ROCKET PROPULSION
Basics of Chemical (Thermal) Rocket Nozzle Performance
Military Technical Academy
Prof. dr. ing. Doru SAFTA
SUMMARY OF KEY THRUST, T, EQUATIONS
(g +1) (g -1)
(g -1) é ù
T 2g 2 æ 2 ö æ p ö
ê1 - ç e ÷
g
ú + æç pe - pa ö÷ Ae
= çç ÷÷
*
A p0 g -1 è g +1 ø ê çè p0 ÷ø ú çè p0 p0 ÷ø A*
ë û
Comparison to best theoretical
(g +1)
p A *
1 æ g +1ö (g -1) RT0
c* º 0 = ç ÷
m! gè 2 ø M
(g +1) (g -1)
(g -1) é ù
T 2g æ 2 ö2
æ p ö
ê1 - ç e ÷
g
ú + æç pe - pa ö÷ Ae
CT º * = çç ÷÷
A p0 g -1 è g +1 ø ê çè p0 ÷ø ú çè p0 p0 ÷ø A*
ë û
Measure from actual rocket
T = m! c CT
*
(parameters that can be easily measured on a thrust stand)
2
OVERVIEW
• Next page shows a plot of thrust ratio vs. area ratio
– Figure compares two non-dimensional numbers
– Abscissa is ratio of nozzle exit area to minimum area, or nozzle exit area to
throat area (minimum area always occurs at throat), Ae/A*
– Ordinate is ratio of thrust with diverging to converging nozzle, T/Tconv
• Curve is plotted for constant ratio of specific heats, g = cp/cv = 1.2
– Curve would shift for g = 1.4 or any other value
• Curves correspond to various ratios of Pa/P0
– Pa/P0 = ambient (atmospheric) to combustion chamber pressure
– P0 is approximately constant for most rockets
3
T/Tconv versus Ae/A* performance characteristics for a 1-D
isentropic thermal rocket nozzle
4
COMPARISON OF CONVERGING vs. DIVERGING NOZZLES
• Examine ratio of thrusts, with and without a diverging section
Chamber, Pa
Chamber Chamber
P0 P0
Converging Nozzle Converging-Diverging Nozzle
• Examine performance benefit of having diverging portion
• Metric of comparison:
T CT
=
Tconv CTconv
• Excellent Web Site: [Link]
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COMMENTS: CONVERGING NOZZLE (CTconv)
• For nozzle with only a converging section → analysis is straightforward
• Pa/P0 is varied in equation
g g
p0 æ g - 1 2 ö g -1 p0 æ g - 1 2 ö g -1
= ç1 + M ÷ or = ç1 + Me ÷
p è 2 ø pe è 2 ø
g
pe æ 2 ö g -1
Evaluate at Me = 1
= çç ÷÷ Sonic exit condition
p0 è g + 1 ø
(g +1) (g -1)
(g -1) é ù
T 2g æ 2 ö 2
æ p ö
ê1 - ç e ÷
g
ú + æç pe - pa ö÷ Ae
CT º * = çç ÷÷
A p0 g -1 è g +1 ø ê çè p0 ÷ø ú çè p0 p0 ÷ø A*
ë û
g
æ 2 ö g -1
pa
CTconv = (g + 1)çç ÷÷ - For converging nozzle
è g +1ø p0 Ae/A* = 1
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THRUST COEFFICIENT, CTconv, FOR CONVERGING NOZZLES
g
æ 2 ö g -1
pa
CTconv = (g + 1)çç ÷÷ -
è g +1ø p0
• Maximum Thrust Coefficient when Pa = 0 (expansion into a vacuum)
• Ae/A*=1
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COMMENTS: DIVERGING NOZZLE (CT)
• Requires more analysis than simple converging nozzle
g
Expression for Pe/P0
p0 æ g - 1 2 ö g -1
= ç1 + Me ÷
pe è 2 ø
(g +1) (g -1)
(g -1) é ù
T 2g æ 2 ö 2
æ p ö
ê1 - ç e ÷
g
ú + æç pe - pa ö÷ Ae
CT º * = çç ÷÷
A p0 g -1 è g +1 ø ê çè p0 ÷ø ú çè p0 p0 ÷ø A*
ë û
Vary Pa/P0 and Ae/A*
• IMPORTANT POINT: We can not vary Pe/P0 and Ae/A* independently
– Connected through Mach Number, Me
(g +1)
Ae 1 é 2 æ g - 1 2 öù 2(g -1) Given A/A* → 2 Me Solutions
= ê ç1 + M e ÷ú
A*
M g +1 è
e ë 2 ø Subsonic and Supersonic
û
8
MACH NUMBER vs. A/A*
8
Cp/Cv=1.2
Cp/Cv=1.4
7 Differences in Cp/Cv
Amplified as M ↑
6
5
For Given A/A* → 2 Solutions
A/A*
4 Subsonic and Supersonic Mach
2
Highly Sensitive:
1 Small Changes in A/A*
→ Large Changes in M
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Mach Number
9
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
(g +1) (g -1)
(g -1) é ù
ê1 - æç pe ö÷ ú + æç pe - pa ö÷ Ae
g
1.4 T 2g æ 2 ö2
CT º * = ç ÷
A po g - 1 çè g + 1 ÷ø ê çè po ÷ø ú çè po po ÷ø A* Pa/Po=0.050
ë û
1.2
WHAT DID WE DO HERE?
1
1) Set Pa/P0 = 0.05, g = 1.2
2) For any Ae/A* determine
0.8 supersonic Me
T/Tconv
3) Using this Me calculate P0/Pe
0.6 Function is Maximized 4) Calculate CT
when Pe = Pa 5) Plot CT/CTconv (or T/Tconv) as
0.4
function of Ae/A* (which is
equivalent to plotting CT as a
function of Me (supersonic))
0.2
0
1 10 100 1000
Ae/A*
10
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.4
Pa/Po=0.050
Maximum Thrust (Pe = Pa)
1.2
Diverging Portion
Increases Thrust
1
0.8
T/Tconv
0.6
In terms of calculation, we Diverging Portion
could allow T/Tconv to Reduces Thrust
0.4
become negative, but as
we will soon see, we can
0.2 deal with this part of curve
more realistically
0
1 10 100 1000
Ae/A*
11
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.4
Pa/Po=0.050
1.2 Nozzle is Ideally Expanded Pe = Pa
0.8
T/Tconv
0.6 Curve can also tell us where Pe > or < Pa
0.4
IF: Pe > Pa Nozzle is Under-Expanded
IF: Pe < Pa Nozzle is Over-Expanded
0.2
0
1 10 100 1000
Ae/A*
12
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.4
Pa/Po=0.050
1.2 Nozzle is Ideally Expanded (Pe = Pa)
Nozzle is Under-Expanded (Pe > Pa)
0.8
T/Tconv
0.6
Nozzle is Over-Expanded (Pe < Pa)
0.4
0.2
0
1 10 100 1000
Ae/A*
13
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
Nominal Range of Pa/P0
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
0.8 Pa/Po=0.03 Decreasing Back Pressure
Pa/Po=0.02 or
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01 Increasing Altitude
Pa/Po=0.005
0.4 Pa/Po=0.003
Pa/Po=0.002
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
Pa/Po=0.0
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
Line of Maximum Thrust:
1.6 Connects Locus of Maxima
1.4
1.2
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
0.8 Pa/Po=0.03
Pa/Po=0.02
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01
Pa/Po=0.005 For each value of Pa/P0 there is an
0.4 Pa/Po=0.003 optimum area ratio for nozzle
Pa/Po=0.002
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
Pa/Po=0.0
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
Small Ratios of Pa/P0 Require
1.6 Very Large Area Ratios
1.4
1.2
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
0.8 Pa/Po=0.03
Pa/Po=0.02
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01
Pa/Po=0.005
0.4 Pa/Po=0.003
Pa/Po=0.002
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
Pa/Po=0.0
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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EXAMPLE: ROCKET LAUNCH Ae/A* = 20
1.8
1.6 Burnout (Under-Expanded)
↑ Vertical Flight
1.4 Max Thrust (Ideally Expanded)
1.2
1.0
Launch (Over-Expanded)
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
0.8 Pa/Po=0.03
Pa/Po=0.02
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01
Notice we are closer to
Pa/Po=0.005
0.4 Pa/Po=0.003
Optimum Thrust on
Pa/Po=0.002
Under-Expanded Side
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
Pa/Po=0.0
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
Pa/Po=0.03
What can physically happen to
0.8
Pa/Po=0.02
supersonic flow in this region?
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01 For this combination of pressure ratios
Pa/Po=0.005 and area ratios, a shock enters nozzle
0.4 Pa/Po=0.003
Pa/Po=0.002
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
Pa/Po=0.0
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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MODEL OF SHOCK IN EXIT PLANE
• We can plot shock line by located a shock at exit plane of nozzle
• Requires 1 additional equation
– Flow across a normal shock to connect conditions
pa 2g g -1
= M e2 -
pe g + 1 g +1
g
p0 æ g - 1 2 ö g -1
= ç1 + Me ÷
pe è 2 ø
pa æ pa öæ pe ö
= çç ÷÷çç ÷÷
p0 è pe øè p0 ø
(g +1)
2 (g -1)
Ae 1 é 2 æ g - 1 2 öù
= ê ç1 + M e ÷ú
A*
M e ëg +1 è 2 øû
• For a given g only one Pa/P0 for which a normal shock will locate in plane of a
nozzle of given area ratio Ae/A*
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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
Pa/Po=0.05
1.6 Pa/Po=0.03
Pa/Po=0.02
Pa/Po=0.01
1.4
Pa/Po=0.005
Pa/Po=0.003
1.2
Pa/Po=0.002
Pa/Po=0.001
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.0
Shock Line
0.8
0.6
On this line a normal shock wave
0.4
located at exit of nozzle
0.2
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
20
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC OF A 1-D
ISENTROPIC NOZZLE
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
T/Tconv
Pa/Po=0.05
0.8 Pa/Po=0.03 If Pe reduced substantially below Pa
Pa/Po=0.02
flow can separate
0.6 Pa/Po=0.01
A rough approximation for this condition is:
Pa/Po=0.005
0.4
Pe/Pa < 0.4
Pa/Po=0.003
Pa/Po=0.002
NOTE: Axial thrust direction is not usually
0.2 Pa/Po=0.001
altered by separation and CT can actually be
Pa/Po=0.0 increased over non-separated case
0.0
1 10 Ae/A* 100 1000
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THRUST COEFFICIENT PLOTS
• Taken from: Rocket Propulsion Elements, 6th
Edition, by G. P. Sutton
• Notation
– p1 = p 0
– p2 = p e
– p3 = p a
– CF = CT
– A2/At = e = Ae/A*
– k = g = cp/cv
• Comments:
– Plots are only CF (CT), they are not
normalized by CTconv as in Figure 11.3
– Large region of separated flow
– Asymptotic behavior as p1/p3 → ∞
• pa/p0 → ∞ in H&P
22
THRUST COEFFICIENT VS. NOZZLE AREA RATIO FOR g=1.2
23
OPTIMUM EXPANSION SUMMARY
24
Figure 11.7 (page 448) in Sforza
25
KEY POINTS ON PERFORMANCE CURVE
• How does a rocket flying vertically move on Performance Curve?
– High Pa/P0 to Low Pa/P0
• P0 usually remains ~ constant during flight
• Pa ↓ as altitude ↑
• As Pa/P0 ↓ very large Ae/A* for maximum thrust
• How does optimal Ae/A* vary as rocket flies vertically?
– Required Ae/A* for maximum thrust increases as rocket altitude increases
• If T/Tconv < 1, diverging portion of rocket is hindrance
– Actual rockets never operate in this region
– Best nozzle gives best performance (Isp, range, etc.) over flight envelope
• If nozzle operation is still unclear, lecture on operation of C-D nozzles coming
soon
26
COMMENTS ON ACTUAL NOZZLES
• Model of thermal rocket thrust chamber performance
– Model has many simplifications → measure of best theoretical performance
• Actual rockets benefit from diverging nozzle portion, operate above T/Tconv =1
• Actual thrust chambers (non-idealities important to consider)
– Pressure losses associated with combustion process
– Actual flow in nozzle is not isentropic
• Friction
• Heat losses
• Shocks within nozzle
• Chemistry
– Frozen Flow: Propellant composition remains constant
– Shifting Equilibrium: Composition changes with propellant
temperature
– Actual shape of nozzle affects performance
27
SUMMARY: WHAT HAVE WE DONE?
• Simplified model of thermal rocket thrust chamber
• Model resulted in connection between thermodynamics and exit velocity, Ue
– Propellants with low molecular weight to achieve high exit velocity (high Isp)
– Desirable to have propellant mixtures with large QR/M
– Desirable to have high combustion chamber pressure, P0
• For a given thrust, higher P0 leads to lower A* (smaller rocket)
• Increasing P0 leads to difficulties (stress, heat transfer, chemical issues)
• Model resulted in connection between thermodynamics, geometry and exit velocity
• Developed Characteristic Velocity, c*, and Thrust Coefficient, CT
– Compare actual rockets to theoretical predictions
• Developed plot of Performance Characteristics of a 1-D isentropic rocket nozzle
BASICS OF THERMAL (CHEMICAL) ROCKET PROPULSION AND
PERFORMANCE
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