From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 

527 

can grow as well through the use of inquiry, scaffolding, metacognition, and reflection. 
Taber (2010) claimed that, rather than a focus on whether a teacher uses a teacher-
centered or a student-centered approach, it would be better to focus on the interactions
between the teacher and students. Thus, a teacher can structure activities and scaffold
learning while checking for student understanding. Open-ended, minimally guided, and
discovery learning modes do not necessarily equate with a modern constructivist
approach. Constructivist pedagogy involves guiding students toward accepted scientific
knowledge in ways that take into account students' beginning knowledge and ways of
making sense of science. 
Teachers' Use of Inquiry in Classrooms During the period immediately following the
publication of the NSES (NRC, 1996, 2000), there was renewed interest in conducting
research on teaching science as inquiry in classrooms. Researchers designed studies
of teachers' knowledge, beliefs, and views of inquiry; how teachers carried out inquiry
practices in the classroom; challenges and constraints; and impact on students'
learning and views of science. An assumption of this research is that teachers do not
change their current practice of teaching science as a rhetoric of facts to teaching
science as inquiry without having a deep understanding of the nature of the scientific
inquiry. 

Teacher Knowledge, Beliefs, and Views Studying the relationship between teachers'
knowledge, beliefs, and views and their implications for classroom practice is prominent
in the literature. Although beliefs are complex and considered by many to be a messy
construct (i.e., Pajares, 1992), they likely play an important role in whether a teacher
intends to and/or actually carries out the practice of teaching science as inquiry. Beliefs
are, according to Philipp (2007): 
Psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are
thought to be true. Beliefs are more cognitive, are felt less intensely, and are harder to
change than attitudes. Beliefs might be thought of as lenses that affect one's view of
some aspect of the world or as dispositions toward action. 
(p. 259) 
Student Roles An important issue has been raised that not only does a teacher need to
adopt new roles in reform-based classrooms, but a student's role needs to be redefined
as well. One goal of teaching science as inquiry is that of students taking ownership of
and responsibility for their own learning. Historically, students have taken on passive
roles in many classrooms, aligned with teacher-directed, lecture-style instruction. What
should students be doing in an inquiry-based classroom? What roles and
responsibilities should students adopt to expedite their growth as independent and
critical thinkers? 
Schwab (1960) noted the importance of a student taking on the role of and
responsibility for being a “learner of science." Schwab (1960) explained, “He needs to
develop the competencies and the habits required to read and learn for himself. This
need will require us to test that most cherished fantasy of the teacher—that students
truly learn only with our help" (p. 186). 
However, many students who are successful in a traditional science classroom feel
threatened and uneasy in taking on new roles in an inquiry-focused classroom. The
hesitancy of students to take on different roles has been identified in several studies.
For example, Trautmann and colleagues (2004) documented that some students who
excel in traditional instruction may not be willing to take risks or ownership in reform-
based instruction. 
Metacognition is one's ability to think about his or her own learning. Assisting students
in becoming metacognitive is a very important goal associated with teaching science as
inquiry. Being metacognitive depends on a student taking an active role in his or her
own learning (White & Frederiksen, 2000). When pursuing an answer to a driving
question, a student can learn to focus on the problem and about connections with
various aspects of inquiry, including gathering and interpreting data, answers to the
question based on evidence, evaluating alternative explanations, and critically reviewing
these components. Meta cognition can help students to be systematic and thorough
during the course of an investigation (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Researchers White and
Frederiksen (1998) claimed that developing metacognition in students through
scaffolded inquiry, reflection, and generalization can make scientific inquiry accessible
to a wide range of students, including young and lower-achieving students. Teachers 
Following are some representative studies of the impact of teachers' beliefs on their
classroom practices, related specifically to inquiry. Roehrig and Luft (2004) identified
constraints that affect teachers' enactment of inquiry-based instruction, such as content
knowledge, teaching beliefs, and concerns about management and students. To
investigate teachers' beliefs, Wallace and Kang (2004) designed a multiple case study
of six experienced high school teachers. They investigated teachers' beliefs about (1)
what is successful science learning, (2) what are the purposes of laboratories in science
teaching, and (3) how inquiry is implemented in the classroom. Beliefs about successful
science learning were linked to beliefs about the use of the school laboratory and
teaching inquiry. For example, two teachers who believed that successful science
learning was deep conceptual understanding used mainly verification labs to illustrate
these concepts, and they used inquiry as an isolated problem-solving experience. One
other teacher believed that successful science learning was enculturation into scientific
practices, and this teacher used inquiry-based labs extensively to teach the practices of
science. 
528 
Barbara A. Crawford 

Kang (2007) conducted a phenomena graphic study to ascertain the extent of beginning
science teachers' views and understandings and those of instructors in an alternative
teacher certification program (ATCP). Participants were four beginning science teachers
and two faculty members involved in teaching science methods courses. Data included
semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, field notes, written materials, and
interviews with each faculty member. Results showed that the beginning teachers held
incomplete views of inquiry-based teaching, and their views differed from those of their
instructors. 
Crawford (1999) examined one prospective high school teacher's ability to create an
inquiry-based classroom to explore the feasibility of a novice teacher carrying out this
complex kind of teaching. The case study examined this teacher's beliefs about science
and teaching, how she engaged her students in inquiry, and factors that helped or
hindered her ability. Data included classroom observations and videos, written
observations of lessons, audiotapes of conversations, lesson plans, written reflections,
and teacher interviews. There was evidence students gained ownership of their own
learning to some degree. A number of factors appeared to contribute to success: prior
research experience, volunteering in project-oriented classrooms, clear vision of unit
goals, strong relationship with a mentor teacher, collaboration with experts outside the
classroom, and reflection on practice. Implications included the importance of exploring
teachers' beliefs, the need for teachers to experience authentic investigations, learning
models of teaching inquiry, support in planning long-term units, and reflection on
teaching practice. 
Keys and Bryan (2001) proposed an agenda on beliefs, knowledge, and roles of
teachers, that researchers collect vital data on teacher beliefs, knowledge, practices,
and student learning from teacher-designed inquiry instruction, especially in diverse
settings" (p. 642). Of course, the fact that a teacher may hold beliefs congruent with
inquiry does not necessarily mean this teacher will intend to carry out this kind of
pedagogy or will be successful in carrying it out. 
Ireland and colleagues (2011) used the phenomena graphic research method to
uncover 20 elementary school teachers' conceptions of inquiry teaching. The
researchers defined inquiry as involving students in learning in their own way by
drawing on direct experience, fostered by the teacher, and active engagement in
experiences. Data consisted of interviews. Three kinds of conceptions were reported:
(a) the experience-centered conception in which teachers focused on providing
interesting sensory experiences to students, (b) the problem-centered conception in
which teachers focused on engaging students with challenging problems, and (c) the
question-centered conception in which teachers focused on helping students ask and
answer their own questions. 
Investigating the relationship between three teachers' perceptions of nature of science
(NOS) and inquiry teaching practices, Atar (2011) collected Views of Nature 
of Science-form C (VNOS-C), online postings, interviews, email, lesson plans, and
videos of inquiry lessons. Improving teachers' conceptions of NOS appeared to
positively impact the use of inquiry practices—teachers with more sophisticated NOS
views conducted a less structured 
inquiry and more student-centered activities. However, teachers who did not possess
adequate content knowledge were reluctant to change their teaching practices. 
Breslyn and McGinnis (2011) examined the question, How does exemplary secondary
science teachers' discipline (biology, chemistry, earth science, or physics) influence
their conceptions, enactment, and goals for inquiry-based teaching and learning?
Participants included 60 national board-certified science teachers. Researchers
employed mixed methods, using portfolio texts and interviews to assess enactment and
views of inquiry. The discipline in which these teachers taught was found to be a major
influence on conceptions and enactment of inquiry. The classroom context did not
appear to be as large a factor as the structure of the discipline. 
In a recent study, Windschitl and Thompson (2012) studied the effectiveness of a
teacher education program designed to enhance prospective teachers' knowledge of
the inquiry, in particular their understanding of models and modeling. Data sources
included observations, student artifacts, informal interviews, and questionnaires.
Participants included 21 prospective secondary science teachers with undergraduate
degrees in science, all in a secondary methods course. While prospective teachers
could talk about models in a sophisticated way, they had a difficult time creating models
themselves. Further, these prospective teachers viewed models as being separate from
the process of inquiry. 
In summary, it seems reasonable to continue to explore teachers' knowledge and
beliefs and expect that these play an important part in teachers' intentions and/or
abilities to successfully design and carry out inquiry-based teaching. 

Evidence of Actual Classroom Practices It is important to ascertain not only the nature
of teachers' beliefs and knowledge but also the nature of teachers' intentions and actual
classroom practices regarding the inquiry. Following the publication of the NSES (NRC,
1996), researchers Keys and Kennedy (1999) examined the teaching practice of an
elementary teacher with 11 years of experience. Two years before the study, the
teacher was involved in a science and math education reform project. The school was
located in a low to middle socioeconomic status (SES) area. The classroom included 26
children of varying demographics. A case study method and participant-observer
technique were used; data included field notes during lessons, informal interviews, and
transcripts of three formal interviews. Four main themes were revealed: (1) 
The teacher planned instruction to explore questions that arose in context naturally from
science activities, (2) the teacher helped students take responsibility, (3) the teacher 
From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 
529 

supported children in constructing explanations and concepts from data, and (4) the
teacher provided opportunities for students to apply scientific knowledge. Major
challenges included lack of time, the challenge of turning questions back onto students,
and teaching mandated concepts difficult to teach through inquiry. 
Crawford (2000) documented and examined the beliefs and practices of an experienced
rural public high school science teacher to determine how this teacher created an
inquiry-based classroom environment. The researcher collected data for more than a
year. The report focused on 20 students in an ecology class. Data included teacher
interviews, notes of informal conversations, videotapes of classroom and field trips,
interviews of eight randomly selected students, student products, and an end-of-year
anonymous student questionnaire. Key characteristics emerged: (a) situating instruction
in authentic problems, (b) grappling with data, (c) collaboration of students and teacher,
(d) connecting students with the community, (e) the teacher modeling behaviors of a
scientist, and (f) fostering students in taking ownership of their own learning. Crawford
identified 10 different teacher roles. Roles of students varied as well, with some roles
typically reserved for teachers being occupied by students. 
Given the varied characteristics of the two classrooms described earlier, one an
elementary classroom and one a secondary classroom, and the uniqueness of each
teacher’s background, particular school setting, and student population, it is difficult to
generalize the findings of two case studies to other classrooms in the United States and
countries around the world. Context is important. Different contexts may likely result in
different outcomes. Yet descriptive and interpretive studies such as these are vital in
understanding all the complexities involved when a teacher strives to carry out teaching
science as inquiry in light of high-stakes testing and state and national mandates.
Large-scale quantitative studies may not provide the same in-depth view into a single
classroom. 
In a recent case study that took place over 2 years, Maskiewicz and Winters (2012)
reported longitudinal observations of one elementary teacher's fifth-grade classroom
(children ages 11–12 years). The authors presented empirical evidence that shifted
from focusing on the teacher to focus on the classroom context, including the students.
Findings indicated students can have a substantive and generative influence on the
nature and form of inquiry carried out by a teacher in any given year. Context is
important. And the change in students from one year to the next is a component of the
context. 
Moving beyond studying a single teacher or single classroom, an example of a study
specifically focused on argumentation strategies is one conducted in Great Britain
(Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004). Researchers tracked 12 junior high school
teachers and students in classrooms during 2 years to determine the nature and quality
of the classroom discourse related to argumentation. Fogleman, McNeill, and Krajcik
(2011) examined 19 teachers' use 
of an inquiry-oriented middle school science curriculum. Using hierarchical linear
modeling, researchers aimed to determine the influence of a teacher's curricular
adaptations on student learning. Data included curriculum surveys, videotape
observations, and pre-and post-tests from 1,234 students. Two variables significantly
predicted student learning: teacher experience and amount of student initiation during
instruction. Teachers who had taught the inquiry-oriented curriculum before had greater
student gains. Students who completed investigations had greater learning gains as
compared with students whose teachers used demonstrations or carried out the inquiry
themselves. Implications include (1) it takes time for teachers to effectively implement
an innovative science curriculum and (2) it is important that students actively engage in
inquiry investigations. 
McNeill (2009) studied the enactment by six middle-level teachers of an 8-week
chemistry-based unit. The curriculum focused on students constructing arguments
using an adapted version of Toulmin's model of argumentation. A total of 568 middle
school students participated in the study. Data included videotaped classroom lessons,
student pre-and post-tests, and teacher questionnaires. Findings revealed a
significant teacher effect on students' learning about scientific explanations, evidence,
reasoning, and content knowledge. The teacher who defined scientific explanation
differently than in the curriculum had the lowest student gains in terms of scientific
explanation. The study highlighted that different teachers carry out reform-based
curricula in different ways, something curriculum designers need to take into account. 
In summary, it is important to investigate the actual inquiry practices of teachers in their
classrooms over several lessons and even over multiple years, in addition to assessing
teachers' beliefs and knowledge. The studies discussed to illustrate the importance of
researchers moving into the classroom to determine what is happening, with all the
complexities of individual student abilities and predispositions, classroom physical
structures, school culture, and community. Different classrooms provide very different
contexts. 

Evidence of Student Learning Reform documents of the last two decades (AAAS, 1989,
1993; the NGSS Lead States, 2013; NRC, 1996) is explicit in stating that a teaching
practice in which science is taught only as a body of facts, using primarily lecture
modes, stressing vocabulary-driven drill-practice and using only teacher-centered ways
versus student-centered approaches, is simply not effective for all students. It is
important that science instruction be accessible to diverse students, including those
children from populations historically underrepresented in sciences. "Science is for all
students [and] that learning science is an active process, and that school science
[should] reflect the intellectual and cultural traditions that characterize the practice of
contemporary science” (NRC, 1996, p. 19). 
530 
Barbara A, Crawford 

The bottom line is the need to answer questions about student learning. In what ways
does teaching science as inquiry enhance students' learning and views of science?
What is the evidence that children learn better in an inquiry-based classroom than in a
traditional classroom? These questions are especially relevant for children who are
academically unsuccessful in traditional science classrooms. So, what do students do,
and what do they learn in an inquiry-based classroom? 
Two representative studies addressing the critical importance of assessment include
Champagne and colleagues (2000) and Duschl (2003). Champagne and co-author’s
inquiry the based listed two major forms of inquiry (scientific inquiry as practiced by
scientists and science-related practices by scientifically literate adults and students) and
three forms of science-related inquiry (archival investigation, experimentation, and
laboratory investigation). The authors advocated that performance standards must be
set through a conversation between teachers and the school district. Duschl (2003)
described a framework that included the use of strategies that engage students in
thinking about the structure and communication of scientific knowledge. Further,
assessment of inquiry should focus on three integrated domains: (1) epistemic,
including the abilities involved in the processes of science and the knowledge structures
and criteria used in science to make critical judgments; (2) conceptual, including the
conceptual frameworks that students are expected to develop and their alternative
conceptions; and (3) social, referring to the representation and communication
frameworks that students use. 
Various studies assessing student learning in an inquiry-based classroom have focused
on the nature of the students (diverse populations or those with disabilities), classroom
locality (urban or rural or suburban), use of technology, or a comparison of traditional
with various forms of inquiry, or some combination of these. Representative studies are
described next. 
In a meta-analysis, Shymansky, Kyle, and Alport (2006) analyzed the effects of new
science curricula on student performance. The study included 105 experimental studies
involving more than 45,000 students and a total of 27 different new science curricula.
Results indicated students exposed to new science curricula performed better than
students in traditional courses ,n general, achieve- ment, analytic skills, process skills,
and related skills. In addition, those students exhibited more positive attitudes towards
science. A recent study focused on children's written scientific explanations and the
possible link between the quality and students' performance on assessment (Ruiz-
Primo, Li, Tsai, & Schneider, 2010). Researchers found some evidence of a connection
but limited opportunities in classrooms. 
Two studies focusing on a problem-based learning (PBL) approach include Peterson
and Treagust (1998) and Drake and Long (2009). Peterson and Treagust (1998)
studied prospective teachers and emphasized the use of a pedagogical reasoning
process. Working in small groups, 
participants worked for achievementMetacognition6 weeks to solve a problem. The
study followed two randomly selected participants. Findings revealed each prospective
teacher considered and developed their knowledge base and pedagogical reasoning in
areas that were relevant to their current understanding of teaching and learning. Drake
and Long (2009) conducted a study comparing children in the fourth grade (ages 9–10
years old) as they learned about electricity through either a PBL approach or
direct/experiential instruction. Data sources included pre-and post-test measures of
content knowledge, Draw-a-Scientist test, student interviews, and classroom
observations. PBL classroom children demonstrated significantly higher learning gains
and had fewer stereotypical views of scientists, viewed themselves as scientists, and
were able to list more problem-solving strategies and resources than did comparison
students. 
In a British study, students in a high school computer course used a Web-based
learning environment to find answers to questions (Hsu, Hwang, Chuang, & Chang,
2012). Student learning gains in the selected-resource network were greater than in the
open-resource network. In this study, low-achieving students in particular made
excellent progress in using problem-solving skills. 
An urban setting was the focus of the following two studies by Kahle, Meece, and
Scantlebury (2000) and Marx and colleagues (2004). In the first study, Kahle and co-
authors investigated Ohio's Statewide Systemic Initiative (SSI), Project Discovery. Data
included group-administered questionnaires and achievement tests specifically
designed for Ohio's SSI. Teachers who frequently used standards-based teaching
practices positively influenced urban, African American students' science achievement
and attitudes, especially that of boys. Additionally, teachers' involvement in the PD was
positively related to reported use of standards-based teaching practices. Marx and
colleagues assessed the impact of an inquiry-based science initiative in the context of
urban systemic reform. In this study, there were reported gains from sixth grade to
eighth grade. There was no reported control or comparison group; therefore, gains
could have been attributed to maturation. Although findings offer support for using
inquiry-based approaches in urban settings, the study revealed important cautions; this
kind of teaching is not without hurdles, particularly in an urban setting 
In a study of 18 kindergarten children (5–6 years old), Samarapungavan, Patrick, and
Mantzicopoulos (2011) conducted a study focused on in the context of the Science
Literacy Project (SLP). Science was taught twice a week. The six SLP units (two NOS
units, three biology-based units, and one motion unit) were implemented for a total of 20
weeks. Researchers measured students' growth in knowledge and changes, if any, in
motivation, as compared with a control group of students. Results indicated that
children in the SLP classrooms made substantial gains in subject matter and processes
of inquiry and showed a higher interest in and competence for engaging in science 
From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 
531 

then the comparison group did. Authors claimed these results refuted the claim held by
some people that young children cannot engage in inquiry. 
There is limited research on the effects of inquiry instruction on diverse learners and
learners with disabilities. Four selected studies include those by Cuevas and colleagues
(2005), Lynch and colleagues (2005), McCrathy (2005), and Lee, Buxton, Lewis, and
LeRoy (2006). Cue- vas, and co-authors (2005) investigated the impact of an
intervention on elementary-level diverse students' gains in inquiry skills. The study site
was a large urban school district in the southeastern United States with a varied
demographic population. Participants included seven elementary-level teachers
selected on their effectiveness of teaching science. Units focused on measurement and
matter (Grade 3) and the water cycle and weather (Grade 4). Students demonstrated a
statistically significant improvement in abilities to design procedures, record results, and
develop a conclusion after instruction. Significant differences were not observed
inabilities to create a problem statement or how students would use materials to carry
out investigations. Low-achieving students exhibited dramatic gains as compared with
high-achieving students. Limitations included small sample size, lack of a control group,
and few details of the instruction. 
Lynch and co-authors investigated the impact of a Michigan curriculum on middle-level
students' chemistry understandings. Participants were eighth-grade teachers in 10
schools (including comparison classrooms). Teachers routinely attended PD sessions
on the use of reform-based strategies. The curriculum used a guided inquiry approach
with diverse students. A quasi-experimental design was used, and an ethnographic
portion tracked four students. Data included classroom videotapes. Teachers were
asked to teach the same curriculum standards. Findings indicated statistically significant
improved performance for students in project classrooms related to achievement, basic
engagement, and goal orientation. 
McCrathy (2005) compared hands-on science teaching (not strictly inquiry as defined in
this chapter) versus textbook instruction for students with disabilities. Demographically,
the students came from variable backgrounds. Two special education teachers taught
approximately 16 lessons on matters during 8 weeks. Data included three pre-and
post-tests, one multiple-choice, one short-answer, and one hands-on test. Students
involved in hands-on instruction performed significantly better on short-answer and
hands-on posttests, with no significant difference between groups on the multiple-
choice test. This finding is important related to appropriate assessments used in an
inquiry-based classroom. 
Lee and colleagues (2006) studied students of diverse backgrounds and abilities to
engage in scientific inquiry. Students were selected based on teachers' perceptions of
students, whether students were high or low achievers. The intervention had a greater
impact on the inquiry abilities of older students as well as those students from diverse
backgrounds. 
Two studies assessing student learning in classrooms using PBS include those by
Schneider and colleagues (2002) and Geier and colleagues (2008). Schneider and co-
authors (2002) compared classrooms of similar White middle-class students nationally
and provided evidence of PBS students attaining equal or better achievement than
students in traditional classrooms. This finding suggests that teachers should not be
skeptical of using inquiry approaches in a high-stakes testing environment. Geier and
co-authors (2008) studied the effect of the PBS curriculum on middle-level students'
learning situated in a large urban reform effort. Participants included two cohorts of
seventh and eighth graders, who received instruction in the project units, as compared
with the remainder of the district population. Positive findings included increases in
science content understandings and process skills over their peers and significantly
higher pass rates on the statewide test. There was also evidence of reducing the
achievement gap typically experienced by urban African-American boys. 
Sadeh and Zion (2009) compared the influence of open versus guided inquiry and
defined "dynamic inquiry" as instruction that emphasizes aspects of change, intellectual
flexibility, and critical thinking. Student participants were divided into two groups:
guided- and open-inquiry learning approaches. Each group was followed for 2 years.
Data included interviews, students' inquiry summary papers, logbooks, and reflections.
Open-inquiry students demonstrated significantly higher levels of performances in the
criteria “changes during inquiry" and "procedural understanding.” There was no
significant difference in the criteria “learning as a process” and “affective points of
view." 
Several studies aimed to compare inquiry versus traditional instruction related to impact
on student learning. Four selected studies include those of Turpin and Cage (2004),
Pine and colleagues (2006), Wilson and colleagues (2010), and Blanchard and
colleagues (2010). 
In the first study, Turpin and Cage (2004) studied classrooms of teachers using an
integrated activity-based science curriculum versus traditional science instruction.
Researchers selected three schools in northern Louisiana in the United States as
experimental classrooms and four schools as comparison sites. Teachers using an
integrated curriculum involve students in labs twice a week. Instruments used included
the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), the Science Process Skills Test, and the Serve
Science Attitude Survey. Results included significantly higher ITBS and Science
Process Skills posttest scores in the integrated activity-based classrooms. However,
posttest science attitude means were not significantly different. There was no
information on the exact nature of the instruction used by the two groups of
classrooms. 
In the second study, Pine and colleagues (2006) compared students in classrooms
using hands-on versus textbook curricula. In this large-scale study, participants included
1,000 fifth-grade students from 41 classrooms. Assessments included a 65-question
short-answer cognitive abilities test to determine basic aptitude in areas of 
532 
Barbara A, Crawford 

knowledge of training and preparation of the teachers. Fifty-one percent of the studies
showed positive effects of inquiry-based instruction on content learning and retention.
Thirty-three percent of the studies showed mixed impacts and 14% showed no impact.
The authors noted that although the evidence is not completely positive, those students
who engaged in instruction that involved generating questions, designing experiments,
collecting data, and drawing conclusions exhibited enhanced content learning. 
In summary, some studies of student learning lack adequate descriptions of the nature
of the classroom instruction, the context, the students, and how the author operationally
defined inquiry-based science instruction. Yet there appears to be ample evidence that
teaching science as inquiry can positively impact a student's learning of science
concepts and principles and understanding the nature of the scientific inquiry. 
literacy, mathematics, and figure analysis and a 25-item test with questions drawn from
the 1995 Third International Math and Science Study tests (TIMSS). Researchers found
no significant difference between students who used the hands-on curriculum and those
students using the textbook for both tests. 
In the third study, Wilson and co-authors (2010) used a randomized, experimental
designed study to compare the effectiveness of inquiry-based (organized around the
BSCS 5E Instructional Model) versus traditional instruction of the same unit. Fifty-eight
students (14–16 years old) were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The same
teacher taught both groups of students with the same learning goals. Three outcomes
were measured: scientific knowledge, scientific reasoning through the application of
models, and construction and critique of scientific explanations. Inquiry-based-group
students demonstrated significantly higher levels of achievement than those in the
traditional classroom. Students receiving inquiry-based instruction reached significantly
higher levels of achievement in reform-based practices of scientific knowledge,
reasoning, and argumentation than did students in traditional classrooms. This effect
was consistent across a range of learning goals (knowledge, reasoning, and
argumentation) and time frames immediately following the instruction and 4 weeks
later). 
In the fourth study, Blanchard and colleagues (2010) designed a quantitative study to
compare the efficacy of guided-inquiry-based instruction to more traditional, verification
laboratory instruction on learning content, procedures, and the nature of science. The
sample included 1,700 students in classrooms of 12 middle school teachers and 12 high
school teachers. Instruction for both groups included a week-long, laboratory-based
forensics unit Data included pre-, post-, and delayed posttests, the results of which were
analyzed through a Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM). Students in an inquiry-based
laboratory unit had significantly higher posttest scores, including higher scores, more
growth, and better long-term retention at both the high school and middle school levels
when compared to students in traditional classrooms, 
In a rare synthesis of the inquiry literature, Minner, Levy, and Century (2010) analyzed
the inquiry-based research published from 1984 to 2002. The study is limited in that
research after 2002 is not included in the synthesis. Minner and colleagues (2010)
reported, “various findings across 138 analyzed studies indicate a clear, positive trend
favoring inquiry-based instructional practices, particularly instruction that emphasizes
student active thinking and drawing conclusions from data '' (p. 474). One factor
determining a selection of articles was sufficient information to determine the presence
or absence of inquiry-based science instruction, as operationally defined for this project.
The research designs of the majority of studies were quasi-experimental, experimental,
and qualitative. The research focused primarily on K-12 classrooms with a regular
classroom teacher; however, there was limited 
Teacher Education and Professional Development 
As noted in the previous section, there are identified challenges to a teacher's success
in carrying out practices aligned with an inquiry. The ability to teach science as inquiry
depends on prospective teachers having reform-based education experiences and
practicing teachers having experiences that foster developing a belief that this kind of
teaching is important and possible. In addition, supporting teachers in learning how to
enact inquiry can not be based purely on theoretical ideas. Instead, modeling how
inquiry can be carried out must be clearly situated in the reality of the classroom; a
complex system composed of the teacher or teachers; the diverse learners, their
backgrounds, cultures, and prior knowledge; the school administration; and parents and
community members. Further, there are varied expectations of an individual school, a
school district, state, and country that may be perceived by teachers to be in direct
conflict with using an inquiry-based approach. A meeting of academia's ivory tower and
the trenches of actual classrooms is a necessity if the promise of reform-based
instruction is ever to be realized in science classrooms. 

Prospective Teachers and Teacher Education Research on the practice of teaching

science as an inquiry has important implications for preservice teacher education. First,
it is important to carefully define the pedagogy of inquiry for new teachers and offer
multiple examples of inquiry-based teaching approaches grounded in classroom
practice. These examples should be specific to prospective teachers' grade level and
discipline. Second, there is evidence prospective teachers benefit from authentic
science experiences in developing a clear image of what science is and how science
works (e.g., Windschitl, 2003, 2004). These authentic experiences need to be coupled
with opportunities for reflection on what it means to 
From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 
533 

teach science as inquiry (Schwartz, Lederman, & Crawford, 2004; Zembal-observation

howSaul, Krajcik, & Blumenfeld, 2002). Reform-based teacher education programs
should assist new teachers in carrying out high-quality inquiry teach- ing in classrooms
and not serve simply as replicas of past teacher education programs. Changes will
need to be made in current teacher education programs, yet it is not totally clear from
the literature which changes are the most critical 
One might ask the question, Are most prospective teachers even capable of carrying
out sophisticated inquiry-based approaches in science classrooms? To what extent
should teacher educators expect prospective teachers to design and carry out this kind
of instruction? Using a case study method, Crawford (1999) examined a new high
school biology teacher's ability to create an inquiry-based classroom. The researcher
acknowledged this prospective teacher was something of an anomaly among other Mas
there are degree students in the same program, and few other prospective teachers
tried to design and carry out inquiry-based units. The case study offers a promise that
some prospective teachers are capable of this kind of instruction if key factors and
challenges are addressed. Carrying out inquiry-based instruction hinges on a variety of
factors. It is important to examine teachers' beliefs, develop opportunities for engaging
in authentic science investigations, provide models of teaching science as inquiry,
support teachers in planning long-term units, and give multiple opportunities to
prospective teachers to reflect on their emerging practice. 
In a later study, Crawford (2007) explored five prospective teachers' views and
implementation of inquiry-based instruction over the course of a 1-year internship. An
assumption of the study was that the nature of a capstone student teaching placement
greatly influences a prospective teacher's success in trying out reform-based
pedagogies. The study took place in a clinical-immersion professional development
school (PDS). In this study, the mentor teachers and the university professor co-taught
the methods courses. The mentor teachers were very familiar with the inquiry-focused
philosophy that underpinned the preservice teacher program, considering the PDS
setting as a near best-case scenario. Even so, only one of the five interns successfully
created and carried out inquiry-rich lessons in his classroom. Crawford concluded the
most critical factors influencing a prospective teacher's intentions to teach science as
inquiry are (a) a view of what science is and (b) a belief that this kind of teaching is
effective and possible. 
Forbes and Davis (2010) studied prospective teachers' abilities to adapt existing
science curriculum materials in planning inquiry-oriented science lessons. Researchers
used the essential features of inquiry (NRC, 2000) to define inquiry-based science
teaching and pedagogical design capacity (PDC) as a framework to study prospective
teachers' abilities to use curricular materials. The study aimed to fill a gap in the
research related to learning observationhow prospective teachers use curriculum
materials, particularly related to reform-based, inquiry teaching. Not surprisingly, the
extent to which the curriculum materials aligned with inquiry-based teaching impacted
the abilities of prospective teachers to adapt the materials and develop inquiry-oriented
lessons. 
Windschitl and Thompson (2012) reported findings of a study of prospective secondary
teachers' (21 in total) understandings of scientific models and model-based inquiry.
Researchers sought to learn how to support prospective teachers' knowledge of the
epistemic roles that models, theory, and argument have in inquiry and how this
connects with abilities to plan model-based lessons. Previous experiences shaped
these prospective teachers' abilities to use theoretical models as a foundation for their
investigations. While students could talk about models in sophisticated ways, they had a
difficult time creating models themselves. Additionally, these teachers held a simplistic
view of the scientific method.” These findings identified some of the challenges
prospective teachers will likely have in teaching their future students about how
scientists build and use models as part of scientific inquiry, an important aspect of the
new K-12 Framework and NGSS. 
Lustick (2009) examined the impact of an authentic science inquiry learning experience
on 15 secondary prospective teachers' understandings of inquiry. The researcher used
mixed methods and an action research method. The scientific question posed was,
"How can peak autumn color in New England be determined?" The project aimed to
support teachers' understanding of inquiry. Unfortunately, the authors concluded the
intervention failed to achieve its learning goals. 
Two recent studies of prospective elementary teachers include those of Leonard, et al.,
(2009) and Yoon, Joung, and Kim (2011). Leonard et al. (2009) determined the
importance of conceptions and a supportive environment to early childhood/elementary
prospective teachers' abilities to carry out inquiry-based practices. In a study of 16
Korean prospective elementary teachers' knowledge of inquiry teaching, Yoon, Joung,
and Kim (2011) identified several difficulties encountered in designing and carrying out
inquiry lessons. These areas involved developing children's own ideas, guiding children
in designing valid experiments, and scaffolding children in data interpretation and
discussion. In addition, these prospective teachers held incomplete understandings of
hypotheses and lacked confidence in their science content knowledge. 
Providing empirical data on how to support prospective teachers in designing inquiry
classrooms that engage children in thinking like a scientist, Talanquer, Tomanek, and
Novodvorsky (2013) conducted a qualitative analysis of 43 prospective teachers'
evaluations of assessment evidence. In general, these prospective teachers paid more
attention to process skills associated with designing an investigation versus scientific
practices of analyzing data and generating conclusions. Given NGSS's emphases on
eight scientific practices, these findings have implications for 
534 
Barbara A. Crawford 

restructuring experiences for prospective science teachers. Two representative studies

focused on PD of teaching Assessing student understanding by attending to students of
lower grades. Brand and Moore (2011) studied the thinking is a critical component of
teacher learning in effects of a 3-year-long PD program on 30 K-5 teach reform-based
science teacher preparation program, ers' use of inquiry, addressing the issue that
inquiry is 
Studying how prospective teachers perceived inquiry, often not evident in elementary
classrooms. Data sources in the context of their practicum experiences, Fazio, included
interviews and semantic maps. Participants met Melville, and Bartley (2010) collected
data on 34 par- in grade-level groups to read about inquiry and plan units; participants.
Questionnaires and interviews were collected, they enacted planned lessons and
reflected upon their over three semesters. Many prospective teachers reported
enactment. Researchers reported that by front-loading not observing many examples of
inquiry in their practice- teachers' needs (time, support, resources, and owner cum but
believed that if the context were different, they ship), teachers moved toward more
inquiry-based teachers who could teach inquiry. Participants perceived many barriers. A
key factor included substantial time for teachers in their practicum and reported that
most of their corporate- participate in the PD. ing teachers thought inquiry meant “open
inquiry.” For the Lee (2011) studied the impact of inquiry-focused PD most part, they did
not feel supported by their mentor teacher- on primary teachers in Hong Kong. PD was
conducted ers. The researchers highlighted the need to better under- in two different
schools. Science concepts addressed stand practicum environments and prospective
teachers' were electricity and expansion and contraction of air. beliefs. 
The researcher used two measures of teachers' growth From the studies of prospective
teachers' understanding- pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and subject matters
and abilities to teach science as inquiry, it is clear knowledge (SMK). Data included
notes from lessons. There are many challenges and hurdles to overcome. planning
and team evaluation meetings, classroom observe Besides focusing on the nature of
science methods vacations, teacher journals, and teacher questionnaires. courses,
practicum placements, and student teaching, Teachers reported continual concern
about their SMK many teacher educators have raised concerns about even though
they seemed to improve in this area. Con prospective teachers' experiences in their
undergraduate- cerns led to a lack of confidence to carry out inquiry-based late
science coursework. This undergraduate expert- lessons. Conclusions included the
elusiveness of PCK offenses observation may be in direct contrast to inquiry
approaches. inquiry. To address this issue, Nugent and colleagues (2012)
Representative studies of teachers in upper grades compared two undergraduate
courses focused on geo- including those of Schneider and colleagues (2005), Wee
sciences. One course was a traditional education course and colleagues (2007), Jones
and Eick (2009), Breslin, and the other a field-based geosciences course. In this and
McGinnis (2011), and Capps and Crawford (2012). the quasi-experimental-designed
study, researchers exam- Schneider and co-authors (2005) addressed the prob in the
influence of geosciences fieldwork on the prospect- LEM that when teachers strive to
teach science as an inquiry by tive teachers' knowledge of the subject matter, of inquiry,
enacting reform-based curricula, the fidelity of the Innova and of attitudes and
confidence. Findings revealed that tive curriculum can be an issue. Teachers had
access to field experiences in the geosciences using an inquiry carefully designed
inquiry-based materials (in this case approach enhanced student learning, inquiry skills,
and PBS), yet different teachers carried out the instruction attitudes to a greater extent
than the traditional educa in different ways. Well-designed curricular materials are to
content courses. 
important but not sufficient in supporting teachers. Robust 
PD is recommended. Inservice Teachers and Professional 
Wee and colleagues (2007) examined whether a PD Development 
The program changed four teachers' ideas about inquiry and Taken by themselves,
development of new curricula, and their teaching. ENVISION was based on
environment policy documents that promote the use of inquiry pedagogy tal science
issues. PD sessions included a prostitute do not guarantee teachers will either use new
curricu- workshop, 4-week summer institute, site visits, and angular materials in the
designed way or adopt new tech- academic-year workshop. The inquiry was presented
in three different approaches. One might compare teaching science ways:
environmental research, environmental monitor as inquiry to a three-legged stool. One
leg is innovative ing/field studies, and investigative labs/models. Data inquiry-based
curricula, a second leg is an inquiry-based included lesson profiles, open-response
assessments, site pedagogical model, and the third leg of the stool is effect- visit
observations and reports, and concept maps. Find tive teacher PD. Teacher PD
remains a critical element included (1) implementing inquiry-based activities related to
what extent teachers enact inquiry-based in the classroom had little/no impact on
teachers' ideas pedagogy in science classrooms. Surprisingly, a recent review about
inquiry and (2) the PD program assisted teachers in the literature revealed few empirical
studies published designing and implementing inquiry-based activities and in major
peer-reviewed journals that focused specifically on increased understanding of inquiry,
but classroom activity on science inquiry PD up to the time of the review (Capps, ties
did not reflect a high level of understanding. Overall, Crawford, & Constas, 2012). 
the authors asserted these kinds of PD sessions can provide 
From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 
535 

discipline, opportunities for reflection, and substantial time needed for teachers to
travel on their journey of learning how to teach science as inquiry. 
knowledge and assistance, but it is clear there remains difficulty in assisting teachers in
attaining high levels of inquiry in their classrooms. See also Lotter and colleagues
(2007) for similar results in changing a teacher's core concepts of teaching. 
Jones and Eick (2009) studied two sixth-grade teachers (students ages 11–13) in the
context of using two different inquiry kit-based curricula. Each was considered excellent
and connected to national standards fostering teaching science as inquiry. Data
included interviews, participant journals, a focus group, and classroom observations.
After initial difficulties, both teachers enjoyed working with the kits, learned subject
matter along with their students, and tried new pedagogical strategies. Interestingly, the
teacher previously categorized as using open inquiry moved toward more teacher-
centered instruction. The other teacher moved from primarily teacher-centered
instruction toward more student-centered instruction. One teacher altered the curriculum
to deal with time constraints and comfort level, thus possibly altering the quality and the
nature of the inquiry. Implications included the need for more PD opportunities. 
Breslyn and McGinnis (2011) used a situative perspective (Brown, Collins, & Duguid,
1989) to investigate science teachers' use of inquiry. Results indicated that the use of
inquiry is dependent on the context of the scientific discipline and, to a lesser extent, the
classroom context. In their study of exemplary secondary science teachers, the
discipline in which teachers taught was found to be a major influence on conceptions
and inquiry enactment. Based on the findings, Breslyn and McGinnis (2011) suggested
it may be effective to offer more discipline-specific examples of inquiry. 
Capps and Crawford (2013) tracked growth in 20 upper elementary and middle-level
teachers' knowledge of earth science and views of inquiry and nature of science. Using
a quasi-experimental designed study of the impact of authentic knowledge and views,
comparison teachers taught similar concepts to the same grade-level students, but they
did not participate in the PD, nor did they use project lessons or materials. Project
teachers had statistically significantly greater gains in subject matter knowledge and
views of inquiry and nature of science as compared with comparison teachers. Project
teachers experienced a relatively short-term yet intensive PD experience (6 consecutive
days, 10 hours/day) of lessons, fieldwork, and group discussions, one that combined
science inquiry and the opportunity to learn subject matter in the context of an authentic
investigation. There were many opportunities for project teachers to reflect on their
current practice and new experiences in a collaborative setting. The findings are
promising because they suggest that short-term yet intensive PD can support teachers
in subject matter knowledge and views. The study highlighted the importance of
reflection in fostering teacher change. 
Summarizing these studies of PD, important factors include connecting with teachers'
needs, their science 
Barriers to Teachers Enacting Inquiry Pedagogy 
A number of challenges have been reported over the last decade or more related to
teachers' intentions to teach inquiry and constraints that deter teachers from carrying
out inquiry teaching. Keys and Kennedy (1999) cited lack of time, the challenge of
teachers in turning questions back onto students, and the constraint of having to teach
mandated concepts that are difficult to teach through inquiry. Classroom management
issues are often cited as barriers. Harris and Rooks (2010) described five
interconnected management areas that need to be addressed when managing an
inquiry-oriented K-8 science classroom. The NSF-funded program, Cornell Science
Inquiry Partnership Program, placed doctoral students as teaching fellows in New York
State schools (Trautmann, MaKinster, & Avery, 2004). The fellows worked with
classroom teachers in creating and implementing inquiry-based lessons. Researchers
revealed several challenges identified by the experienced teachers: (1) state curricula
and high-stakes testing, (2) time constraints, (3) student expectations and abilities, and
(4) teachers' fear of the unknown. The teaching fellows positively influenced the
classroom teachers' willingness to engage in inquiry-based lessons. 
Despite innovative PD programs targeted at using inquiry pedagogy, and although
teachers may desire to engage their students in inquiry, it is important to recognize
barriers that may be insurmountable. This chapter does not directly address policy
issues, and it is important not to blame teachers for the lack of reform-based classroom
practices. Institutional and social barriers may discourage teachers from striving to
implement inquiry-based pedagogy. Songer, Lee, and Kam (2001) explored the barriers
to technology-rich inquiry pedagogy in urban science classrooms. Besides those related
to technology, challenges to inquiry pedagogy included those teachers cannot control:
inadequate space and materials, inadequate time, large class sizes, high student and
teacher mobility, and limited instructional freedom (Songer et al., 2001). Ten years
earlier, Haberman (1991) identified similar barriers in urban classrooms. 
The reality is that various barriers may negate the promising influence of PD and
innovative teacher education programs. There exist specific expectations of an
individual school, a school district, state, and country, including the current frenzy of
high-stakes testing, which teachers may perceive as in direct conflict with using an
inquiry-based approach. School administrators and local, state, and national policies
may create power relationships that discourage teachers from using creativity and
innovations in teaching (Au, 2007). These contextual factors may make a change in
classroom practice virtually impossible 
536 
Barbara A. Crawford 

for many teachers. The risk may be perceived as too high in comparison to benefits.
Researchers should continue to explore the impact of policy issues and classroom
context and take a hard look at classroom conditions that may prevent instructional
innovations from becoming a reality. Further, science education researchers need to do
a better job of communicating research findings to all stakeholders and help bridge
research findings to teaching practice, and, as mentioned, to policy. 

Strengths, Weaknesses, and Gaps in the Literature 

One issue identified in this chapter is the fact that researchers have varied views of
what it means to teach science as inquiry. An effort has been made in this chapter to
trace the history of inquiry and to identify various meanings. However, an even more
thorough and complete synthesis could prove very useful. A study that aims to clarify
and categorize the various research studies connected with teaching science as inquiry
and that synthesizes findings across various views of inquiry would be extremely
helpful. 
Many researchers, teacher educators, and curricular designers advocate teaching
science as inquiry in classrooms. Yet there have been and remain some critics of this
way of teaching (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006). Despite these critics and the
recognized difficulties associated with teaching in this way, there appears to be
sufficiently strong evidence to support using this kind of pedagogy in classrooms. (i.e.,
Minner et al., 2010; Schroeder, Scott, Tolson, Huang, & Lee, 2007; Shymansky et al.,
1983). 
As shown in many of the empirical studies reviewed in this chapter, there are important
benefits of teaching science as inquiry for children with high needs, low performance,
low language skills, and from populations generally underrepresented in the sciences.
Research studies of large student populations have demonstrated inquiry-based
approaches as effective (i.e., Geier et al., 2008; Marx et al., 2004; Pine et al., 2006). A
number of studies have taken place in the context of urban reform and have indicated
the successful application of inquiry techniques on a large scale. The superiority of
inquiry-based techniques to meet a variety of educational goals has been supported by
results from numerous studies involving inquiry-based and traditional classes. Several
studies have demonstrated support for inquiry-based instruction as more effective than
traditional techniques in teaching a variety of specific science concepts (Lee et al.,
2006; Thacker, Kim, Trefz, & Lea, 1994; Wilson et al., 2010). There is also empirical
evidence that inquiry-based approaches are more effective than other approaches in
reducing the achievement gap between different groups of students (Cuevas et al.,
2005; Lee et al., 2006; Lynch et al., 2005). 
One area of continued concern is the lack of empirical research on effective PD and
teacher education 
programs published in highly refereed journals specifically targeted at inquiry learning
and teaching across different grade levels, contexts, and disciplines (see Capps &
Crawford, 2012; Crawford et al., 2013). Studies need to go beyond descriptions of
prospective and practicing teachers' PD programs. Researchers and teacher educators
need confidence in the systematic analyses of data and robust evidence of underlying
factors of success or failure of different PD features. In addition, needed are more
studies in diverse classrooms on how children learn and take on identities as science
learners. With the publication of NGSS (the NGSS Lead States, 2013), we now move
into a new era of reform in the United States related to teaching science/engineering
practices, disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and the integration of all of
these. More empirical studies are needed to identify components of effective curricula
and features of programs that are critical in making the vision a reality in science
classrooms. The kind of teaching required to carry out this sophisticated and integrated
instruction goes beyond what is currently asked of teachers. The reality is, what was
envisioned in the past (AAAS, 1989; Dewey, 1910; NRC 1996; Schwab, 1960) is
currently not happening in most science classrooms. 
It is with the utmost respect for the professional science teacher that the author
acknowledges the teacher as an agent of change. It is important to be clear that
highlighting the teacher as the central factor in shifting from primarily a traditional to a
more inquiry/practice-oriented classroom in no way is meant as pejorative against
teachers. Anyone who has tried to create these kinds of classrooms in the current
political climate like in the United States—a country steeped in an accountability system
of high-stakes standardized testing and varied resources depending on the school—
understands the complexity of the situation. Conditions that may dissuade teachers
from using reform-based teaching approaches include state-mandated curricula that run
counter to reform-based teaching and administrators who rate teachers solely on
student performances as measured by high-stakes assessments. The impact of context
on whether a teacher intends to and successfully enacts teaching science as inquiry
includes various situations encountered in one's community, school, and classroom.
“[T]he situations teachers face in their daily work provide important and
underappreciated influences on teaching practice and student learning” (Kennedy,
2010, p. 593). It would be helpful to reexamine the issues science teachers themselves
identify as being problematic. 
As a classroom teacher for 17 years in three different public schools, the author has
first-hand knowledge of the realities of administrative and parental pressures, high-
stakes testing, and enormous challenges in teaching children of a wide range of
abilities, languages, and cultures. Yet also apparent are the tangible benefits from
immersing children in asking and answering their scientific questions and allowing
children freedom to make 
From Inquiry to Scientific Practices in the Science Classroom 
537 

mistakes, question, grapple with data, and figure things out for themselves (e.g.,
Crawford et al., 1999). 
Conclusions, Implications, and Future Research 
In conclusion, this chapter aimed to help clarify for the reader the issues and evidence
surrounding inquiry in science classrooms. There is consensus among most science
educators that the time for a change in the way science is taught has arrived. Yet the
fact remains that little change is taking place in our classrooms. Research indicates that
inquiry-based science instruction has the potential to move learners in the direction of
independent and critical thinking. But there are many obstacles to successful teaching
in this manner, not the least of which is the continued confusion over terms. Whether
you call it inquiry or practices of science or something else, the central theme remains
the same: learner-constructed and -articulated science understandings based on logic
and evidence as crucial components of a desired educational strategy in our future
science classrooms. Certainly, one goal should focus on providing the motivation and
support necessary, including policy changes, to help a teacher be successful in
engaging students in science practices in her classroom. 
Of course, many questions and problems remain. Inertia favors the status quo. It will
take considerable resources to make such a significant change take place. Future
research will vigorously examine inquiry teaching to facilitate a change from lecture-
driven instruction to a classroom environment that empowers a child and facilitates his
or her intellectual development as a critical thinker. 
Suggestions for future research questions could include but are not limited to the
following. How can a science curriculum be designed to support children in feasibly
learning how to carry out scientific practices and learning about how scientists think?
What kinds of authentic science investigations are possible in classrooms? How can
undergraduate science courses be redesigned to help prospective teachers understand
inquiry/practices and the nature of science? Is it possible to structure student teaching
experiences such that the experience will sustain changes in prospective teachers'
beliefs about teaching science practices, disciplinary core ideas, and crosscutting
concepts? What typically happens to teachers' beliefs in the first years of teaching?
What kinds of mentoring programs are most effective for beginning teachers in helping
them create inquiry-steeped classrooms? What are the key roadblocks, and how can
teachers navigate these roadblocks? What are features of effective PD programs for
supporting practicing teachers in teaching children what science is, and what science is
not? How can we help teachers and students become metacognitive in learning and
teaching science? What kinds of strategies are most influential with English-language-
learning children to help them learn 
about scientific practices and the nature of science? How can high-stakes
assessments be redesigned to encourage teachers in striving to teach science as
inquiry/practices versus “teaching to the test"? How can research findings relate to
teaching science as inquiry shape future policy? 
This review and synthesis of research related to teaching science as the inquiry has
important implications for teaching 
ers, curriculum designers, teacher educators, and policymakers. Teachers report
students to seem to be disengaged with school, especially as students move up into
higher grades. There is ample evidence that classroom-based inquiry science can be
beneficial to student learning and to develop positive attitudes toward life-long science
learning. There is potential to push the boundaries of what is possible. But teachers
need to understand ways of and feel confident in scaffolding students in various aspects
of scientific inquiry/practices, including learning how to reason. Inquiry can motivate
students because the answer is not obvious; it allows students to travel down unknown
paths and in unknown directions. Many criticize the nature of undergraduate science
teaching, which contributes to a cycle of new teachers experiencing non-inquiry-based
science classes and then delivering uninspiring teaching in their K-12 classrooms.
Thus, many are calling for changes at the university level. Current reforms can also
benefit those who will not become scientists but will be well-informed, contributing
citizens and consumers of science. 
We are at an important crossroads in science education with the recent publication in
the United States of the NGSS. There is renewed interest in producing a greater
number of highly qualified teachers. These new teachers will be expected to facilitate all
children in carrying out and understanding science practices, disciplinary core ideas,
and crosscutting concepts and the integration of these. These ways of teaching are
sophisticated and challenging. Classrooms are complex, Challenges for teachers will be
great in the years to come. Yet the potential for helping children learn how to think
critically, to use data as evidence, and to develop arguments, build models, and
evaluate these in light of evidence will be equally great. Supporting teachers
(prospective and practicing) in teaching science as inquiry requires substantial
resources and attention to research-based effective programs. We need to look to the
past, to understand that simply creating policy documents and new curricula, without
attention to robustly supporting teachers, will not necessarily change the way we
traditionally teach science. Science teacher education programs need to change as
well. PD programs for practicing teachers need to be designed with attention to the
context of schools, teachers' backgrounds and beliefs, and grade level and culture of
students. And we need to pay attention to policy issues and remove the roadblocks that
prevent change from happening. 
By transforming traditional science classrooms to be inquiry focused and student
centered, we (researchers, educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers) have