have been evaluated and analyzed for damage
tolerance capability and are classified as Category A, B, or C (1) Permanent Repair: A repair where no action is necessary,
repairs. except the operator’s normal maintenance.

(2) Repairs that have not been evaluated and analyzed for (2) Interim Repair: A repair that has the necessary structural
damage tolerance capability and are classified as Permanent, strength and could stay on the airplane indefinitely. The repair
Interim or Time-Limited Repairs. must be inspected at specified intervals and replaced if
NOTE: If a repair is not identified as an interim or time-limited deterioration is detected or damage is found.
repair, it is a permanent repair.
(3) Time-Limited Repair: A repair that has the necessary
The definitions of the different categories of damage structural strength but does not have sufficient durability. This
tolerant repairs are as follows: repair must be replaced after a specified time, usually given as
a number of flight cycles, flight hours or a calendar time.
(1) Category A Repair: A permanent repair for which the
inspections given in the Baseline Zonal Inspection (BZI) are The definitions of the terms as they apply to the repairs are
sufficient and no other actions are necessary. as follows:

(2) Category B Repair: A permanent repair for which (1) Baseline Zonal Inspection (BZI): A set of typical
supplemental inspections are necessary at the specified maintenance inspection intervals that are assumed to be
threshold and repeat intervals. performed by most operators, and defined in the Repair
Assessment Guidelines document. BZI was the basis for the
(3) Category C Repair: A time-limited repair which must be creation of a list of structural areas or types of repairs that would
replaced or reworked within a specified time limit. Also, not require supplemental inspection. The type of inspection
supplemental inspections can be necessary at a specified associated with the BZI is:
threshold and repeat interval.
General Visual Inspection of all visible structure in the area of
being inspected.

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Some SRM repairs were chosen to be Category A or B For Category B repairs, the threshold starts from the time the
comparing their inspection requirements with the baseline zonal repair was installed if the repair fasteners in the critical rows
inspection intervals for the areas repaired. If the BZI interval have been installed in new fastener holes or existing fastener
was adequate to maintain damage tolerance, the repair was holes that have been zero-timed. If the repair fasteners are
labeled Category A. If not, the repair was labeled Category B. installed in existing fastener holes that have not been zero-
Operators must be aware that if their current inspection intervals timed, the inspection threshold will start from the time the
exceed the BZI intervals, the repair categories may not apply. airplane was delivered.

See the Repair Assessment (7) Time-Limit: The maximum period in flight cycles, flight hours
Guidelines document (D6-38669) for complete information. or calendar time that is permitted until it is necessary to replace
(2) Damage Tolerance: The ability of structure to sustain or rework a time-limited repair.
anticipated loads in the presence of damage, such as fatigue
cracks until it is detected through inspection or malfunction, and (8) Zero-Timing: The process used to improve the repair
repaired. durability in order to make the inspection threshold start from
the time the repair is installed. This involves the removal of
(3) Damage Tolerant Repair: A repair that meets the necessary small cracks and fatigue damaged material by over sizing the
damage tolerance conditions. existing fastener holes before the repair is installed as given in
GENERAL. Zero-timing must only be used where specifically
(4) Repeat Intervals: The period in flight cycles, flight hours or permitted in an SRM chapter-section-repair. Also, zero-timing
calendar time that occurs between the necessary inspections. must not cause short edge margin and fastener spacing, and
knife-edging on the repair fasteners.
(5) Supplemental Inspections: Special inspections of the
repaired structure that are done in addition to an operator’s (9) Critical Fastener Row: Fastener row to be inspected to meet
normal maintenance inspections. damage tolerance requirements.

(6) Threshold: The period in flight cycles, flight hours or

calendar time from the time an airplane is delivered or a repair
is made until the first supplemental inspection is necessary.

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Damage Tolerance Assessment of Repaired Structure
(2) Detailed Inspection (DET): An intensive examination of a
(1) The damage tolerance assessment of a repair is done to specific item, installation or assembly to detect damage, failure
determine the effect that the repair has on the damage or irregularity. Available lighting is normally supplemented with
tolerance capability, and inspect ability, of the initial structure. direct source of good lighting at an intensity deemed
This assessment is also used to identify the inspections that are appropriate by the inspector. Inspection aids such as mirrors,
necessary to keep the repaired structure in an airworthy magnifying lenses, etc., may be used. Surface cleaning and
condition. The SRM will provide the inspection requirements for elaborate access procedures may be required.
fuselage pressure boundary repairs that are published in the
SRM. However, fuselage pressure-boundary repairs developed (3) Special Detailed (Non-Destructive Testing) Inspection (SDI):
by the operators will need to be assessed using the Repair An intensive examination of specific item(s), installation, or an
Assessment Guidelines document. Damage tolerance assembly to detect damage, failure or irregularity.
assessment of the repaired structure can be completed after an
airplane is returned to service.
The examination is likely to make extensive use of specialized
Types of inspections that are used to detect damage in inspection techniques and/or equipment. Intricate cleaning and
structure are as follows: substantial access or disassembly procedure may be required.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) inspections are used to examine
(1) General Visual (Surveillance) Inspection (GVI): A visual all subsurface damage and most small cracks. NDT is also used
examination of an interior or exterior area, installation or in areas where a visual inspection is not sufficient to find the
assembly to detect obvious damage, failure or dimensions of damage. NDT procedures recommended for use
irregularity. This level of inspection is made from within in the SRM are as follows:
touching distance unless otherwise specified. A mirror
may be necessary to enhance visual access to all (a) Eddy Current: An NDT procedure that uses eddy
exposed surfaces in the inspection area. This level of currents to find damage in metals that have good
inspection is made under normally available lighting conductivity properties. The Eddy Current inspection is
conditions such as daylight, hangar lighting, flashlight or the preferred NDT procedure used to find most damage
drop-light and may require removal or opening of on metal parts.
access panels or doors. Stands, ladders or platforms
may be required to gain proximity to the area being
checked.

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1) The three types of Eddy Current inspections used in the SRM (e) Magnetic Particle: An NDT procedure that applies a
are as follows: magnetic field to a ferro-magnetic part that has fine magnetic
particles on the surface. The magnetic field causes the
i) High Frequency Eddy Current (HFEC) Inspection: Used magnetic particles to group together in areas that have cracks
to find surface cracks, porosity, and corrosion. on or near the surface.

ii) Medium Frequency Eddy Current (MFEC): Used to find (f) Penetrant: Penetrant examination uses the property of a
subsurface cracks in the first layer that start and grow along the liquid to go into a defect that is open at the surface of the part.
faying surface. It also will detect surface cracks. The liquid is applied to the surface and permitted to soak in.
A developer is applied to pull the liquid out of the defect so it
iii) Low Frequency Eddy Current (LFEC) Inspection: Used can be seen. Visible penetrant are examined under white light.
to find subsurface cracks and corrosion. Fluorescent penetrant are examined under ultraviolet light.

(b) Ultrasonic: An NDT procedure that uses sound waves to find

surface and subsurface damage; for example, cracks, porosity,
delamination, or dis-bonds, on metal and composite materials
that have good permeability properties.

(c) Resonance Frequency: A tap test NDT procedure that can

be used to find delamination sand interplay dis-bonds in
composite, honeycomb or bonded structures that have thin skin.

(d) X-Ray: An NDT procedure that uses radiography to find

cracks and damage; for example, dis-bonds, in metallic and
composite structures which cannot be accessed for visual
inspection. X-Rays can identify if fluids are inside honeycomb
parts and can be used to identify the dimensions of the damage.
Refer to NDT Part 2, for the X-Ray inspection procedures.

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STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUAL (SRM) C. Consider the following when typical repairs are not
found:
INTRODUCTION
(1) Accomplishing a repair in accordance with the
general repair practices and procedures provided in
1. General Chapter 51 of this manual,
(2) Preparing a specific repair design for the damage not
A. This manual has been prepared in accordance with
Air Transport Association Specification Number covered,
100 to include description information and specific
instructions and data relative to the field repair of (3) Replacing the damaged part.
the structure of the Boeing 737-300 airplane. It contains
structure material identification, allowable D. As service experience indicates a requirement, this
structural damage criteria, and repair designs applicable to manual will be revised to include additional
structural components of the airplane approved repairs which have been designed by The Boeing
that are most likely to be damaged. In addition, it contains Company or by any 737-300 airplane
information pertinent to airplane operator.
familiarization and to general repair practices and materials.
Procedures (such as those for
performing an airplane symmetry check or for supporting the E. It is intended that, in the event of major
airplane in the jigged position) which damage, the information included in this manual be
may be performed concurrently with structural repair are supplemented as required by direct liaison with the
also provided. All data contained in this assigned Boeing Customer Support Representative.
manual which affects the structural integrity of the airplane To use the Structural Repair Manual for ordering
have been approved by the FAA. structural spare parts,

B. Where repairs are not included, it does not follow F. For 737-100 and 737-200 airplanes see the 737
that the structure concerned is not repairable. Structural Repair Manual, D6-15565.
Either it has not been found practicable to design a typical
repair, or service experience has not yet G. For 737-400 airplanes see the 737-400 Structural
indicated a requirement. In some instances, an adequate Repair Manual, D6-38246.
repair design will require evaluation by
The Boeing Company. H. For 737-500 airplanes see the 737-500 Structural Repair
Manual, D6-38441.

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2. Manual Arrangement and Number System In Chapter 51, section numbers contain groups of procedure
information. Most of the subject numbers identify the skin,
A. General stringers, or other basic structural elements. In Chapter 51,
1- The standard number system for Structural Repair subject numbers contain the procedures specified by the
Manuals is given in the Air Transport section title.
Association of America - ATA Specification 100
"Manufacturers' Technical Data." 1- The example that follows shows a Chapter-Section-Subject
number:
2- This number system has three elements with two numbers
in each element. The first element identifies the chapter, the
second element identifies the section, and the third element B. Chapter Numbers
identifies the subject. Most of the chapter numbers identify
the fuselage, the wing, or other such large airplane 1- This manual is divided into chapters with the headings shown
structures. Chapter 51 contains repair information that is in Table 1.
applicable to all of the airplane structure. Most of the section
numbers identify a smaller section of the fuselage, wing, or
other large airplane structures.

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Table1: Chapters in the SRM

CHAPTER HEADING

Chapter 51 Structures-General

Chapter 52 Doors

Chapter 53 Fuselage

Chapter 54 Nacelles/Pylons

Chapter 55 Stabilizers

Chapter 56 Windows

Chapter 57 Wings

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C: Section Numbers

1- Chapter numbers above are sub-divided into section

numbers. In some instances, specific section number
allocations are made to cater for structural variations
between model differences.
2- Chapter 51 deals with those subjects which are general in
nature to the entire structure of the airplane. It is arranged to
allow maximum utilization of common data. The assigned
section numbers are as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Chapter/Section Nomenclature for Chapter 51

51-00 General

51-10 Investigation and Cleanup of Damage and Aerodynamic Smoothness

51-20 Processes and Procedures

51-30 Materials
51-40 Fasteners
51-50 Support of Airplane for Repair and Symmetry Check
51-60 Control Surface Balancing
51-70 Repairs

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NOTE: The fourth digit is used to make major separations of

data within the blocks of section number.
ATA NUMBER CHAPTER/SECTION NOMENCLATURE
3- Chapters 52 thru 57 deals with major airplane components. CHAPTER 53 - FUSELAGE
The section numbers are assigned for specific components with
the major grouping. The fourth digit is used for separating data
53-00 GENERAL
concerning significant model differences such as different
engine options. The assigned section numbers are as follows:
53-10 SECTION 41

Table 3: SRM ATA Breakdown 53-30 SECTION 43

53-60 SECTION 46
ATA NUMBER CHAPTER/SECTION NOMENCLATURE

53-80 SECTION 48
CHAPTER 52-DOORS

CHAPTER 54 - NACELLES/PYLONS
52-00 GENERAL

54-00 GENERAL
52-10 PASSENGER/CREW

54-10 INLET COWL

52-20 EMERGENCY EXIT

54-20 FAN COWL

52-30 CARGO

54-30 FAN DUCT COWL AND THRUST REVERSER

52-40 SERVICE

54-50 PYLON
52-50 FIXED INTERIOR

52-80 LANDING GEAR

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ATA NUMBER CHAPTER/SECTION NOMENCLATURE

ATA NUMBER CHAPTER/SECTION NOMENCLATURE

CHAPTER 57-WINGS
CHAPTER 55 - STABILIZERS

57-00 GENERAL
55-00 GENERAL

57-10 CENTER WING

55-10 HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
57-20 OUTER WING
55-20 ELEVATOR
57-30 WING TIP
55-30 VERTICAL STABILIZER
57-40 LEADING EDGE AND LEADING EDGE DEVICES
55-40 RUDDER
57-41 LEADING EDGE

CHAPTER 56 – WINDOWS 57-43 LEADING EDGE SLATS

56-00 GENERAL 57-50 TRAILING EDGE AND TRAILING EDGE DEVICES

56-10 FLIGHT DECK 57-51 TRAILING EDGE

56-20 CABIN 57-53 TRAILING EDGE SLATS

56-30 DOOR 57-60 AILERONS

SPOILERS
56-40 INSPECTION AND OBSERVATION 57-70

Table 3: SRM ATA Breakdown (Continued)

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D: Subjects Numbers

1- Subject numbers within the chapter/section

structure of Chapter 51 will be assigned
sequentially.

2- In Chapters 52 thru 57 a consistent numbering

system will be applied. The subject numbers
that have been assigned are shown below. Each
section will only use the subject numbers
applicable to the structural elements that are
described in the section. This will mean that the
subject numbers are not necessarily sequential, but
it is anticipated that regular manual users
will become familiar with the consistent number
system and will be able to turn directly to their
area of interest.

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Table 4: Subject Numbers Assignment - Chapters 52 Thru 57

SUBJECT NUMBERS ASSIGNMENT - CHAPTERS 52 THRU 57

5X-XX-00 GENERAL -30 AUXILIARY
-01 SKINS AND PLATES -31 THRU -49 NOT USED
-02 STRUCTURE COMPLETE
STRINGERS AND SKIN
-03 -50 FLOOR PANELS
STIFFENERS
-04 INTERCOSTALS -51 FLOOR STRUCTURE
-05 LONGERONS -52 SEAT TRACKS
CARGO COMPARTMENT SPECIAL
-06 FORMERS -53
STRUCTURE

-07 FRAMES
-08 BULKHEADS -54 THRU -69 NOT USED
-09 RIBS
FILLETS AND FAIRINGS, SKINS AND
-10 SPARS -70
PLATING
INTERMEDIATE, AUXILIARY
-11 -71 FILLETS AND FAIRINGS, STRUCTURE
AND SUBSPARS
-12 KEEL STRUCTURE -72 RADOMES AND ANTENNA FAIRINGS
-13 BEAMS
LANDING GEAR SUPPORT
-14 -73 THRU -89 NOT USED
STRUCTURE
DOOR SURROUND
-15
STRUCTURE
-90 ATTACHMENT FITTINGS
-16 EDGE MEMBERS

-17 THRU
NOT USED -91 THRU -99 NOT USED
-29

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E: Topics

1- In Chapter 51 the data included in a Chapter-Section-

Subject is divided into topics with figure numbers and page
numbers given in Table 5.

Table 5: Topic, Figure, and Page Numbers for Chapter 51

General Information Figures 1 thru 99 Page 1 thru 99

Repair General Figures 201 thru 999 Page 201 thru 999

Repair 1, 2, 3, ... Figures 201 thru 999 Page 201 thru 999

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2- In Chapters 52 through 57 the data included in a Chapter

Section-Subject is divided into topics with figure numbers and
page numbers given in Table 6

Table 6: Topic. Figure and Page Numbers for Chapters 52 thru 57

TOPIC FIGURE NUMBER PAGE NUMBER

General Information Figures 1 thru 99 Pages 1 thru 99

Identification General Figures 1 thru 99 Pages 1 thru 99
Identification 1, 2, 3 ... Figures 101 thru 199 Pages 101 thru 199
Allowable Damage General Figures 101 thru 199 Pages 101 thru 199
Allowable Damage 1, 2, 3, ... Figures 101 thru 199 Pages 101 thru 199
Repair General Figures 201 thru 299 Pages 201 thru 299
Repair 1, 2, 3, ... Pages 201 thru 299 Pages 201 thru 299

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INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR AGEING FLEET

STRUCTURES PROGRAMMES The Airworthiness Assurance Working Group (AAWG),

These standards were developed by an international working Which consists of aircraft manufacturers, operators and
group the members of which represent manufacturers, certifying agencies, oversees the development and
regulatory agencies and operators. The highest level of safety implementation of these five programmes:
possible depends on having a well-established inspection and
 Structural modification and inspection
maintenance plan for each aircraft type and the exchange of
 Structural maintenance programme guidelines
performance and maintenance information between the aircraft  Supplementary structural inspections
manufacturers, regulatory agencies and the operators.  Repair assessment
 Corrosion prevention and control
Data from inspections allows the incorporation of features at the
design stage of new aircraft which improves the cost-effective
maintenance of the structures and systems. This in turn allows
extended safe operation in less than ideal environments.

Aircraft manufacturers have been dismantling and testing older

aircraft since 1970 to help understand and analyse areas that
could adversely affect the future safety of aircraft.

Following the Ageing Fleet Conference in 1988, five ageing fleet

structures programmes were proposed for development.

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MATERIAL FATIGUE
The details of the last two stages are usually considered within

Material fatigue is a phenomenon where structures fail when the topic of fracture mechanics. The term fatigue applies

subjected to a cyclic load. This type of structural damage mainly to the first stage. There is, however, some overlap

occurs even when the experienced stress range is far below between the disciplines and the measured number of cycles to

the static material strength. Fatigue is the most common fatigue often includes the last two stages as well. Because the

source behind failures of mechanical structures. largest part of the component's life is spent before it is possible
to observe a macroscopic crack, most designs aim to avoid
The process until a component finally fails under repeated
ever encountering such damage.
loading can be divided into three stages:

1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops

on the microscopic level and grows until a macroscopic
crack is formed.
2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it
reaches a critical length.
3. The cracked component breaks because it can no
longer sustain the peak load.

For certain applications, the second stage cannot be observed.

A microscopic crack instead grows rapidly, causing sudden
failure of the component.
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Fatigue Variables

Under the influence of a non-constant external load, the state

in the material also varies with time. The state at a point in the
material can be described by many different variables such as
stress, strain, or energy dissipation. The fatigue process is
typically viewed as controlled by a specific such variable.
A load cycle is defined as the duration from one peak in the
studied variable to the next peak. In a general case, all cycles
do not have the same amplitude. For a superficial discussion,
it can, however, be assumed that the fatigue-controlling state
variable has the same value at the start and end of each load
cycle. In elastic materials, a cyclic load causes a periodic-
cyclic stress response. For such cases, the load cycle is easily
defined. This is illustrated by the figure below, where stress is
the fatigue-controlling state variable.

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The most important parameter for the fatigue damage is the

stress amplitude. For any detailed analysis, the mean stress,
however, must be taken into account as well. A tensile mean
stress increases the sensitivity to fatigue, whereas a
compressive mean stress allows for higher stress amplitudes.

The material response to a sequence of load cycles is highly

dependent on the nature of the external load, which can be
periodic, random, and even consist of repeatable blocks. For
the latter two cases, the description of the load cycle is not as
easy as in a pure periodic case; it requires special procedures.

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CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAMES Sprayed Metal Coatings

These are intended to remain intact throughout the life of the Most metal coatings can be applied by spraying, but only
component, as distinct from coatings, which may be renewed as aluminium and zinc are used on aircraft. Aluminium, sprayed on
a routine servicing operation. steel, is frequently used for high-temperature areas. The
process (aluminising), produces a film about 0.1 mm (0.004 in)
They give better adhesion for paint and most resist corrosive thick, which prevents oxidation of the underlying metal.
attack better than the metal to which they are applied.
Cladding
Electro-Plating
The hot rolling of pure aluminium onto aluminium alloy (Alclad)
There are two categories of electro-plating, which consist of: has already been discussed, as has the problem associated
with the cladding becoming damaged, exposing the core, and
 Coatings less noble than the basic metal. Here the the resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
coating is anodic and so, if base metal is exposed, the
coating will corrode in preference to the base metal.
Commonly called sacrificial protection, an example is
found in the cadmium (or zinc) plating of steel.
 Coatings more noble (e.g. nickel or chromium on steel)
than the base metal. The nobler metals do not corrode
easily in air or water and are resistant to acid attack. If,
however, the basic metal is exposed, it will corrode locally
through electrolytic action. The attack may result in pitting
corrosion of the base metal or the corrosion may spread
beneath the coating.

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Surface Conversion Coatings

These are produced by chemical action. The treatment changes

the immediate surface layer into a film of metal oxide, which has
better corrosion resistance than the metal. Among those widely
used on aircraft are:

 Anodising of aluminium alloys, by an electrolytic process,

which thickens the natural, oxide film on the aluminium. The
film is hard and inert
 Chromating of magnesium alloys, to produce a brown to
black surface film of chromates, which form a protective
layer
 Passivation of zinc and cadmium by immersion in a
chromate solution.

 Other surface conversion coatings are produced for special

purposes, notably the phosphating of steel. There are
numerous proprietary processes, each known by its trade
name (e.g. Bonderising, Parkerising, or Walterising).

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NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING/INSPECTION (NDT/NDI)
TECHNIQUES It is incumbent on all aircraft servicing technicians, regardless of
trade or level of certification, to be constantly vigilant and to use
Among the many inspection tasks, done by aircraft serving their eyes to detect the slightest imperfection in and around the
technicians, are those involving Scheduled Maintenance areas of aircraft or component parts on which they are working.
Inspections (SMIs).
When approaching an aircraft, a perfunctory glance may reveal
SMI's are special inspections, detailed by the manufacturer, to the fact that one wing is lower than the other, which could
be done at a specified time period. When doing these indicate a difference in the fluid levels of the respective landing
inspections, the ultimate aim is to ensure that the aircraft (or gear struts, different tyre pressures or, perhaps, a deflated tyre.
part) being inspected, remains in a safe condition or that it
complies with the original design specification. Missing or badly secured panels have often been discovered by
such alert observations, as have potentially catastrophic
The common factor, in all the inspection/test procedures is that structural failures, and the student is urged to adopt this vigilant
they entail techniques that do not affect the continued attitude as quickly as possible to ensure the safety of all aircraft
serviceability of the components under inspection. They are, in and the people that fly in them.
fact, non-destructive testing/inspection techniques.
While all aircraft servicing technicians can, therefore, do visual
Non-destructive testing (NDT) or, in America, Non-destructive and assisted visual inspections, only those who have received
inspection (NDI) techniques, involve the use of such methods appropriate training will be authorised to do certain PFD
as: techniques. The more sophisticated MPFD, ECFD, UFD, and
RFD techniques will be done by specially trained and approved
 Visual and Assisted Visual Inspections NDT (NDI) technicians.
 Remote Viewing Instruments
 Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
 Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection (MPFD)
 Eddy Current Flaw Detection (ECFD)
 Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UFD)
 Radiographic Flaw Detection (RFD).

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Visual/Assisted Visual Inspections

It should be stressed here that, whenever a visual inspection is
The appropriate visual or assisted visual inspection techniques being done, there must be adequate illumination of the
will be detailed in the relevant servicing manuals but, generally, inspection site, to ensure that small defects are able to be
they will depend on such factors as: detected.

 The nature of the item being inspected (i.e. the material Some visual inspections may dictate that a specific amount of
from which it is made): It may be metallic, plastic, rubber illumination (in a stated number of lux) be available during the
or any other type of material inspection.
 The purpose of the inspection: It may be to establish
whether the item is suffering from a known fault or to To assist in visual inspections, use is frequently made of such
confirm the integrity of a previous repair aids as:
 The location of the item to be inspected: It may be
installed in an aircraft or removed from an aircraft. In  Inspection Mirrors
most cases the maintenance schedule will specify that  Magnifying Glasses.
an item is always inspected without removal from the
aircraft. The term ‘in-situ’ has previously been used to Inspection mirrors enable the technician to see the remote
describe this instance surface of components and into places that normal vision is
 The inspection surface: Whether it is an internal or an restricted. Selections of inspection mirrors are available,
external surface. The normal convention is that mounted on the end of a handle or rod. Such mirrors should be
inspections are external unless otherwise stated mounted by means of a universal joint so that they can be
 The time available for the inspection: This is often positioned at various angles.
dictated by circumstances, in that, if a tyre needs to be
inspected for wear, it should be able to be checked in a A development of this device has the ability to change the angle
few minutes. A major aircraft inspection, on a large of the mirror by remote control. A rack and pinion mechanism
aircraft, is however, normally planned to take many days pass through the stem and is controlled by a knob on the
 The degree or depth of the inspection: Depending on the handle.
‘criticality’ of the component, or its adjacent structure, to
the safety of the aircraft.

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This permits a range of angles to be obtained, after insertion of REMOTE VIEWING INSTRUMENTS
the instrument into the structure. Some instruments come
equipped with integral non-dazzle illumination. These instruments have a variety of different names, although
they all, basically, operate on similar principles. Whether they
Magnifying glasses are most useful instruments, to assist with are called borescopes or Fibrescopes, (or, collectively,
the close inspection of an airframe. They are capable of introscopes), they are optical instruments used for the
clarifying details, when normal visual inspection only produces a inspection of the remote areas of structures, components or
suspicion of a crack or corrosion. Magnifying glasses vary in engines, which would be, otherwise, not directly viewable.
design from the pocket type, with a magnification factor of ‘times
two’ (x2), to the stereoscopic type with a magnification of up to Note: A detailed knowledge of the internal structure of the
x32. component under inspection is essential, and proper training in
their use should be obtained, before inspections involving
The magnification factor relates to the size of an object, seen remote viewing instruments are attempted.
through the magnifying lens, compared with the size of the
object, viewed with the naked eye, at a distance of 250 mm (10 Borescopes consist of ostensibly rigid tubes of nickel-plated
in). brass or of stainless steel. The outer diameters of the tubes
may range from approximately 5.5 mm (0.22 in) to 11 mm (0.43
For day-to-day inspection of structures, a hand instrument with in) with lengths from 230 mm (9 in) to 1 750 mm (69 in).
a x8 magnification and integral illumination could be used.
Magnification above this value should not be used unless While they do possess a degree of rigidity, they can be very
specified, because the limited area of observation does not easily bent if too much sideways force is applied to them, so
reveal the surrounding area. A higher magnification lens can be great care must be taken in their use.
used, once the lower powered lens has identified a problem.
Inside the thin metal tube is a complex series of precision
Note: Magnifying glasses and similar inspection instruments will optical lenses and mirrors, surrounded by a bundle of very fine
provide the best results only when the area under inspection is glass fibre filaments, which guide light to the viewing end of the
well illuminated. tube.

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The light is provided by a box, containing an electrical The image is viewed through a bundle of fibre optic strands,
transformer, a high-intensity, light bulb of quartz-iodine, Xenon while the object is illuminated by light transmitted through
or something similar (which is mounted in front of a reflector), another surrounding bundle of fibre optic strands. Diameters
and a cooling fan. and lengths of fibrescopes are similar to those of rigid
borescopes and they are also provided with the various viewing
The light source box is usually connected to a mains outlet and ends and focussing arrangements.
the powerful light is transmitted to the borescope by means of a
connecting flexible cable which also contains a guide bundle of Some fibrescopes have a controllable ‘distal’ viewing end, to
glass fibres. allow articulation through almost 360º on both an X and Y lateral
axis. These (refer to Fig. 2) are most often used (in addition to
In this way ‘cold’ yet brilliant light is provided at the viewing borescopes) to inspect the inside of gas turbine engines, but
area, to give the necessary high-quality illumination without the can also be used for many other inspections such as; loose
hazards associated with heat and any flammable fluids which article checks, fuel leaks etc.
may be present in the viewing area.
The images, presented by borescopes and fibrescopes, may be
Rigid borescopes are provided with several versions of viewing viewed directly through an eyepiece, as stated, or they may be
ends, which allow either a forward view, a lateral view (normal displayed on a TV screen via a video camera, which can be
to the longitudinal axis of the tube), a forward oblique or a attached to the eyepiece.
retrograde (reverse) view of the inspection area.
The results of the inspection can also be recorded, by means of
With the exception of those with a forward view end, all the a video tape, and retained, for future comparisons of possible
other borescopes may also have the capability of rotating the deterioration of the inspection area.
tube around the longitudinal axis, so that a full 360º internal
view of the area is possible. They also have adjustable focus of
the eyepiece, to minimise eye strain on the viewer and to
accommodate the various levels of acuity of the inspectors’
eyesight.

Fibrescopes are flexible and, probably because of this, they are

extremely prone to abuse and damage. As the name implies,
they rely on fibre optic cables rather than a rigid tube and
lenses/mirrors to provide the image of the inspection area.

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Borescopes and Fibrescopes may be used for the inspection of
gas turbine engine: Wherever they are used, there are certain difficulties involved
 Compressors: for damage to Fans, FOD, Interference with the interpretation of what is seen through the instruments.
between Rotors and Stators, Surge damage, and When using remote viewing instruments, it is recommended that
Bearing Oil Leakage the inspecting technician should:
 Combustion Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracking,
Distortion, and Carbon Build-up  Be fully trained in the use (and care) of the instruments
 Turbine Sections: for signs of Burning, Cracks, Dents, being used
Deposits of Melted Metals and Nicks.  Be familiar with the layout of the structure or component
under inspection
Note: When using remote viewing instruments for engine  If possible, have a spare or an example of the part near
inspections it must be ensured that: at hand with which to compare the images from the
inspection area
 The engine must be allowed to cool down before  Use the experience of other inspectors where doubt
inserting the ‘scopes exists (or consult previous video recordings etc.)
 Wind milling (or inadvertent Starting) of the engine must  Refer to the appropriate servicing manual for guidance
be prevented by gagging or removing the appropriate whenever necessary.
fuses/circuit breakers and placing warning placards on
the flight deck
 Contamination of the instruments, by Fuel, Grease and
Oil, must be avoided
 Borescopes do not get bent and Fibrescopes do not get
kinked nor crushed.

Remote viewing instruments may also be used to inspect many

other areas of an aircraft. Typical areas would include:
 Electrical Components
 Electrical Looms
 Enclosed Structural Parts
 Fuel System Components
 Hydraulic System Components.

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PENETRANT FLAW DETECTION (PFD)

 Inhalation: face masks should be worn where
Before discussing the application of PFD techniques, it is concentrations of fumes or particles are high and there
necessary to highlight the health hazards associated with must always be adequate ventilation. Victims who
working with PFD materials and to consider the recommended become nauseous, dizzy or drowsy should be moved to
First Aid treatments and the Safety Precautions, which need to fresh air and medical advice sought. Resuscitation
be observed, during their use. The hazards include: methods should be used where asphyxiation occurs and
breathing has stopped and the Emergency Services
 Contact with the eyes: to prevent the possibility, summoned.
chemical proof goggles should be worn. If, despite this,  Fire: all the necessary fire precautions must be observed
eye contamination occurs, then the eyes must initially be (CO2, Foam and Dry Powder extinguishers are the
irrigated with copious amounts of water and proper recommended types) and, in the event of a fire, any
medical assistance sought ventilation should be switched off first
 Contact with the skin: due to the de-fatting action of the  Storage: PFD chemicals should be stored in a dry area,
chemicals, barrier cream should be applied to the hands away from heat and direct sunlight
before work commences and, where prolonged contact  Spillage: any spillages should be soaked up with
is probable, protective PVC-type gloves should be worn. absorbent materials
Contaminated skin should be thoroughly washed with  Transport: appropriate precautions, depending on the
warm soap and water and, after drying, a lanolin-based flash point of the particular chemicals should be
cream applied. If irritation persists then medical attention observed
is needed  Disposal: materials should be treated as oily waste and,
 Ingestion: food must not be consumed while doing PFD where large quantities are involved, must not be
procedures and hands should be carefully washed discharged into public sewers or waterways.
before eating. If chemicals are ingested then medical
help must be sought. VOMITING SHOULD NOT BE Penetrant flaw detection may be used to detect surface-
INDUCED. breaking discontinuities in any non-porous materials, including
ceramics metals, and plastics. It may also be used to detect
porosity in those materials that should not be porous, leaks in
tanks and cracking of internal bores.

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MAGNETIC FLAW DETECTION Magnetic Flow method

This method is used in Ferro-magnetic materials (which are In this method the part being tested in placed between the poles
easily magnetized) for the detection of surface defects and of a permanent magnet or electromagnet. This causes the
those just beneath the surface. The technique is to induce a magnetic flux lines to pass lengthwise through the part. This
magnetic field in the suspect part and then to brush over it an can also be achieved by placing the part inside a coil of stiff
ink containing a magnetic powder. A crack in the part causes copper rod through which an electric current is passed. The
the magnetic field to become distorted and stray outside the copper rod must be insulated to avoid short circuiting. In this
part the magnetic particles in the ink are then attracted to this method transverse defects are indicated best.
area. Defects are indicated by a buildup of particles much wider
than the actual crack and therefore easier to see. The best In a typical magnetic flow machine, the part is clamped between
indications are given when the defect is at right angles to the adjustable poles in the magnetic circuit of a powerful
lines of magnetic flux because this produces the greatest electromagnet. Laminated pole pieces are often used to ensure
distortion of the magnetic field. Therefore during tests the part good contact between the electro-magnet and parts of curved or
is magnetized from different angles and various methods of irregular shape. Good contact is essential to prevent a
magnetization are also used. It is important that the part being reduction in the strength of the magnetic field. Magnetic flow
tested is clean as any oil, grease or corrosion will prevent the machines generally operate on direct current.
magnetic ink from contacting the surface of the part.

A part may be magnetized either by passing a current through

it, or by placing it in the magnetic circuit of a permanent magnet
or an electro-magnet.

The magnetic particles used to indicate the defects are either in

the form of dry powder or suspended in a suitable liquid such as
paraffin. They are colored either red or black, red being more
suitable for rough castings.

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EDDY CURRENT FLAW DETECTION

The change in coil impedance against the known defect could
The eddy current method is a non-destructive means for be used as an acceptance limit on the part being examined.
detecting cracks, corrosion and heat damage in aircraft Even better results would be obtained if comparative readings
structures. It can be used on all electrically conducting were obtained from an actual defective aircraft component.
materials i.e. most metals. The surface being examined does
not require removal of the paint finish or cleaning and the work By using the appropriate probes, the eddy current tester can be
does not interfere with other work being carried out on the used on ferrous or non-ferrous metals. Special probes are
aircraft. It is more sensitive to surface and sub surface defects available for detecting cracks which form on the surface of
than other non-destructive techniques. The equipment is holes. A shaped jig is being used to keep the probe at right
portable and can be used in relatively inaccessible places in angles to the surface of the wheel rim. This is necessary to
aircraft structures. avoid misleading indications which could be caused by
inadvertent angulations of the probe.
To initiate the eddy currents in a part an alternating current at a
suitable frequency is supplied to a test coil mounted in a probe, Limitations of Eddy Current Flaw Detection
which is held close to or in contact with the part. The coil
Certain difficulties may be encountered with this method of
carrying this current then induces a magnetic field of the same
examination. Eddy currents are strongest at the surface and
frequency in the part and causes eddy currents to flow. The
weaken with depth so surface defects and defects just below
eddy current itself produces an alternating magnetic field which
the surface will be indicated. Unseen changes in the shape of
opposes the original field produced by the coil. The flow path of
the part may distort the magnetic field and mask defects. Trials
the currents is affected by any defects in the material. The
must be carried out to establish the best method of testing a
resulting impedance to the flow of alternating current in the coil
part.
is measured and indicated usually on a moving coil instrument.

In aircraft work eddy current testing is carried out by comparing

the indications from the part being examined with indications
from a reference piece made from a similar material and
containing an artificial defect. The reference piece would
contain defects of known size and shape.

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Eddy Current Tester Checking a Wheel

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ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION

The principle of ultrasonic testing is that a probe containing a
Ultrasonic inspection may be used for detecting surface flaws quartz crystal, which can both transmit and receive high
and internal flaws which are some distance from the surface frequency sound waves is moved over the surface of the part to
and is normally used to complement other methods of flaw be tested. The probe is connected to an oscilloscope which
detection. Ultrasonic inspection may be used on all materials. It displays the result on a cathode ray tube.
is often used to detect flaws in extrusions, forgings and rolled
materials at manufacture and can also be used to detect fatigue Normally the sound waves will pass from the probe through the
cracks and other defects occurring during service. part and will be deflected from the bottom surface back to the
probe which also acts as a receiver. Both the transmitted pulse
Thickness measurement by ultrasonic methods is also applied and the returning pulse are recorded on the cathode ray tube of
to aircraft parts; for example, the outer panels of aircraft the oscilloscope. The distance between the ‘blips’ is
windows are machine polished to remove surface scratches. proportional to the thickness of the part being tested. If a crack
Afterwards the thickness of the panel can be measured using is encountered then the pulse is interrupted and reflected back
an ultrasonic technique. Delamination of bonded assemblies as shown. Since the reflected pulse returns to the probe in a
can also be checked by similar methods. shorter time, an intermediate ‘blip’ appears on the cathode ray
tube. The position of this ‘blip’ relative to the other blips
Ultrasonic inspection is a fast, reliable non-destructive testing
indicates the distance of the fault below the surface.
method which employs electronically produced, high frequency
sound waves that will penetrate metals, liquids and many other In order to inject the sound waves into a part at an angle normal
materials at thousands of meters per second. The high to the expected defect it may be necessary to mount the probe
frequency sound waves are of short wave length and relatively on a suitably shaped plastic block. Sometimes separate
low energy levels to prevent damage to the structure. No transmitting and receiving probes are used.
special safety precautions are required for operating personnel
under normal conditions. To ensure good transfer of the high frequency sound waves it is
essential that there is good contact between the probe and the
surface of the part. This is done by covering the search area
with a film of oil; the rougher the surface the thicker the oil
needs to be to maintain contact.

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Sensitivity
Ultrasonic testing is widely used on parts removed from aircraft
but can also be used in situ where other types of inspection This relates to the ability of the instrument to differentiate
would require extensive dismantling. between reflections from a defect and those from unimportant
The results of any test must be compared with those obtained features. If the frequency of the sound waves is increased
from an identical part of known condition. If necessary artificial sensitivity increases causing the instrument to detect slight
defects can be introduced into specimen parts. The indications variations in the density of the material producing numerous
obtained from these artificial defects can then be compared with peaks on the oscilloscope. With a coarse-grained material, a
those obtained from the parts being examined. low frequency must be used, especially in large specimens.
With a fine-grained material, a higher frequency may be used,
Limitations Ultrasonic Flaw Detection with a consequent increase in sensitivity.

A number of factors must be considered when making an

ultrasonic inspection.

Surface conditions

A rough surface will prevent inspection by ultrasonic methods,

although a grease coupling agent may be used. In addition, the
shape, size and complexity of a component may limit the
application of ultrasonic examination.

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Separate Transmitting and Receiving Probes

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RADIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Sources of Radiation
Radiographic inspection of the aircraft structure is There are two forms of electro-magnetic radiations which can
recommended if the suspected structural area is hidden or not be used in radiography, X-rays and gamma rays.
easily accessible. This type of inspection is able to reveal
fatigue cracks, corrosion, internal damage, the presence of X-Rays
loose articles and mercury spillage without the need to
X-rays and gamma rays are radiations which have the ability to
dismantle the aircraft. Radiographic inspection may be used on
penetrate material through which visible light cannot pass.
all materials except lead. It is also a method which allows the
When these radiations pass through a material they are
examination of a faulty component in the condition in which it
absorbed to varying degrees depending on the density of the
failed. This can prove very useful since often when a
material. X-rays affect a photographic film in a manner similar
component is being dismantled it falls apart and the cause of
to that of light, so in order to detect faults in a metal part an X--
failure cannot be determined. Usually when radiographic
ray photograph is taken of its interior. The principle is an X-ray
techniques are used the suspected location and orientation of
tube emitting radiation which passes through a part and forms
the failure will be known from previous experience.
an image on a photographic film placed behind the part. The X-
Due to the hazardous nature of radiographic radiation it is very rays will penetrate the crack much more easily and produce a
important that operators should be properly trained and aware denser image on the film. ft should be noted that the X-rays
of the regulations concerned with safety. described here are ‘harder’, that is of much shorter wave length
that medical X-rays. These hard X-rays would damage body
The aircraft being examined will be isolated and unauthorized tissues and therefore the equipment must be well shielded to
personnel kept at a safe distance. The aircraft will be defueled prevent stray radiation from reaching the operator.
and properly marked with warning signs and roped off. In most
instances no dismantling of the aircraft will be required.

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In actual practice the X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube
which is housed in a portable radiation proof container. The X-
rays are beamed on to the part through a window in the side of
the container. The penetrative effect of the X-rays is varied by a
separate control unit which is supplied with 240 volts mains
supply. This unit regulates the voltage applied to the X-ray
tube, a voltage which can be varied between 10,000 and
20,000) volts; the higher the voltage the greater is the energy
and the penetration of the X-ray beam. The X-ray unit and the
control unit are connected by a long cable so that the X-ray unit
can be operated and controlled it a safe distance.

The X-ray tube is placed on one side of the part being examined
and a sheet of special photographic film in a light proof
envelope on the other. X-rays are then passed through the
part. When the film has been exposed and processed the
negative is placed in front of an illuminated panel for
examination. The image will be darkest where penetration by
the X-rays has been greatest, and lighter in varying degrees in
the other areas where penetration has been less. A crack will
appear as a thin dark line.

For safety reasons the exposure time is kept to a minimum, but

correct exposure of the film is essential. The energy of the X-
ray, the thickness of the part, the speed of the film and the
exposure time are all factors that need to be considered by the
operators of the equipment.

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Radiography of a part using X-Rays

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Gamma Rays Safety

Electromagnetic radiations resulting from the disintegration of Radiography is potentially a very dangerous method of non-
radio-active materials are known as gamma rays. Gamma destructive testing and is used only by trained and approved
sources are normally used where there is insufficient space for personnel. Over exposure to X-ray and gamma radiation can
X-ray equipment and are often used for the examination of cause illness and possibly death.
internal features of turbine engines, access points being
provided on the engine by the manufacturer. Limitations of Radiological Examination

Radiographic gamma ray sources consist of a circular disc or Both X-ray and gamma ray methods of NDT are expensive.
cylinder of radioactive material encased in a sealed aluminium Highly skilled operators are required and the technique is
or stainless-steel capsule and known as an isotope. potentially dangerous to health.

A radioactive isotope continually emits gamma rays and cannot

be switched off like an X-ray unit. Consequently, when not in
use it is kept in a special lead lined container. In use the
isotope is taken to the job in its container, removed from the
container arid placed in position. After use it is replaced in its
container. All this is done with remote handling tools and great
care is required to avoid exposure to the gamma rays. Prior to
this the film in a cassette or light proof envelope has to be
positioned on the opposite side of the part or area being
examined. After exposure the film is developed and examined
in the same way as the X-ray films.

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BOROSCOPE INSPECTION
In general, the boroscope inspection technique saves many
Boroscope inspections involve looking at components within an hours of work and can reduce the down time of the aircraft in
engine using an optical probe. The probes are inserted in to the many cases, disassembly and reassemble of the engine not
engine through ports in the engine casings, and can be rigid or being required. The boroscope is essentially an eyepiece
flexible, the choice being dependant on the difficulty at obtaining connected to a rigid or flexible tube. The tube contains fibre
a satisfactory view of the required features. Some of these optic cables that carry light and therefore visual images, even
inspection ports are the attachment points of other functional when the tube is made to bend through considerable angles. A
devices that intrude into the engine (e.g. ignitor plugs or second fibre optic cable within the tube carries light from a
temperature probes) but on more modern engines there are bright light source to illuminate the target. At the end of the tube
usually several purposes made ports for boroscope inspections. there will be a viewing lens, with a light source lens nearby.
Most flexible probes have a steerable tip which allows the
operator to steer toward the target, and the lens is mounted in
the tip to view straight ahead. Rigid probes may have prisms
behind the lens to allow the probe to view at right angles or 45°
to the probe.

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The operator inserts the probe into the appropriate port to view
the internal components. Some techniques require the use of
guide tubes to ensure that a steerable probe is going in the right
direction. Ports are usually designed into the compressor,
turbine and combustion sections of the engine. On the viewing
end of the boroscope there will be the controls for the steerable
tip (flexible probe) and to allow the operator to focus the probe.
It is more usual these days to find a video camera attached to
the eyepiece so that a recording of the inspection can be made.
The video is presented on a television screen that allows a
much bigger picture and also more than one person to view the
screen. The recording is useful as sometimes it is very difficult
to find or reproduce a view that may fleetingly pass and which
gives you concern, also should a problem be observed it can be
dispatched to the manufacturer for analysis by their experts.
When turning the engine careful counting of the blades or
number of turns of the hand turning point is required to ensure
that all of the blades have been viewed.

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Boroscope probes are very delicate and expensive pieces of
equipment and great care is needed when using them. It is very
easy to damage a probe if it is inserted between rotor and stator
blades, even to the point of cutting the end off the probe! If this
is the technique you are using you may need to lock the rotor to
prevent the risk of damage. If the technique requires the engine
to be rotated, i.e. to check the turbine blades, then a port and
probe which does not go through the blades is required.
Remember when outside very little wind can cause the rotor to
move!
Interpretation of boroscope images is not always as easy as it
might sound. The viewer is very small which can make tiny
cracks look like the Grand Canyon! Equally relatively small
distances can appear distant when viewed. These make it
difficult when assessing a component which is close to a limit,
and may require you to look at a similar object with the naked
eye to make a proportional judgment. Most companies require
special approval for people to carry out boroscoping.

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DISASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Disassembly and re-assembly, in the terms of aircraft, can

cover a range of activities from complete airframes down to
component maintenance, with several steps in between. The
reasons for dismantling and re-assembly may include:

 Complete airframe disassembly for road/air shipment

 Replacement of major components/modules
 Replacement of minor components/modules
 Disassembly & re-assembly of major components
 Disassembly & re-assembly of minor components

Complete Airframes

It may be necessary to dismantle a complete aircraft for the

purpose of transportation by road or by air. This could be for
recovery from an accident site, remote from the airfield or for
movement of the aircraft when it is totally non-airworthy, due
perhaps to severe corrosion or an unknown maintenance
history. Typical Manufacturer’s Joining Points
Fig. 20
Because many larger, modern aircraft are manufactured at
several different locations, the completed modules are
assembled in the final build hall of the primary manufacturer.
The joining points are often known as ‘transportation joints’,
and, in extreme instances, can be the points where the aircraft
may be dismantled again to allow transportation (refer to Fig.
20).

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The instructions for the dismantling operation will be found Whilst the manufacturer’s instructions will give the details for a
either in the aircraft’s Maintenance Manual or in a special specific aircraft, the following sequence of dismantling gives an
dismantling procedure, issued by the manufacturer. During the idea of the correct order of disassembly:
dismantling operation, precautions must be taken to prevent
injury and damage.  Main planes
 Tail unit
General precautions would include such items as:  Undercarriage units

 The aircraft should, if at all possible, be dismantled  Centre section

within a hangar. If this is not possible, then level and firm  Fuselage.
ground will suffice
 Sufficient clearance in the hangar must be available, Re-assembly is in the reverse order of disassembly, and all
both to clear the airframe when on jacks, and to allow parts must be cleaned, protected and serviceable, prior to their
heavy lifting cranes enough room to manoeuvre over the installation.
aircraft
 All precautions, in accordance with the manufacturer’s Replacement of Major Components/Modules
instructions, must be taken prior to the aircraft entering
the hangar; such as de-fuelling and the removal of This type of operation will normally be completed at a large
devices such as emergency oxygen canisters maintenance base, where all the required equipment is
 When the aircraft is jacked-up, all trestles must also be available. An example could be the replacement of a wing that
placed in position. This allows the aircraft to be climbed has suffered major damage.
upon and, later, ensures that it will not overbalance when
a major part (such as a wing), is removed. Other types of similar work might be the replacement of
damaged wing tips, empennage surfaces and nose cones. If the
aircraft is at an ‘outstation’ when the damage occurs,
confirmation should be sought as to whether the aircraft can be
flown back to base for repair, or repaired where it is.

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Replacement of Minor Components/Modules

The full procedure for this type of work will be carried out in
Some components have to be repaired by replacement. Repairs accordance with the CMM. This book will give all the operations
to flying control surfaces, for example, are often done in a repair required to dismantle the component and will advise what to
bay. The component may be replaced on the aircraft by a look for whilst the item is undergoing maintenance. It will also
serviceable item, or reinstalled once the repair in the bay has state the re-assembly method, including the fitting of new parts
been completed. such as seals, gaskets, oil and other consumables that have to
be replaced, during overhaul.
Other components, which are replaced first and repaired later,
might include some structural items such as doors of all types, Disassembly and Re-assembly of Minor Components
and most fairings and cowlings. Most of these tasks are simple
removal and replacement operations that are covered in the A typical passenger aircraft can contain hundreds of small
AMM. components that work together as parts of a larger system. This
can include a wide range of hydraulic and pneumatic
Disassembly and Re-assembly of Major Components components that can be mechanical, electromechanical or
electrical in operation.
Most of the work done, during this phase of maintenance, is
scheduled in with normal aircraft maintenance. The components Other components might include those installed into fuel, air
may not only be removed and reinstalled at different times conditioning, pressurisation, electrical and electronic systems.
during the maintenance, but work will also be done on the items These components have their own CMM to allow maintenance
whilst they are removed. They may also be removed to allow and trouble-shooting to be done. Some components are only
access to other parts of the airframe during the maintenance. removed once they fail (On-Condition), while others receive
regular maintenance.
Items such as engines, propellers, landing gears and wheels
require some form of maintenance. This may include a simple
condition check, or a full overhaul of its component parts,
allowing checks on internal component parts for wear, damage
and corrosion.

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Instruments, electric and electronic components can be Other locking devices include items such as single tab washers,
dismantled and serviced by the aircraft operator. It normally shake-proof washers, circlips and locking rings. Some can only
requires the use of a dedicated overhaul facility, which can be used once only whilst others are re-used provided they are
provide the correct environmental conditions and is equipped still serviceable.
with the special test equipment required to carry out
maintenance and repair. The replacement of spring washers is ‘advised’ during overhaul
and repair, especially on engines and pumps. Other devices
Operators of smaller aircraft, or those who operate only a few used for locking or holding fasteners in position, such as multi-
aircraft, will usually send components requiring repair or tab washers and locking plates can normally be reused.
maintenance to a ‘third party’ maintenance organisation. This
company will have the special facilities, equipment and Stiff nuts with fibre or nylon inserts can be checked to ascertain
personnel, to complete the required work on components from a if a certain degree of stiffness is still available. If the nut can be
number of different customers. run along a thread by hand it should be replaced. They should
not be used in high temperature areas.
Basic Disassembly and Re-assembly Techniques
In all matters relating to aircraft, the manufacturer has the final
All of the previously mentioned procedures require the use of say on which fasteners can be reused and which must be
the correct techniques over a wide range of working practices. replaced.
These techniques will ensure that the components are removed,
dismantled, re-assembled and re-installed in accordance with Because friction is essential to keep the fasteners secure,
both the relevant manuals and using the correct ‘standard sometimes it is necessary to do a ‘torque check’ on the bolt/nut
practices’. combination, in order to confirm their continuing serviceability.
This is especially true of all metal fasteners that can normally be
An AMM and CMM dictate the correct type and size of locking re-used.
wire or split pin to be used during overhaul or maintenance of a
component. These publications also stipulate exact detail of
items such as the lock wire angle of approach and the correct
positioning of a split pin. AMM chapters 20 and 70 list the
standard practices that should be used during overhaul.

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The majority of nuts, bolts and set-screws, on an aircraft, are Small Part and Component Identification
subject to a standard torque value. This depends on their
material, finish, lubrication, thread type and size, although the When disassembling or removing any component, it is vital that
manufacturer’s torque value will be the correct one to use. all small items such as bolts, screws, nuts, washers and shims
are clearly identified.
The correct torque loadings are normally applied using a torque
wrench that has been previously calibrated to the correct value. This involves not only identifying the items by part number, but
In some special instances, pre-load indicating (PLI) washers also recording their correct location and which aircraft they have
may be specified. been removed from as, in some hangars, more than one aircraft
may be in a state of disassembly at any one time.
When assembling any component or major airframe part, the
manufacturer will specify whether the torque value is ‘lubricated’ Some items may simply be attached to the major assembly
or ‘dry’. Lubricated values are measured with the threads and all using many small ‘tie on’ bags with identification labels. If a
mating surfaces lightly lubricated with oil, sealant or anti-seize number of different sized fasteners are removed from a
compound as appropriate. component such as a windscreen, they can be located in a
locally-made holding jig which keeps the different parts in their
When assembling some components, it may be vital that certain same relative position to the original item. This should allow all
alignments, dimensions or profiles are achieved. During initial the screws to be returned to their original locations when the
production, most of the airframe and many of the components screen is reinstalled.
are assembled in a jig.
Any part which is removed must have its identity and location
A jig is device that allows the manufacture, repair or rigging of retained until it is reinstalled.
components to a high dimensional accuracy. This guarantees
consistency over a number of components. The jig holds all of
the items securely, so that, when assembled, the whole
component is exactly the shape that the designer has
stipulated.

Jigs are used to build fuselage and wing sections in the factory.
They are also used to ensure that small actuators are pre-set to
the exact length, to assist in ‘rigging’ the controls containing the
actuator.

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Discarding of Parts These actions may involve use of penetrating oil, which works
its way down through the seized threads, providing both an anti-
A number of items, when they are removed from their original corrosion action and lubrication for the threads. Other actions
position, have to be discarded. The ‘once only’ policy is a may involve the application of heat or cold to a specific part, so
combination of the manufacturer’s recommendations together that their relative diameters change, thus lowering the friction
with normal engineering practice. between the parts.

Items that are usually discarded at removal are filters, sealing Use of Correct Tools
rings, desiccants, fuels and oils of all types.
It is normal for technicians to own a comprehensive tool kit,
There are many other items that have a given ‘life’. This may be containing tools recommended for the work planned and which
counted in flying hours, calendar time or operating cycles, which are of the highest quality. In a number of situations, it may be
will mean that items have to be replaced throughout the life of possible for a technician to use an incorrect tool that may
the aircraft. appear to be the correct one for the task. It is most important
that only the correct tools are used for each and every
If aircraft, or major components of them, have been maintenance task.
disassembled, it may be policy to replace components with
‘zero life’ items prior to re-assembly. This will allow the aircraft When, for example, using a cross point screwdriver, it is
to fly for considerable time before any parts become due for possible to find at least six different types of screw bits, each of
replacement. which only fits its own respective screw head slot.

The removal of nuts from bolts is normally accomplished using

Freeing Seized Components a socket and wrench set and these sockets can be of the
twelve-point or six- point type. When spanners need to be used,
When dismantling any part of an aircraft, it is not unusual for the preference should be given to a ring spanner rather than an
technician to encounter a seized fastener. Depending upon its open-ended spanner. Adjustable spanners or ‘mole grips’
location, the AMM may recommend a range of actions to assist should never be used on aircraft.
in the removal of the item(s).

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The manufacturer of the aircraft often specifies special tools,

when standard tools are unable to complete the task. Unless
approved to do so, the technician should never substitute
conventional tools for the special tools that are called for in the
manual. Damage to the part being worked upon will almost
always result from the use of incorrect tools.

‘Murphy’s Law’

This ‘law’ states that:

‘If a part or component can be installed incorrectly, someone,

somewhere will install it that way.’

There are numerous solutions in the fight against this problem.

For example, when pair of pipes or hoses are to be joined, there
is the risk of the two pairs of couplings being ‘cross connected’.
This could result in serious damage if the pipes carried fuel and
hydraulic oil.

To prevent this happening, pipes and couplings usually have

different diameters. Alternatively, the two sets of couplings
would be located at different places, so the pipes could not be
wrongly connected under any circumstances.

The same logic is applied to control cables that, of course, must

also never be cross-connected. In this instance, the turnbuckles
are located at slightly different locations at each cable break,
again making it impossible to connect the wrong pair of cables
together.

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FAULT DIAGNOSIS - TROUBLE SHOOTING

There are five basic steps to be followed when diagnosing a
Aircraft maintenance schedules have been developed so that fault: -
the amount of time an aircraft spends on the ground for routine
inspection and servicing is kept to a minimum. However aircraft 1. Information Collection - Obtain all the relevant
information on the defect and the circumstances in
might also “grounded” by equipment defects; it is most
which it occurred.
important that these are rectified efficiently.

One of the factors governing maintenance efficiency is the initial 2. Initial Examination - Localize the cause of the defect as
fault diagnosis, generally known as Trouble Shooting. far as possible by visual examination and applied
equipment knowledge.
Unfortunately defect rectification is sometimes attempted
without prior fault diagnosis, or after only a limited attempt to
narrow the field of possible causes. Such rectification usually 3. Further Examination - Examine the remaining possible
deteriorates into a succession of component changes aimed at causes of the defect and using functional tests wherever
possible, select the most likely causes. Consult the
eliminating the fault by trial and error. This type of approach
trouble shooting flow charts in the Aircraft Maintenance
causes unnecessary work, waste of aircraft spares and Manual.
excessive delays before the aircraft can be returned to service.
All of this can be avoided by the application of some logical
thought before work commences. 4. Rectification - Commence rectification work. Always
keep a concise record of the actions taken and their
result.

5. Post Rectification Testing - When the defect is rectified,

functionally test the whole system or mechanism to
ensure that secondary defects have not arisen.

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 Did the onset of the defect appear to be connected with
Each of the five steps will be considered in greater detail, but a certain action such as system selection? Did selection
because of the diversity of possible faults only generalized of equipment other than the defective item appear to
affect its operation?
information can be given. Not all the checks listed will be
applicable in every case but nevertheless they should be
considered before proceeding with rectification.  What action was taken when the fault developed? Were
standby system selections made? What effect did such
1. Information collection selections have on the equipment?

The aircraft Technical Log entry which places the aircraft  What subsequent action has been taken in attempting to
unserviceable is clearly the starting point for gathering rectify the fault, or make the aircraft safe?
information about the defect. A check should also be made for
previous occurrences of the same or associated defects and  Can functional testing be carried out without damage to
note taken of the rectification details. the aircraft?
Verbal Investigation - The Technical Log entry will rarely be
comprehensive enough to provide all the information required.
Enquiries should be made of the personnel concerned to obtain
the following information:

 Did the fault become apparent in flight or on the ground?

If during flight, obtain details of altitude, speed, attitude
at which the defect occurred.

 Did the fault occur during testing or normal operation?

Was its onset sudden or did it develop gradually?

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

Document Investigation - A study of past Technical Log 2. Initial examination

sector record pages will show if the defect has occurred
previously. If so, an examination of the appropriate
This will be very largely governed by the type of defect which is
Maintenance Control Records will sometimes give relevant
being examined, but it should always be started with definite
information.
objectives in view e.g.:
Examples are:-
 To become familiar with location, form and extent of the
 Where previous adjustments have been made or where damage
a progressive increase in the rate of replenishment of
systems has occurred. These could have been  To establish the practicability of functional checks
compensating for a deteriorating state of serviceability.
 To find the cause and effects of the more obvious types
of defects
 Where previous defects of a similar nature have
occurred. These may indicate a defect in design or
manufacture, or could point to an undiscovered source In some cases involving straightforward defects, not all the
of stress applied to the defective item. steps detailed under ‘INFORMATION COLLECTION’ need be
followed. However, you should be aware that a defect is not
always as straightforward as it may seem at first, and it is bad
 The Aircraft Maintenance Manual normally contains practice to come to hasty conclusions and undertake a
Trouble Shooting Flow Charts which can be of
rectification programme based on a superficial examination of
assistance in locating the cause of the defect. It should
be noted that seemingly similar defects can arise from the facts. In addition, damage occurring as a consequence of
different causes. certain defects must also be looked for and rectified (e.g.
hydraulic fluid damage to electrical cable insulation and titanium
hot air ducting etc.).

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

The following points form a general check list for systematic When applicable, check for overheating by examining casings
examination and should be followed wherever applicable, to and structures for discolouration and flaking paintwork.
minimise the possibility of some factors being overlooked:
Having carried out a systematic initial examination it may not
have been possible to definitely establish the precise nature of a
defect and its secondary effects. Knowledge of the affected
system or mechanism and proper use of the various aircraft
manuals will enable a possible cause or causes to be assumed.
These assumptions however, should be proven wherever
possible by further examination or functional testing before
rectification starts.

3. Further examination

This examination is aimed at proving or disproving the initial

theories formed of the cause and nature of the faults within a
system or mechanism. The form of examination used will be
governed by the type of system or mechanism in question, and
by the type, location, and form of the defect requiring
rectification.

For internal or functioning defects in systems it is necessary to

know how each component operates when it is in a serviceable
state, so that detailed comparisons can be made with the
symptoms.

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7A/02 Rev. 01
7.18 - 74 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

A thorough knowledge of the system or mechanism is therefore It might be possible to insert test equipment into the system or
essential. mechanism or carry out BITE checks. Disconnections in a
system should be limited as far as is possible to prevent the
Assuming that the fault has been localised to some degree by creation of leaks.
the initial examination the following sequence of examination
should be followed:

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques
 Record mandatory checks and inspections that
4. Rectification are required as a result of the rectification.
These should be entered as the need becomes
apparent.
 It is essential that a record is kept of all work
carried out, especially when the work is long and
detailed. Records of work carried out should be  Each trade responsibility should be dealt with
designed to fulfil the following functions: separately, but each entry should refer to the
originating task.

 Provide an effective method of cross referencing

between separate entries relating to the one job.

 Cover, in full and accurately, all the aspects of

the rectification and associated work being
undertaken. Include rigging and component
adjustment.

 Give precise details of component lives and

serial numbers in order to maintain “Lifed-
Component records”, and to help any possible
later investigations.

 State un-serviceability arising from the work, as

the subject of separate defect entries in the
aircraft log book.

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7A - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category– A/B1 Sub Module 7.18 - Aircraft disassembly, inspection, repair and assembly techniques

5. Post rectification testing

A functional test carried out on the completion of rectification

will prove in a practical sense the effectiveness and efficiency of
the rectification that has been carried out.

Functional tests should, as far as possible, emulate the

circumstances under which the fault first occurred, and should
test the system or mechanism in all its functional roles. It may
be necessary to have the aircraft test flown to fully test the
rectification of a system or mechanism.

All faults arising from functional tests or test flights must be

entered in the appropriate log book for subsequent fault
diagnosis and rectification.

ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7A/02 Rev. 01
7.18 - 77 Nov 2017