Repeaters :

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher
power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances

Description
The term "repeater" originated with telegraphy and referred to an electromechanical device used by the
army to regenerate telegraph signals. Use of the term has continued
in telephony and data communications.

In telecommunication, the term repeater has the following standardized meanings:

1. An analog device that amplifies an input signal regardless of its nature (analog or digital).

2. A digital device that amplifies, reshapes, retimes, or performs a combination of any of these
functions on a digital input signal for retransmission.[1]

Because repeaters work with the actual physical signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being
transmitted, they operate on the Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

Usage
Repeaters are often used in transcontinental and submarine communications cables, because
the attenuation (signal loss) over such distances would be unacceptable without them. Repeaters are
used in bothcopper-wire cables carrying electrical signals, and in fiber optics carrying light.

Main article:  Optical communications repeater

Repeaters are used in radio communication services. Radio repeaters often transmit and receive on
different frequencies. A special subgroup of those repeaters is those used in amateur radio.

Main articles:  Radio repeater  and amateur radio repeater

Repeaters are also used extensively in broadcasting, where they are known as translators, boosters
or TV relay transmitters.

Main article:  broadcast translator

When providing a point-to-point telecom link using radio beyond line of sight, one uses repeaters in
a microwave radio relay. A reflector, often on a mountaintop, that relays such signals around an obstacle,
is called a passive repeater or Passive Radio Link Deflection. A microwave repeater in a communications
satellite is called a transponder.

In optical communications the term repeater is used to describe a piece of equipment that receives an
optical signal, converts that signal into an electrical one, regenerates it, and then retransmits an optical
signal. Since such a device converts the optical signal into an electrical one, and then back to an optical
signal, they are often known as Optical-Electrical-Optical (OEO) repeaters.

Before the invention of electronic amplifiers, mechanically coupled carbon microphones were used as

amplifiers in telephone repeaters. The invention of the audion tube made transcontinental telephony
practical. In the 1930s vacuum tube repeaters using hybrid coils became commonplace, allowing the use
of thinner wires. In the 1950s negative impedance gain devices were more popular, and
a transistorized version called the E6 repeater was the final major type used in the Bell System before the
low cost of digital transmission made all voiceband repeaters obsolete. Frequency frogging repeaters
were commonplace in frequency-division multiplexing systems from the middle to late 20th century.

Bridge
Bridging is a forwarding technique used in packet-switched computer networks. Unlike routing, bridging
makes no assumptions about where in a network a particular address is located. Instead, it depends
onflooding and examination of source addresses in received packet headers to locate unknown devices.
Once a device has been located, its location is recorded in a table where the MAC address is stored so
as to preclude the need for further broadcasting. The utility of bridging is limited by its dependence on
flooding, and is thus only used in local area networks.

Bridging generally refers to Transparent bridging or Learning bridge operation which predominates

in Ethernet. Another form of bridging, Source route bridging, was developed for token ring networks.

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

In Ethernet networks, the term bridge formally means a device that behaves according to the IEEE
802.1Dstandard. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch being a bridge with numerous
ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is often used interchangeably with bridge.
Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, devices that connect network segments at the physical
layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model; however, with bridging, traffic from one network is managed rather than
simply rebroadcasted to adjacent network segments. Bridges are more complex than hubs or repeaters.
Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to
another segment of the network.

Transparent bridging operation

A bridge uses a forwarding database to send frames across network segments. The forwarding database
is initially empty and entries in the database are built as the bridge receives frames. If an address entry is
not found in the forwarding database, the frame is flooded to all other ports of the bridge, forwarding the
frame to all segments except the source address. By means of these broadcast frames, the destination
network will respond and forwarding database entry will be created.

As an example, consider three hosts, A, B and C and a bridge. The bridge has three ports. A is connected
to bridge port 1, B is connected bridge port 2, C is connected to bridge port 3. A sends a frame addressed
to B to the bridge. The bridge examines the source address of the frame and creates an address and port
number entry for A in its forwarding table. The bridge examines the destination address of the frame and
does not find it in its forwarding table so it floods it to all other ports: 2 and 3. The frame is received by
hosts B and C. Host C examines the destination address and ignores the frame. Host B recognizes a
destination address match and generates a response to A. On the return path, the bridge adds an
address and port number entry for B to its forwarding table. The bridge already has A's address in its
forwarding table so it forwards the response only to port 1. Host C or any other hosts on port 3 are not
burdened with the response. Two-way communication is now possible between A and B without any
further flooding.

Note that both source and destination addresses are used in this algorithm. Source addresses are
recorded in entries in the table, while destination addresses are looked up in the table and matched to the
proper segment to send the frame to.

The technology was originally developed by the Digital Equipment Corp. in the 1980s. [1]

[edit]Filtering database
To translate between two segments, a bridge reads a frame's destination MAC address and decides to
either forward or filter. If the bridge determines that the destination node is on another segment on the
network, it forwards (retransmits) the packet to that segment. If the destination address belongs to the
same segment as the source address, the bridge filters (discards) the frame. As nodes transmit data
through the bridge, the bridge establishes a filtering database (also known as a forwarding table) of
known MAC addresses and their locations on the network. The bridge uses its filtering database to
determine whether a packet should be forwarded or filtered.

Advantages of network bridges

 Self-configuring
 Simple bridges are inexpensive
 Isolate collision domain
 Reduce the size of collision domain by microsegmentation in non-switched networks
 Transparent to protocols above the MAC layer
 Allows the introduction of management/performance information and access control
 LANs interconnected are separate, and physical constraints such as number of stations,
repeaters and segment length don't apply
 Helps minimize bandwidth usage
[edit]Disadvantages of network bridges

 Does not limit the scope of broadcasts [broadcast domain cannot be controlled]
 Does not scale to extremely large networks
 Buffering and processing introduces delays
 Bridges are more expensive than repeaters or hubs
 A complex network topology can pose a problem for transparent bridges. For example, multiple
paths between transparent bridges and LANs can result in bridge loops. The spanning tree
protocol helps to reduce problems with complex topologies.

SWITCH
Function
The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-
large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO)
applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a gateway to
access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable internet. In most of these cases, the
end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband
technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP.

An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model to create a separate collision
domain for each switch port. With 4 computers (e.g., A, B, C, and D) on 4 switch ports, A and B can
transfer data back and forth, while C and D also do so simultaneously, and the two conversations will not
interfere with one another. In the case of a hub, they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex,
resulting in collisions, which would then necessitate retransmissions. Using a switch is
called microsegmentation. This allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on a point-to-point
connections to the network and to therefore run in Full duplex without collisions.

Role of switches in networks

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link, network, or transport
(i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as
amultilayer switch.

In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect
different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T [Link] and 802.11. This
connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While Layer 2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-
shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring are easier at
Layer 3.

Interconnection of different Layer 3 networks is done by routers. If there are any features that characterize
"Layer-3 switches" as opposed to general-purpose routers, it tends to be that they are optimized, in larger
switches, for high-density Ethernet connectivity.

In some service provider and other environments where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of
network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for
analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall,[2][3] network intrusion detection,[4] and performance
analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.
[5]

In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device. Since
most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for fanning out
data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.

Router
A router is a device that forwards data packets across computer networks. Routers perform the data
"traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A router is amicroprocessor-controlled device that is connected
to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the
router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using
information in its routing table, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. A data packet is
typically passed from router to router through the networks of the Internet until it gets to its destination
computer. Routers also perform other tasks such as translating the data transmission protocol of the
packet to the appropriate protocol of the next network, and preventing unauthorized access to a network
by the use of a firewall.[1]
The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data, such as web
pages and email, between the home computers and the owner'scable or DSL modem, which connects to
the Internet (ISP). However more sophisticated routers range from enterprise routers, which connect large
business or ISP networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical
fiber lines of the Internet backbone.

Applications
When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about
destination addresses, using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred
routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router has interfaces for different
physical types of network connections, (such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It
also containsfirmware for different networking protocol standards. Each network interface uses this
specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission
system to another.

Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets,
each with a different sub-network address. The subnets addresses recorded in the router do not
necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections. [2] A router has two stages of operation
called planes:[3]

 Control plane: A router records a routing table listing what route should be used to forward a data
packet, and through which physical interface connection. It does this using internal pre-configured
addresses, called static routes.
 Forwarding plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface
connections. It routes it to the correct network type using information that the
packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing table control plane.
Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, and
between internet service providers (ISPs) networks. The largest routers (such as the Cisco CRS-
1 or Juniper T1600) interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks.
[4]
 Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks. Other
networking solutions may be provided by a backbone Wireless Distribution System (WDS), which
avoids the costs of introducing networking cables into buildings.
Internet connectivity and internal use
Routers intended for ISP and major enterprise connectivity usually exchange routing information using
the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). RFC 4098[9] standard defines the types of BGP-protocol routers
according to the routers' functions:
 Edge router: Also called a Provider Edge router, is placed at the edge of an ISP network. The
router uses External BGP to EBGP protocol routers in other ISPs, or a large enterprise Autonomous
System.
 Subscriber edge router: Also called a Customer Edge router, is located at the edge of the
subscriber's network, it also uses EBGP protocol to its provider's Autonomous System. It is typically
used in an (enterprise) organization.
 Inter-provider border router: Interconnecting ISPs, is a BGP-protocol router that maintains BGP
sessions with other BGP protocol routers in ISP Autonomous Systems.
 Core router: A core router resides within an Autonomous System as a back bone to carry traffic
between edge routers.[10]
 Within an ISP: In the ISPs Autonomous System, a router uses internal BGP protocol to
communicate with other ISP edge routers, other intranet core routers, or the ISPs intranet provider
border routers.
 "Internet backbone:" The Internet no longer has a clearly identifiable backbone, unlike its
predecessor networks. See default-free zone (DFZ). The major ISPs system routers make up what
could be considered to be the current Internet backbone core. [11] ISPs operate all four types of the
BGP-protocol routers described here. An ISP "core" router is used to interconnect its edge and border
routers. Core routers may also have specialized functions in virtual private networks based on a
combination of BGP and Multi-Protocol Label Switching protocols.[12]
 Port forwarding: Routers are also used for port forwarding between private internet connected
servers.[5]

 Voice/Data/Fax/Video Processing Routers: Commonly referred to as access servers or gateways,

these devices are used to route and process voice, data, video, and fax traffic on the internet. Since
2005, most long-distance phone calls have been processed as IP traffic (VOIP) through a voice
gateway,. Voice traffic that the traditional cable networks once carried. Use of access server type
routers expanded with the advent of the internet, first with dial-up access, and another resurgence
with voice phone service

 GATEWAY
In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with another network that uses
different protocols.
 A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance
matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to
 provide system interoperability. It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable
administrative procedures between both networks.
 A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with different network
protocol technologies by performing the required protocol conversions.
 Loosely, a computer configured to perform the tasks of a gateway. For a specific case,
see default gateway.

Routers exemplify special cases of gateways.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at network layer and above. The job of a
gateway is much more complex than that of a router or switch. Typically, a gateway must convert one
protocol stack into another.

Details

A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a node or
stopping point node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers
that serve pages to users are host nodes, while the nodes that connect the networks in between are
gateways. For example, the computers that control traffic between company networks or the computers
used by internet service providers (ISPs) to connect users to the internet are gateway nodes.

In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often also acting as a
proxy server and a firewall server. A gateway is often associated with both a router, which knows where
to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the actual path
in and out of the gateway for a given packet.

On an IP network, clients should automatically send IP packets with a destination outside a given subnet
mask to a network gateway. A subnet mask defines the IP range of a private network. For example, if a
private network has a base IP address of [Link] and has a subnet mask of [Link], then any
data going to an IP address outside of 192.168.0.X will be sent to that network's gateway. While
forwarding an IP packet to another network, the gateway might or might not perform Network Address
Translation.A gateway is an essential feature of most routers, although other devices (such as any PC or
server) can function as a gateway.
Most computer operating systems use the terms described above. A computer running Microsoft
Windows however describes this standard networking feature as Internet Connection Sharing; which will
act as a gateway, offering a connection between the Internet and an internal network. Such a system
might also act as a DHCP server. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol used by
networked devices (clients) to obtain various parameters necessary for the clients to operate in an
Internet Protocol (IP) network. By using this protocol, system administration workload greatly decreases,
and devices can be added to the network with minimal or no manual configurations.