CONSULTANCY PROCESS GROUP

ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

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PROCESS GROUP ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 LEVELS OF ENGINEERING

3.0 REFERENCES, CODES AND STANDARDS

4.0 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CHECKING

5.0 EQUIPMENT SIZING AND SELECTION GUIDELINES

5.1 GENERAL
5.1.l Design Pressure and Temperature
5.1.2 Materials Selection

5.2 COMPRESSORS
5.2.1 Type of Compressor
5.2.2 Sparingnraining Strategy
5.2.3 Rated Flow
5.2.4 Rated Differential Head
5.2.5 Discharge Temperature and Compressor Power
5.2.6 Driver Selection and Rating
5.2.7 Turbine De-rating & Compressor Losses

5.3 FLARE
5.3.1 Flare Collection Systems
5.3.2 Types of Flare
5.3.3 Radiation Levels
5.3.4 Dispersion
5.3.5 Noise Levels
5.3.6 Design Flowrates
5.3.7 Drum Sizing
5.3.8 Purging

5.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS

5.4.1 Types of Exchanger
5.4.2 Temperature Approach and Limitations
5.4.3 Temperature Difference Correction
5.4.4 Film coefficient
5.4.5 Calculation Methods
5.4.6 Shell configuration1Sparing
5.4.7 Pressure drop allowances
5.4.8 Fouling Factors
5.4.9 Indirect vs Direct Cooling

5.5 PIPING

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5.6 PUMPS
5.6.1 Type of Pump
5.6.2 Sparingnraining Strategy
5.6.3 Rated Flow
5.6.4 Rated Differential Head
5.6.5 NPSH
5.6.6 Driver Selection and Rating

5.7 SEPARATION
5.7.1 Design Criteria
5.7.2 Vertical separator sizing
5.7.3 Horizontal Separator Sizing

6.0 SOFTWARE
6.1 GENERAL

6.2 PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

6.3 IN-HOUSE SOFTWARE

6.4 PROJECT SPECIFIC SOFTWARE

7.0 STANDARD CALCULATIONS

7.1 RELIEF VALVE SIZING FOR TWO PHASE FLOW

7.2 SONIC FLOW WITH PRESSURE DlSCONTlNUITlES

7.3 HEAT LOSS FROM A TANK

7.4 REVERSE FLOW THROUGH A PARTIALLY OPEN CHECK VALVE

7.5 GROSS HEATING VALUE AND WOBBE INDEX

7.6 OVERBOARD DISCHARGE CAISSON SIZING

7.7 FLOWING WELLHEAD & BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE

8.0 PROCESS DATA SHEETS

9.0 PROCESS DATA AND COMMONLY ACCEPTED VALUES

9.1 USEFUL VALUES

9.2 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA

9.3 PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS

APPENDICES

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The consultancy process group of Genesis Engineering Consultants

undertakes work of a wide variety in terms of both scope and detail. The
work primarily focuses on the front end design stages of oil and gas
developments but does include a capability to perform existing plant and
facility reviews and support more detailed designs. It is impractical for the
group to have 'design manuals' which cover all of the individual areas of our
work in sufficient detail to ensure a totally consistent approach to every
aspect of every project. This would be used by companies engaged in large
and repeated volumes of detailed process engineering. Indeed, this would be
restrictive and contrary to the flexible and forward thinking approach that
much of the work requires. Instead a framework or mechanism is required to
ensure that similar aspects of work are handled and presented consistently
both within and across projects. This engineering practices manual exists to
provide that framework, concentrating primarily on guidelines for screening
studies and conceptual design.

The manual is designed to be a ready reference document for process

engineers and, although developed for the consultancy, many aspects will
also be applicable to the projects group. The manual forms part of the Quality
Assurance system within Genesis and sits in parallel with the QA systems
more procedural aspects. The manual may be viewed as quality assurance
for the process function without itself being a prescriptive document.

The manual should be read in conjunction with guidelines and engineering

practices provided by the client. The clients guidelines will normally be
applicable in preference to those given in this manual, although this will not
always be the case. For example in conceptual design studies the client may
prefer Genesis to use in-house methods or software as it will be more
expedient to do this and the overall conclusions and recommendations will
generally be unaffected.

This manual will be a 'live' document. A master copy will be held and updated
together with the revision history and justification for changes. The process
group and study managers should pass on any information to the Process
skills group co-ordinator for an update as required. It will be re-issued once
or twice a year.

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2.0 LEVELS OF ENGINEERING

Normally the development life of a project is divided into a number of different

phases. These phases are initially driven by the well program, which
establishes the reservoir definition. This definition is refined and modified
from the production phase onwards by analysis of data from the producing
wells. From the process engineering perspective there are different levels or
types of engineering that apply to each phase. These are shown in Table 2.1
and are described in the following sections. The project development path
described here is indicative only and many projects may differ in the details of
their execution methods.

Table 2.1 : Levels of engineering and their relationship

with project development stages

Field Development Reservoir Definition Level of Engineering

Phase

Generic
Pre-discovery Screening

Generic (area specific)

Discovery Discovery Screening

Conceptual

Initial Appraisal Conceptual

FEED

Field Appraisal
Basis of Design
Final Appraisal FEED
Detailed Design

Production Producing Commissioning - .i

Operations
Debottlenecking

Production Decline Producing Operations Support

Abandonment Depleted Operations Support

Essentially the level of engineering detail is a function of the available

reservoir knowledge. The more information that is known about the reservoir
then the greater is the facility engineering definition. As a project progresses,

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the level of engineering detail increases so that the development costs can
be predicted with greater confidence.

In the early project phase there is normally little available reservoir

information, but at this stage the focus is to establish the feasibility of the
proposed development. This step is called screening or feasibility
engineering. This usually takes the form of looking at a wide range of
development scenarios at a high level. In this context high refers to the
management perspective. In terms of engineering detail the required level is
low. Typical base data and output for a screening study are shown in a
diagrammatic form in Figure 2.1. There are some key points to note from
Table 2.1. Generic refers to the type of reservoir whether it is black oil, gas
condensate, dry gas or any combination. The area under consideration may
be a single block (area specific), a range of blocks or an entire producing
basin. It is evident that a number of inputs must be assumed or taken as
independent variables. These can vary from case to case. The most
significant are; location, production rate, GOR, sourlinerts content and
product specifications. In the diagrams variables are indicated by (V). Fixed
parameters are indicated by (F). There is normally a wide range of possible
development concepts to investigate. The process engineering methods are
accordingly non-rigorous short cut type. In some cases, packages such as
Fast-Est or ADEPT are utilised. The screening study output is primarily
economic containing concept cost estimates in the range of 50 to 60% and
concept economic ranking in accordance with calculated net present value
NPV and rate of return ROR.

Assuming a satisfactory outcome from screening, the project moves on to the

next level of engineering called conceptual. This normally coincides with
information becoming available from a discovery well. A range of options is
still retained for study but these are normally fewer in number and are taken
from the top ranking concepts from screening. The idea being to look in more
detail at these concepts. The base data and output for conceptual
engineering are shown in Figure 2.2. There are some key differences with
respect to screening. The well data normally fixes the process feed
specification. The range of potential production rates is reduced. The process
can therefore be modelled on a simulation package. The calculations are still
performed using shortcut methods but the process and utility equipment is
defined from simulation output rather than an overall mass and energy
balance or simple factors. Alternatively ADEPT should be used to generate
equipment lists. The advantage of using ADEPT is that it is possible to
estimate costs for the entire field development including total capex for
platform, subsea and pipelines, as well as overall field economics.

The output during conceptual design is primarily economic but there is a

greater emphasis on the process equipment lists and the equipment weight
calculations. The cost estimate accuracy is now in the range of 30%. It is
noted that in the Table 2.1 the screening engineering may also be
undertaken using discovery well data. This is an example of the overlap
between development phases that can exist between different projects.

During the field appraisal stage the operators drill more wells. The reservoir
model will also be developed and various development strategies considered.
30 seismic data may also be interpreted and improved G&G data

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incorporated into the reservoir model. An important area at this stage is the
close relationship with reservoir engineers, drilling engineers, facilities
engineers and the commercial group to optimise the development plan,
based upon good data eventually developing into a firm Basis of Design. This
normally fixes production rates, feed quality and depletion strategy. Another
factor is the need to establish commercial details for gas contracts, offtakes
etc. The phase is divided into initial and final appraisal stages. This may
differ according to operator requirements. A Basis of Design should be
written even in screening studies to identify a common basis for all parties.
This document will be updated as the project progresses and the information
matures.

Following the completion of conceptual engineering the development has

reached the stage where the economic feasibility has been established and
the favoured base case configuration concept has been identified. There are
normally alternatives to the base case which are retained for further study. At
this point the Basis of Design is updated so that it defines the project for the
purpose of carrying through the design into the next phase which is FEED or
front end engineering design.

The purpose of FEED engineering is to develop the design of a single

concept to the point where the cost can be established within a 15% band.
This is normally the level of accuracy required to meet client criteria for full
development approval. To achieve this, the level of engineering is by
definition of a higher level. Accordingly the process calculations for major
equipment become rigorous. For some of the supporting systems the short
cut methods are still valid, as the final cost is not dependent upon them. The
base data and output for a typical FEED are shown in Figure 2.3. It should be
noted that with the increasing level of engineering detail there is a
corresponding increase in the number of engineering deliverables and a
larger interface with other disciplines. It is during FEED that piping and
instrument diagrams and process data sheets are prepared. Depending upon
the schedule requirements the documentation is sometimes developed during
the FEED to allow for the purchase of the long lead items.

During the conceptual and FEED phases there is a requirement to optimise

the design, that is to select the best option from any given number of options.
Such optimisations cover processes, equipment arrangement, heating and
cooling systems etc. The thinking behind this is to fix all key variables before
the design is issued for detailed design. This avoids any wasting of man-
hours during detail design and allows for a competitive selection of a detailed
design contractor with a well defined scope of work. This ensures that
engineering costs are strictly controlled. Normally the Basis of Design
document is updated at this stage to guide the detailed engineering
contractor.

The FEED stage is then, following final appraisal, progressed into the
detailed design phase. During the detailed design engineering phase
preparation of all the documentation needed to identify and purchase the
equipment is undertaken. It is a significantly larger undertaking than the other
levels and represents the highest level of engineering detail. It is during this
stage that all calculations are done rigorously. Detailed drawings and data
sheets are prepared. These are used to obtain fixed quotes from suppliers

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and fabricators. This allows the final refinement of the project control cost
estimate to within a band of 5%. The major base data and outputs for the
process discipline are shown on Figure 2.4. From this table it can be seen
that there is an intensive interface with other disciplines. The emphasis in the
deliverables is on the piping and instrument diagrams and the data sheets as
these are the key documents for the other disciplines.

Following the completion of detailed engineering the project focus moves into
the fabrication yards or the construction site for a land based project. For the
process engineering function this corresponds to the follow-on phase which
as the name suggests is purely an activity that covers such things as
responding to queries, updating documents etc. This is strictly speaking a
part of detailed design, which is why it is not indicated in Table 2.1. This is not
manpower intensive and normally the process group numbers are reduced at
this time. If any further calculation work is required it is done to the same
standards as the detailed phase. Depending upon client requirements, it is in
this period that operating and maintenance manuals are prepared.

Towards the end of follow on engineering the project focus reverts to start up
or commissioning. This requires process input for the preparation of
commissioning procedures and start up manuals. Normally there is a
dedicated commissioning team but they may require process input or process
expertise to realise their objectives. There may be a requirement for
assistance with operator training and response to any operational problems
that come to light following start up. These activities come under the heading
of operations engineering. This is purely a problem solving 1support activity
and no deliverables are defined so no figure is presented to cover this
activity.

Once the facility is in operation there may be a need to undertake

modifications both foreseen and unforeseen. This may be due to changes in
reservoir operating parameters or new field developments tying into the
facility. This activity comes under the umbrella of operations support
engineering. This covers a potentially wide range of activities. In essence for
large scale works the process workpath mimics the initial phases of a major
project in that any proposed modifications go through a screening1
conceptual1FEED and detailed design phase. For small scale works the
opposite applies and only detailed design is required.

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Figure 2.1
Screening Study

INPUT (Base Data) OUTPUT (Deliverables)

Type of reservoir (V) Process

Report
b b

Configuration (V)
b
D.
Process Equipment Lists
D* b

Facility Costs
D.

b
D.

Prices (V) Pipeline Costs

D. 4
Pipelines
Pipeline Sizing
D.
--+

PFD prelim
Materials
b

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.
Figure 2.2
Conceptual Engineering

INPUT (Base Data) OUTPUT (Deliverables)

Composition (F)
Report

--.I
Configuration (V)

Process Equipment Lists

Facility Costs

Location (V)

Prices (V)
F
Pipeline Costs
4
Pipelines
B- Pipeline Sizing

PFD prelim
Materials

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Figure 2.3
FEED Engineering

INPUT (Base Data)

OUTPUT (Deliverables)

Composition (F) Philosophies

Process
Process Flow Diagrams (PFD)
Configuration (F)
v

Process Equipment Lists (PEL)

Production rates (F)
F

Product Spec (F)

Piping & Instrument Diagrams (PID)

Location (F) b
Process Data Sheets (PDS)

Prices (F)
Studies & Technical Notes

Offtake (F)
i
Deliverables Disciplines

PFD, PID
Pipelines
PEL, PID,PDS
Mechanical

Materials
PEL, PFD, PID

PEL, PFD, PID

Piping & Layout

PEL
Electrical
PFD, PID

PEL

PEL, PID
-,
- RAM

Costing

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Figure 2.4
Detail Design Engineering

INPUT (Basis of Desisn) OUTPUT (Deliverables)

Composition (F) I I Philosophies

.
( Process Flow Diagrams (PFD)
Configuration (F)

1
.
Process Equipment Lists (PEL)

I
..
Production rates (F)

Product Spec (F)

Process Data Sheets (PDS)

Location (F)

Prices (F)
II
Piping & lnstrument Diagrams (PID)

Offtake (F)
-
b
L Process Instrument Data (PDI)

Cause & Effects, (CAE)

C-- Studies & Technical Notes

Deliverables

PFD, PID

PEL, PID,PDS
Mechanical

PFD, PID
, Materials

PEL, PFD, PID,PDI,CAE

PEL, PFD, PID

I PEL, PID Electrical

PFD, PID 4 safety

PEL RAM

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3.0 REFERENCES, CODES AND STANDARDS

General (Section 5.1)

1) Area Development Evaluation and Planning Tool (ADEPT) User Manual

2) Norsok Standards,

3) Recommended Practice for Sizing, Selection and Installation of

Pressure Relieving Devices in Refineries, API RP520, Part I and
Sizing and Selection, API RP520 Part II.
Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems, API RP521.
Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks, API 2000.

4) Refinery Piping Code, ANSIIASME 831.3.

5) Technology Position Paper, Pipesim Thermodynamics Methods &

Tips, Genesis Report E4504-PITNIHOLD.

6) Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials for Oilfield

Equipment, NACE Standard MR-01-75.

7) Technology Position Paper, PROll Thermodynamic Methods & Tips,

Genesis Report E4505-PITNIHOLD.

8) Technology Position Paper, Heavy Ends Characterisation, Genesis

Report E4506-PITNIHOLD.

9) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

10) GPSA S1 Engineering Data Book.

11) Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and Testing of

Basic Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Production Platforms, API
RP14C.

12) Genesis Technology Database (Held by Process skills group).

13) Chemical Engineers Handbook, Perry.

Compressors (Section 5.2)

1) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell,

2) GPSA S1 Engineering Data Book.

3) Area Development Evaluation and Planning Tool (ADEPT) User Manual.

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Flare system (Section 5.3)

1) Recommended Practice for Sizing, Selection and Installation of Pressure

Relieving Devices in Refineries, API RP520, Part I and Sizing and
Selection, API RP520 Part II.

2) Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems, API RP521.

3) Area Development Evaluation and Planning Tool (ADEPT) User Manual

Gas Treating I Gas Conditioning

1) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol l& 2, John M Campbell.

2) GPSA S1 Engineering Data Book.

3) Gas Treating and Liquid Sweetening, Vol4, John M Campbell.

4) Technology Position Paper, Gas Dehydration, Genesis Report E4508-

PTTNIHOLD.

Heat Exchangers (Section 5.4)

1) Process Heat Transfer, Kern.

2) Standards for the Tubular Exchange Manufacturers Association (TEMA).

3) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vols 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

4) Chemical Engineering, Vol6, Sinnott, Coulson & Richardson.

5) Chemical Engineers Handbook, Perry.

6) Chemical Engineering, Vol 1, Coulson & Richardson.

7) GPSA SI Engineering Data Book, Section 11, Air Cooled Heat

Exchangers.

Hydrates

1) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

2) GPSA SI Engineering Data Book.

3) Offshore Hydrate Engineering Handbook, E Dendy Sloan, January 1998.

4) Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases, E Dendy Sloan, 1998.

5) Technology Position Paper, Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors, Genesis Report

E430611-P/TN1001.

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Piping (Section 5.5)

l ) Recommended Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore

Production Platform Piping systems, API RP14E.

2) Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Crane

3) Norsok Standard P-001, Process Design section,

4) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

5) International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals, 4th ~dition,
Chapter 21, Pressure Surge.

Production Chemistry

1) Technology Position Paper, Wax Deposition and Its Management,

Genesis Report E430612-PJTN1002.

2) Technology Position Paper, Scaling, Genesis Report E430613-

PJTNIHOLD.

3) Technology Position Paper, Asphaltenes, Genesis Report E430614-

PJTNIHOLD.

4) Technology Position Paper, Corrosion Inhibitors, Genesis Report

E430616-PJTNIHOLD.

5) Technology Position Paper, Sulphide Scavengers, Genesis Report

E430618-PTTNIHOLD.

Produced Water Treatment

1) Applied Water Technology, John M Campbell, 1995.

Pumps (Section 5.6)

1) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

2) GPSA SI Engineering Data Book.

3) Technology Position Paper, Multiphase Pumps, Genesis Report E430411-PTTN/HOLD.

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Separation (Section 5.7)

1) Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 & 2, John M Campbell.

2) GPSA S1 Engineering Data Book.

3) GasILiquid Separators, Type selection and Design Rules, DEP

[Link] 1 - Gen.

4) Area Development Evaluation and Planning Tool (ADEPT) User manual.

5) Technology Position Paper, Heavy Oil Processing, Genesis Report

E4307-PITNIHOLD.

Utility systems

1) Technology Position Paper, Combined Heat and Power Technology and

Applications, Genesis Report E430711-PITN/HOLD.

Water Injection

1) Applied Water Technology, John M Campbell, 1995.

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4.0 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CHECKING

Quality assurance and checking is the responsibility of all engineers to ensure

their work is of the highest standard. Genesis has a reputation for high quality
work, and it is essential that this is maintained by taking a thorough approach
to all work.

It is initially the responsibility of the engineer carrying out the work to ensure
that errors are eliminated from the design. This applies equally to front end
work as well as more detailed work for operations support. Check the correct
design basis is used, and the design method is valid for the work undertaken.
Assumptions should be minimised. Ensure all options are considered. If
unsure ask others for guidance and assistance. There is a large pool of
knowledge within the company, and the experiences of others should be
used.

Poor quality work is often caused either by insufficient time or inexperience. It

is primarily the responsibility of the study manager and the senior consultant
to ensure sufficient time and experienced resources are provided for the job.
However it is incumbent upon all of us to raise a concern to the study
manager if you think that more time is required to complete a task, or that you
are unsure how to tackle the task.

Time must always be allowed for thorough checking. Checklists are provided
in Appendix 2 as guidance for minimum requirements to check for equipment
sizing, process simulation and hydraulic simulation. It is most efficient to
continuously discuss and check the work with the study manager or senior
consultant to ensure the work is proceeding correctly, rather than leave it until
the formal check at the end.

A consistent approach should be used for all work. This is covered by other
procedures and work instructions referred to within the Quality Manual, which
is currently being written.

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5.0 EQUIPMENT SIZING AND SELECTION GUIDELINES

These guidelines are given for an initial estimate of equipment size and
selection of equipment type appropriate for screening studies and initial
conceptual design. Information is also given sufficient to complete a process
equipment data sheet. Guidelines on process steady state simulation of
topsides and flowlines are covered in References 5, 6 and 7.

5.1 GENERAL

5.1.l Design Pressure and Temperature

Introduction

The design pressure and temperature are key parameters. They govern the
mechanical design of process equipment and so have a direct bearing on the
equipment cost.

The design pressure and temperature are normally specified at the beginning
of a job. For the feasibility and conceptual phases where ADEPT (Reference
1) is used, the design conditions are calculated automatically by adding a
factor to the operating pressure. Where this is not appropriate the guidelines
given in this section should be used which are based upon in the NORSOK
process design standards (Reference 2). These guidefines shall be used as
first choice for FEED and Detailed Design. The definitions of maximum and
minimum operating and design pressures/temperatures are given below:

Table 5.1.l: Definition of Pressures and Temperatures

Normal Operating The pressure in the equipment when the plant operates at steady state
pressure condition, subject to normal variation in operating parameters.
Maximum operating The maximum pressure predicted for deviations from normal operations, like
start-uplshutdown, process flexibility, control requirements & process upsets.
Minimum operating The minimum pressure predicted for deviations from normal operations, like
pressure process start-up and shutdown.
Design pressure The maximum internal or external pressure to be used in determining the
minimum permissible wall thickness of equipment and piping. Note that the
minimum permissible wall thickness may be derived from a lower operating
pressure, but higher operating temperature. The first relief valve is normally
set to open at design pressure.
Normal Operating The temperature in the equipment when the plant operates at steady state
temperature condition, subject to normal variation in operating parameters.
Maximum operating The maximum temperature in the equipment when the plant operate at
temperature unstable conditions, like start-uplshutdown, control requirements, process
flexibility and process upsets.
Minimum operating The, minimum temperature in the equipment when the plant operates at
temperature unstable conditions like start-up, shutdown and depressurising.
Maximum design The material temperature representing the most severe condition of
temperature coincident pressure and temperature. The design temperature shall
encompass the maximum operating temperature.
Minimum design The minimum temperature which serves as a base for specifying the low
temperature temperature characteristics of the material. The design temperature shall
encompass the minimum operating temperature.

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 FIG. 5-2
Characteristics of Safety Relief Valves for Vessel protection'

PRESSURE VESSEL REQUIREMENTS VESSEL TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

PRESSURE SAFETY RELIEF VALVES

MAXIMUM ALLOWABCE MAXIMUM RELIEVING

ACCUMULATEDPRESSURE in PRESSURE FOR
(FIRE EXPOSURE ONLY) FIRE SIZING
- 120-
- -
- i
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
- -
MAXIMUM RELIEVING
ACCUMULATED PRESSURE 116 PRESSURE FOR
FOR MULTIPLE-VALVE INSTALLATION PROCESS SIZING
(OTHER THAN FIRE EXPOSURE) - 'l5 - MARGIN OF WE, MULTIPLE VALVES
- DUE l"ORIFICE
- - - SELECTION
(VARIES)
SINGLE VALVE

-
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
-? 0 -
MAXIMUM ALLOWABCE SET PRESSURE
ACCUMULATED PRESSURE v FOR SUPPLEMENTAL VALVES
23

1'11l+
FOR SINGLE-VALVE INSTALLATION "0 (FIRE EXPOSURE)
(OTHER THAN FIRE EXPOSURE)
W
(0

WERPRESSURE (MAXIMUM)
9
E
5 105
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SET PRESSURE
FOR SUPPLEMENTAL VALVES (PROCESS)
-2

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
WORKING PRESSURE
- 43
S
:Z: loo
i WERPRESSURE (TYPICAL)

MAXIMUM ALLOWABCE SET PRESSURE

FOR SINGLE VALVE (AVERAGE)
OR DESIGN PRESSURE
(HYDROTEST AT 150)
- B
t
T START X) OPEN

l l
-
-U - - BLOWWWN (TYPICAL)
- 2 -
SEAT CLAMPING FORCE
95

USUAL MAXIMUM NORMAL

OPERATING PRESSURE

-
- SECTION Vlll
- TIGHTNESS ANSliAPl STD 527
- 85

Notes:
1. The operating pressure may be any lower pressure required.
2. The set pressure and all other values related to it may be moved downward if the operating pressure permits.
3. This figure conforms with the requirements of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII.
4. The pressure conditions shown are for safety relief valves installed on a pressure vessel (vapor phase).

Courtesy American Petroleum Institute

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It is essential that a DPIDT mark up of the Process PFD be produced as early

as possible in any project. This will flag up all the DPIDT combinations and
will identify the DPIDT breakpoints. Protection from overpressure caused by
connection from high pressure system to a low pressure system must be
considered at this stage. Protection of offshore production systems shall
generally be in accordance with API RP14C (Ref IO), although exceptions are
permitted where justified. For example the F&G system may be deemed as
sufficient protection from leakage to atmosphere, rather than a low low
pressure trip.

Design Pressure

The design pressure shall be calculated using the following procedures:

For svstems protected bv a PSV, the criteria in Table 5.1.2 shall apply.

Where rupture discs are applied, the required design pressure of the
pressure vessel will depend on the type of disc. As an indication API RP 520
(Reference 3) may be consulted.

For piping being protected from overpressure by a PSV, it is allowable to

have a PSV setpoint above the design pressure of the piping for some piping
design codes. This shall be evaluated for each case, and only applied after
examination of the relevant piping design code.

Table 5.1.2 - Design pressure criteria for pressurised systems

High High pressure trip Design pressure (barg)
PSHH setting (barg)
0-35 PSHH setting + 3.5 bar
35-70 PSHH setting + 10%
70-200 PSHH setting + 8.5%, but with increment
minimum +7 bar and maximum + l 0 bar
Above 200 PSHH setting + 5%

The limitations given in Table 5.1.2 are to ensure proper operation of the
PSV. The high pressure alarm shall be set at least 3% above the maximum
operating pressure, and a minimum 3% allowance shall be provided between
the high pressure alarm and high high pressure trip.

Mechanical design codes for piping and equipment have different limitations
with regard to maximum allowable overpressure. It follows from this that
piping and equipment in a system may have different design pressures.
Generally such differences should be avoided, so that the same design
pressure is used for the whole system protected by the relief valve.

For piping, occasional variations in the operating pressure above the design
pressure are permissible in some design codes. This may be used to limit the
design pressure of the piping, but shall be subject to due consideration of all
aspects in the piping design code ANSl 831.3 (Reference 4). If such a
system is selected, it is a requirement to log the duration and amount of
overpressure to which the piping is subjected. For a new build design these

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allowances should not be taken into consideration, but for modifications to
existing systems it may be necessary if the pipework design pressure is
limiting. Note however that these allowances are not acceptable for pressure
vessel codes (BS 5500lASME V111).

Tanks that are classified as atmospheric tanks shall be designed to be liquid

filled and with an overpressure of at least 0.07 barg. The static head of a
liquid filled vent line should also be taken into account. The minimum design
pressure shall be no less than minus 0.012 barg. The tank shall be properly
protected from underpressure and overpressure in accordance with API 2000
(Ref 3).

To minimise the requirements for process relief (full flow), the design
pressure should be kept identical for systems with almost identical operating
pressures.

The design pressure at the discharge of positive dis~lacementDumDs shall

be calculated in accordance with Table 5.1.2.

Systems not ~rotectedby PSV or rupture disc and located downstream of a

centrifusal Dump or a comDressor shall be designed for the maximum
operating pressure (shut-in pressure) as described on page 21. Alternatively,
a lower pressure may be used if an appropriate HIPS or relief valves are
employed (can be a large relief case).

This does not apply to positive dis~lacementpumps or comDressors which

shall always be protected by PSV or rupture disc.

For flare knock out drums, it is acceptable that the design pressure is equal to
the maximum operating pressure. Normally a safety margin is added to the
maximum operating pressure in the design phase to account for increase due
to uncertainties in the calculations. Table 5.1.2 may be used to set the design
margin.

Esui~mentwhere condensing vapours (e.g. after steam-out of vessels),

drainage or pump out may lead to less than atmos~hericDressure, shall be
designed for full vacuum or protected by vacuum relief. Normally the vessel
wall is sufficiently thick based upon the maximum design pressure to
withstand full vacuum without further stiffening. The exception to this rule is
for vessels where the design requirements for equipment operating below
atmospheric pressure where Table 5.1.3 shall be used. NOTE this table does
not apply to tanks designed as atmospheric storage tanks.

-
Table 5.1.3 Design pressure for equipment operating below
atmospheric pressure.

l~inimumoperating I~esignpressure
pressure
0.35 bara and below Full vacuum
0.35 - [Link] bara The minimum operating pressure minus 0.1
bar. but maximum 0.5 bara

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Equipment operating below atmospheric pressure shall also withstand an
over-pressure of 3.5 bar (3.5 barg).

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Maximum operating pressure

To determine the maximum operating pressure, a reasonable margin must be

included above the normal operating pressure for increases in pressure
beyond normal operation, and for all modes of operation. This is dependent
on the system under consideration. Separators must be designed for
disturbances in pressure from upstream sources such as wells or flowlines.
Pump discharge pipework must take into consideration the increase in
pressure due to changes in suction pressure, flow, pump speed and fluid SG.
Fuel gas systems must be designed with a generous allowance for change in
pressure when starting up additional power generators, and for changeover
from fuel gas to diesel and vice versa. Suction scrubbers for compressors
should be designed for the settleout pressure in the event of trip of the
compressor with maximum discharge pressure.

The maximum operating pressure (shut-in pressure) for centrifuaal

comDressors should, when accurate information is unavailable, be
determined as the maximum operating suction pressure +l .3 times the
normal differential pressure developed by the compressor, to include for
pressure rise at minimum flow.

In addition to this, consider:

The discharge pressure developed with the suction vessel at design

pressure and normal compressor differential at the rated flow.

That if the operating envelope covers a range of molecular weights

then the molecular weight which sets the rated differential head
required may not be the same as that which sets the maximum
discharge pressure.

If a variable speed motor or gas turbine is used, consider loss of

speed control and operation at maximum speed (this may need to
consider any allowable overspeed, an allowable driver overspeed of
5% is not unusual).

When designing comDressor suction scrubbers be aware the maximum

operating pressure should consider the settle out condition when the
compressor trips and suction and discharge pressures equalise. This results
in a design pressure often higher than the scrubber design pressure would
otherwise be. A rule of thumb which is often applied as a first pass is that as
the discharge volume is usually around half the suction volume. The
maximum operating pressure or settle out pressure will therefore be
approximately a third of the way between the normal suction and discharge
pressures (i.e. PS+ 0.33 * (Pd - PS)).The design pressure should then be
determined by reference to Table 5.1.2. This design pressure should be
reviewed when further system definition is available.

The maximum operating pressure (shut in pressure) of a centrifuaal DumD

should ordinarily be not less than either:

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Discharge pressure developed with normal suction vessel pressure,
suction vessel LSHH and shut-in differential with the worst case fluid
density.

Discharge pressure developed with the suction vessel at design pressure,

suction vessel at normal level plus the pump differential at the rated flow.

The above is influenced by several conditions, particularly:

A typical rise to shut off of 25% above rated head should be assumed for
first approximations. (This figure can be lower or higher, sometimes as
high as 50% for canned pumps).

Many pumps have a minimum design pressure corresponding to a flange

rating of 300# (e.g. circa 47 barg).

Surge is an important phenomena, especially for long discharge systems

and may influence design pressure or require surge protection devices
(See Ref 5 for an excellent short reference). An initial estimate of surge
pressure can be made using Genesis inhouse software (Refer section
6.0).

Pump manufacturing tolerances (e.g. API RP 610) allow a manufacturer

to supply an impeller that can deliver up to 10% more head than the rated
head. This should be added to the initial estimate of 25% rise to shut off,
unless the maximum operating discharge pressure becomes excessive. It
is possible to specify a pump with 0% tolerance on the rated head with
additional cost, but this should not be considered until after conceptual
design.

The bottom line of the above is do not set design pressures too close to
normal operating pressures or this can give major problems in detailed
design. However care should also be taken not to define higher pressure than
required when it affects the selection of material and pressure class rating.

Piping

In general the design conditions for piping shall be the same as the
equipment to which it connects. Static head, friction loss and surge pressures
shall be taken into consideration.

The DPIDT diagram shall define the extent of the different DPIDT classes.

Protection of liquid filled pipework from overpressure caused by thermal

expansion arising from high ambient temperatures or fire should be
considered.

Production flowlines are normally designed for well closed in tubing head
pressure as a minimum. If methanol or glycol injection is required, the design
pressure should take into account the design pressure of the methanol or
glycol injection system, which is typically 15% above the well closed in tubing
head pressure. Gaslifted wells should be designed taking into account the
design pressure of the gaslift system.

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For standardisation NORSOK recommends that their standard piping

specification be used. In this case the design pressure of a piping system
comprising pipes, fittings, flanges and valves shall in general be according to
NORSOK Standard L-CR-001 (Reference 5). Pipe classes for design
pressures between those pressure class ratings shall be developed when
justified by cost savings.

Where this is not possible because other considerations apply then the job
piping specification is generated based on the DPlDT diagram and a
schedule of the DPlDT classes.

Occasional variation above design according to ANSllASME B31.3 should be

evaluated where total cost can be significantly reduced.

Design Temperature

Maximum design temperature

Where the maximum operating temperature can be calculated accurately, the

maximum design temperature will be equal to the maximum operating
temperature + 15°C. The difference between normal and maximum operating
temperature needs to be considered for each case depending on the degree
of temperature control. A reasonable operating margin must be allowed for
when setting the maximum operating temperature to ensure design
temperature or high high temperature trip settings are not exceeded.

Where the maximum operating temperature can not be calculated accurately,

for an initial estimate in conceptual design the maximum design temperature
is normally determined by adding 30°C to the normal operating temperature.

The high high temperature trip, if required, shall be set at no greater than the
design temperature.

For equipment operating at ambient conditions in northern Europe, the

maximum design temperature is 50°C. For equipment operating in extreme
climates; the maximum design temperature shall be the black body
temperature resulting from exposure to the sun's radiation. For example in
the Middle East the maximum design temperature shall be no less than 85°C.
This ambient criteria shall apply to piping and equipment that may be idle for
long periods such as spare compressor or pump trains.

For seawater supply systems where the maximum operating temperature is

defined by the seawater yearly variations, the maximum operating
temperature is defined as 10" above the seawater supply operating
temperature chosen for design.

The operating temperature on a compressor discharge, when a compressor

curve is not available can roughly be defined as 15°C above the predicted
design point temperature to allow for lower efficiency at compressor minimum
flow conditions. When compressor curves are available, the temperature at
minimum flow conditions shall be used as the operating temperature.

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The following guidelines should be used to determine the upper design
temperature:

Add 15 "C to the operating temperature to allow for margins in the

compressor curves, and for wear and tear giving lower efficiency over
time.
Add 10 "C as an additional margin

Compressor suction scrubber maximum design temperatures are defined as

the higher of the following:

Maximum operating temperature at the compressor suction in the event

of cooling medium failure. Maximum operating temperature can be
limited by a high temperature shutdown function.
Maximum recycle temperature (maximum discharge minus Joule
Thompson drop across anti-surge valve) in the event of cooling medium
failure.
Maximum temperature due to settle out conditions.
Operating temperature plus 30°C.

For all heat exchangers, both sides shall have a maximum design
temperature determined by the hottest fluid. The extent of the high
temperature specification on the cold side shall be up to and including the first
block valve or up to the connecting equipment flange.
&

For columns the design temperature shall be the same as the bottoms design
condition and shall apply throughout the tower. The column overhead design
temperature shall be based on the overhead operating temperature. This
design temperature shall apply to the entire overhead system including the
condenser, reflux drum and pumps.

For pumps, the design temperature used must also consider the minimum
flow protection strategy because if this re-circulates immediately back to the
suction side then less time is available before reaching a TSHH than if the
fluids re-circulate to the suction vessel.

Vessels and instruments subject to steam-out shall be designed to meet

pressure and temperature during steam-out operation. (NOTE that steam-out
operations take place at low pressure. They do not normally control the
equipment design but they must be specified so that the design can be
checked). This applies to FEED phase onwards. Note that the vessel
internals and lining if applicable need to be designed for the design
temperature. A retrofit of polypropylene structured packing in a separator has
failed by overlooking this requirement.

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Minimum design temperature

The minimum design temperature shall be the more stringent of the following:

Operating temperature (obtained during normal operation, start-up,

shutdown or process upsets) with a margin of 5°C.
Minimum ambient temperature. Lowest temperature should be based
on available weather data. Safety factors should be added to allow for
the quality of such weather data.
Minimum temperature occurring during depressurising from settle-out
pressure and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature. Pressure
reduction due to cooling before depressurisation shall be included.
Minimum temperature occurring during depressurising from settle-out
pressure and temperature with a margin of 5°C.

The minimum temperatures to be expected in a process plant after

depressurisation will occur at low pressures. Designing the process plant for
lower design temperature at full design pressure often will result in a
conservative design and should be avoided if at all possible. If calculations
result in unacceptable values, operational procedures may be included for
only partial depressurisation of equipment or start of depressurisation at
higher temperature.

Minimum design temperature for equipment and vessels shall be calculated

using the blowdown modules in PROll or Hysim, with an isentropic efficiency
of 100% assumed. However it should be noted that in the presence of liquid
in the vessel, the minimum vessel wall temperature prediction may be too
high as the models do not accurately represent the heat transfer between the
liquid and vessel wall. The temperatures will be reasonably predicted for a .
vessel filled only with gas. If a rigorous calculation of the vessel wall
temperature is required in the presence of liquid, alternative methods must be
considered.

The starting temperature shall be assumed to be minimum ambient

temperature, or the minimum operating temperature, whichever is the lower
of the two temperatures.

The duration of the blowdown shall normally be 15 minutes, to reduce the

pressure to 50% of design pressure or 7 barg, whichever is the lower of the
two values as recommended by API RP521. The duration of blowdown of
compressors with seal oil systems will be dependent on the size of the
rundown tank.

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5.1.2 Materials Selection

Process engineers must make some reasonable estimates of material

selection for initial planning. These recommendations are a simplification of a
complex subject. The correct specification of materials is a specialist activity.
For anything beyond the scope of the guidelines set out below then a
materials specialist must be consulted. Information on this topic is also given
in the ADEPT user manual.

Oil and Gas systems

In very simple terms there are four main types of materials in hydrocarbon
service. These are conventional carbon steel, low temperature carbon steel,
stainless steels (conventional and duplex), and high nickel alloys such as
lnconel625 or lncoloy 825. All these types are used in process battery limit
piping. Carbon steel, stainless steel and clad carbon steel are used in pipeline
services.

For exchangers and vessels, carbon steel is almost always used for the
shells. Stainless is used for exchanger tubes and vessel internals. For
corrosive service the vessel shells are normally clad with stainless or alloy. In
some low-pressure applications epoxy or glass flake is used as the lining
material.

The choice between them is dictated by the characteristics of the process

streams. For sweet services defined as low levels of C02 (below 10 psia
partial pressure) with no hydrogen sulphide, conventional carbon steel is
selected where design temperatures are above -29 'C. For sweet service
where design temperatures are below -29 ' C but do not exceed -46 'C, then
low temperature carbon steel is normally selected. For process design
temperatures below -46 'C, stainless steel is used.

Carbon steel is still selected where the CO2 partial pressure exceeds 10 psia
and no H2S is present. In this case the continual injection of corrosion
inhibitor is required. Gas corrosion inhibitor rate is normally in the range 20
ppm v01 of gas flow rate. The method for determining the corrosion rate as a
function of the carbon dioxide partial pressure is based upon the work of
DeWaard and Milliams. There is a spreadsheet available for the calculation
(Refer section 6.0).

Where chlorides are present, duplex stainless is used in preference to

conventional.

In sour service where hydrogen sulphide is present up to 0.05 psia partial

pressure in gas or multiphase systems, carbon steel can still be used but the
steel must meet NACE standard MR-01-75 (Ref 6) for resistance to sulphide
stress corrosion cracking. For liquid hydrocarbon systems, the materials
selected must comply with NACE MR-01-75 if the liquid is in equilibrium with
gas containing H2Sat a partial pressure of 0.05 psia or above. Normally this
is the partial pressure of gas in the upstream separator, irrespective of
whether the liquid is pumped to a higher pressure. Duplex and 316 stainless

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steels can be used at hydrogen sulphide partial pressures in the range 0.1 to
below lpsia, depending on the type of stainless steel selected. The
calculation of the partial pressure of HpS should be based upon the design
pressure of the system, as sulphide stress corrosion cracking is a relatively
rapid event, which could occur during the process upsets.

In sour service the low temperature limitations for carbon steel and stainless
steel remain as for sweet service. The high nickel alloys are assumed to have
the low temperature limitations of carbon steel.

For high temperature applications up to 300°C carbon steels are suitable. For
applications above this temperature stainless is chosen on account of its
resistance to oxidation.

Water systems

For seawater systems the presence of dissolved oxygen makes carbon steel
I unsuitable. The usual material selection is either cunifer (a copper nickel
alloy) or duplex stainless steel for piping and titanium for exchangers.
For the de-aerated water in water injection systems, carbon steel is the
I preferred material as long as the oxygen level in the water does not rise
above 10 ppb ( parts per billion). If this cannot be guaranteed then cunifer or
/duplex must be used. Clad carbon steels are used for the vessels.
I k In treated water systems such as cooling medium where the water contains
inhibitors and glycol, carbon steel is the first choice material for piping and

I vessels. Stainless steel is used for exchanger tubes.

Air systems / f
p
b X;, 213f:
*"

Instrument air systems are always stainless steel. The air receiver vessels
are also stainless.

Fuel systems

Fuel systems (fuel gas and diesel) are normally carbon steel up to the inlet of
the final filter. The filter body and downstream pipework are stainless.

Chemical Injection

This depends upon the final configuration of the chemical injection skid but as
a first choice the vessels and pipework are stainless steel.

Drain systems

For oily water and process hydrocarbon drain systems, carbon steel is the
first choice. Closed chemical injection drains are stainless

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Flare and Vent systems

This choice is dependent upon the type of development. . Further design

development may modify these initial assumptions for example; individual
headers may be run in low temperature or even stainless material. But for
initial planning the following selection is recommended.

For systems containing appreciable quantities of high-pressure gas, the HP

flare and the HP Flare KO Drum are taken as low temperature carbon steel.
The flare tip is heat resistant alloy.

For low-pressure oil production systems, the first choice material shall be
conventional carbon steel. The flare tip will be a heat resistant alloy.

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5.2 COMPRESSORS

Correct specification of a compressor system requires consideration of:

Type of Compressor
Sparing 1 Training Strategy
Rated Flow
Rated Differential Head
Surge l Stonewall Conditions
Design Pressure and Temperature
Compressor Materials of Construction
Driver Selection and Rating

This manual is gives only brief guidance on these topics. The mechanical
group should be involved in all aspects of compressor sizing and selection.

5.2.1 Type of Compressor

Compressor selection is a large and complex subject but the types most
commonly selected are:

• Centrifugal

This is the most common type in hydrocarbon service and is primarily used
for applications requiring a medium to high capacity and a range of
differential heads. Often used for depletion compression, gas export and gas
injection.

• Reciprocating

These are generally used for low to medium flows and a range of differential
heads. Sometimes used for gas injection.

• Rotary or Screw

Used for low flow 1 low head applications, e.g. overheads from an oil stripping
column, refrigeration circuits, instrument air.

• Axial

Sometimes used for high flow l low head applications.

GO'
Dry seals should be adopted wherever possible to avoid the need to rapidly
blow down a compressor following a trip, and to reduce size, weight and cost
of the compression package. The material selection for the dry seal should be
compatible with the peak blowdown rate required for the compressor.

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Figure 5.2.1 gives guidance on which type of compressor to select.

Figure 5.2.1: Compressor Selection Chart

5.2.2 Sparingnraining Strategy

The sparingltraining strategy primarily depends on the overall process

availability target and available driver size:

In continuous service where availability is crucial, project economics

may justify a 2 X 100% arrangement. If less crucial then 2 X < l 00% or
1 X 100% may be justified (depends on economics and available driver
size).

If the service is not continuous or non critical then 1 X 100% of

maximum flow may be justifiable.

If the flow characteristic includes long periods of turndown operation it

is unlikely this would justify use of say 3 X 50% machines and the
more likely solution is to accommodate turndown by recycling of gas.

The sparingltraining strategy has a significant affect on topsides size, weight

and cost for an offshore platform. However a reliability study is time
consuming and generally not completed until the number of options has been
minimised and export routes defined. The sparing is dependent on the type of
gas contract (associated or no associated gas), which will affect penalties for
failing to deliver gas. It will also be affected by commercial aspects, such as
whether the gas can be substituted by other sources. The availability of
linepacking in the gas export pipeline will also have a significant affect. For

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screening studies and conceptual design it is best to consult an experienced
engineer and make a judgement taking these factors into account.

5.2.3 Rated Flow

A centrifugal compressor is characterised by the relationship of "head"

against actual suction volumetric flow for a particular gas. The "maximum"
flow referred to above is the worst case taken from simulations or design
calculations.

Normally, for say an export compressor, no flow margin is added to this

except in circumstances when a margin may be justified to improve
management of line pack within an export pipeline.

For flash gas compressors, a margin will be required to cover GOR

uncertainties or for processing liquid or gas surges from of an upstream
flowline system. This could be up to 30% of normal anticipated capacity.

5.2.4 Rated Differential Head

The aim of a compression system is to compress gas as safely, reliably and

cost effectively as possible. This usually dictates a minimum number of
stages, where a stage is defined as a scrubber/compressorlcooler set. A rule
of thumb for the maximum head across a single compressor casing is 60,000
ft or 18,500 m, although this can be higher or lower and is often controlled by
other factors such as gas molecular weight, maximum discharge temperature
(see below) and available driver power. If available power or discharge
temperature limits are exceeded then the number of stages is increased. The
interstage pressure for a two stage machine is the square root of the overall
pressure ratio. A single compressor stage is normally contained within a
single casing but there are designs that contain two stages in a single casing.

To determine the number of impellers within a compressor stage a rule of

thumb is that the maximum head across a single impeller is 3000 m.

Determination of the rated differential head requires an assessment of

suction and discharge side friction and static losses together with any control
losses.

Friction losses are easily determined using equivalent lengths and vendor
data where necessary. Use the Norsok recommendationsfor line sizing as a
first approximation (Refer section 5.6) and allow 1.0 bar pressure loss for any
exchanger in the absence of other information.

Friction and static loss calculations should be performed for maximum and
minimum gas molecular weight to ensure the compressor can deliver both
gases. This is particularly important for flash gas compressors where
uncertainties in molecular weight can have a significant effect on generated
differential head and hence capacity of a compressor.

For a centrifugal compressor with a fixed speed driver (typically a flash gas
compressor), flow is usually controlled by either suction or discharge throttling
and so a small pressure drop allowance (say 0.7 bar) should be made for a

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control valve which is close to fully open at rated flow. (Suction throttling is
preferable to discharge throttling where a choice is available).

For a centrifugal compressor with a variable speed drive (typically an export

compressor), no control valve allowance is required unless a discharge side
backpressure control valve is required. A backpressure control valve is
sometimes used between an export compressor and a gas export pipeline to
assist start-up against a low pipeline pressure, or to prevent stonewall at low
pipeline pressures.

Reciprocating compressors are approximately constant volume devices and

C S
>d V f i k b W e h a They are usually controlled by either
volume pockets, speed control or recycling of gas. Hence no control valve
allowance is required.

Once the system pressure loss has been calculated, the head can be
calculated as polytropic head using one of the following methods:

• Hand calculation method (as in GPSA)

a ESI
• Thermodynamic simulator (PROIII)
• Genesis In house compressor sizing software (Refer section 6.0)

The first two methods above require CplCv and this can be taken from the
GPSA chapter on reciprocating compressors. Some problems have been
reported with the Cp and CplCv data from PROlll not matching other
published data or values quoted be the compressor vendor. Values of Cp and
CplCv from PROIII should be ignored.

5.2.5 Discharge Temperature and Compressor Power

Compressor discharge temperatures and gas power can be calculated using

published efficiencies (e.g. GPSA) and then one of the following methods:

• Hand calculation method (as in GPSA)

a ESI
• Mollier chart method
• Thermodynamic simulator (PROIII)
• Genesis in-house compressor sizing software (Refer section 6.0)

Aim to limit discharge temperature to the range 150 up to 175 deg C at rated
flow for a centrifugal machine and bear in mind that on turndown the
efficiency may be lower and discharge temperatures higher. Typical
compressor efficiency are contained in GPSA, vendor data etc. Bear in mind
that a higher suction temperature leads to a higher discharge temperature
and higher compression power for a constant mass flow. This may suggest
lower suction temperatures are desirable but in some systems this leads to
greater upstream condensation of liquids which can sometimes be counter
productive. Compressor casings usually have a design temperature of 200°C.

5.2.6 Driver Selection and Rating

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The choice of the type of driver depends on several considerations including
compressor power, control and availability considerations.

Power

A general rule of thumb is that a fixed speed motor is often preferable up to a

power rating of about 3 MW. Above 3 MW a variable speed electric drive or a
gas turbine driver is usually selected. Variable speed electric drivers for
export compressors of up to 17 MW are known. Gas turbine drivers can go to
60 MW and beyond but must be de-rated in accordance with Section 5.2.7 of
this manual. More than one compressor can be installed on a common driver
but this reduces the number of control variables and requires careful
consideration to see if adequate control can be achieved.

Control

This is an issue as a large export compressor seeing a range of flows and

heads is usually better suited to a variable speed electric drive or gas turbine
than a fixed speed motor. Conversely, a flash gas or injection compressor
seeing a smaller and more constant duty may be better suited to a simpler
fixed speed drive.

Availability

Availability data illustrates that gas turbines have a lower availability than
either motor drives or centrifugal compressors. Study of this on a recent
project suggests that sometimes for a concept with several compressors it
can be better to have centralised power generation with one redundant
turbine and then low redundancy in motor driven compressors as opposed to
use of turbines throughout with greater redundancy at each point. However
there are many exceptions to this assumption and discussion regarding driver
selection should always be held with a mechanical specialist.

Electric Motors

Once the compressor shaft power has been calculated as described above,
an allowance of 5% is suggested to allow for gearbox losses (gearboxes are
not preferred for reciprocating compressors). Motor ratings should then be
calculated using the factors below.

Motor Rating = 1.l

5 X Absorbed Shaft Power (for 75 kw)
Motor Rating = 1.l
0 X Absorbed Shaft Power (for > 75 kw)

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5.2.7 Turbine De-rating & Compressor Losses

There is a wide range of gas turbine drivers suitable for compressor applications.
The power output ranges from 1 MW to 60 MW IS0 ratings.

Tables exist within Genesis showing currently available gas turbines with their
corresponding IS0 ratings for compressor driver and power generation
services. Refer ADEPT User manual (Ref 3).

The IS0 ratings are based on ambient air conditions of 15 'C and 1.013 barg.
The power developed by a gas turbine is a direct function of the inlet air
density. The output is decreased for inlet temperatures above 15 'C and for
elevations above sea level. Conversely the power output is increased for inlet
temperatures below 15 'C. The elevation effect is not significant in offshore
operations and most onshore operations.

The temperature effect is significant in all cases. The power variation with
temperature is a linear function. Campbell (Ref 1) suggests power derating of
about 0.9% for each 1 C' above the rating temperature. Correspondingly the
power is increased by the same amount for each 1 'C below the rating
temperature.

In the North Sea the ambient temperature only exceeds 15 ' C for a short
period of the year. It is accepted practice here to run the engine above its
rated output on the basis that it is running below it for the remainder of the
year. In this way the time between overhauls (TBO) is retained. This is not
feasible in locations where the ambient temperature exceeds15 'C for the
majority of the time.

There is also the power derating due to ducting inlet and exhaust losses.
Campbell (Ref 1) again suggests 0.2% per mbar for the inlet and 0.1% per
mbar for the outlet. Normal pressure drops in ducting are from 5 to 15 mbar.
These losses are normally included in published IS0 site rated data and need
not be considered further. (For reference, figures of 10 mbar inlet loss and 10
mbar exhaust loss are recommended).

The exhaust losses increase if a WHRU is included in the exhaust duct (allow
an additional 15 mbar for pressure drop across the WHRU). This is a special
case for mechanical drive applications, it is more often found in power
generation applications. Refer to rotating equipment specialist or vendor data
for IS0 site ratings.

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The accurate determination of required driver power is critical. It is important
that all losses are recognised and accounted for. The steps are as follows:

1. Calculate the compressor gas power W, from the simulation using

the assumed efficiency, rated flow and rated head as described in
sections 5.2.3 and 5.2.4.
2. Add the losses (2%) for internal recycling, W , = ( 0 . 0 2 ) ~ ~
3. Add the allowance (4%) for API 617 deviation, W,,, = ( 0 . 0 4 ) ( ~+, w,~)
4. Add the losses (2.5%) for bearings and seals,
W , = (0.025 )(W, +W, )
5. Calculate the power absorbed at the compressor shaft, WC
= (WC + wIR + w617 + w B S )
6. Add the allowance for the drive train gear losses,
WcEAR = (0.025XwG + )
7. Calculate the power at the gas turbine output shaft,
Wm- = ( w c u + Wc )

The total turbine power shaft power therefore is the process gas power + l 0
to1l%.

Gas Turbine available power WA,, should exceed W,, with allowances for
the following losses.

1. Air Inlet System losses including snow hood

filter/silencer/ducting/screens
2. Exhaust System losses including ductinglsilencer/transitionsNVHRU.
3. Elevation of gas turbine skid
4. Site ambient temperature
5. DLE ( Dry Low Emissions) ramifications if any
6. Recoverable losses(i.e. due to on stream washing) = 3 to 6 %
7. Irrecoverable losses (i.e. wear & tear ) = 2 to 4%

As the first five items are included in the site rated design figure W,, , the
total gas turbine losses WGTLossare therefore between 5 and 10%. This figure
should therefore be deducted from the design site rating. Using a mean
value of 7.5%.

If air temperatures above design ambient temperature are considered then

the derating factor, WDEMT must be included.

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Where T is operating air temperature and TA
,, is design ambient air
temperature

For the case where the turbine operates at lower than ambient design
temperature then

Note that in this case,, ,W

, must not exceed the peak rated output of the
machine. Before this figure is officially used, confer with mechanical specialist
or vendor.

Therefore the gas turbine selection must cover compressor gas power and
the gas turbine site rating adjusted for losses so we have factors varying
between 15 % and 21% that must be considered and included.

,,, V
Finally ' 2 ?Vp,for an acceptable selection.

Another common problem is to calculate the maximum flow for a given

turbine power. In this case use the same procedure in reverse. From W
,G
, ,
work backwards to determine I/V, and calculate the flow for the given head.
Ensure that the polytropic efficiency matches the flow.

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5.3 FLARE

For screening studies and conceptual design it will normally be sufficient to

determine just the following:

Type of flare system (HP, LP or both) which will dictate the number and
size of flare drums.
Type of flare disposal system (remote, stack or boom), with an estimate
of stack height or boom length.

Radiation, noise and dispersion studies are normally left until FEED, and are
beyond the scope of these guidelines.

The detail design of flares systems is well documented in industry standards

such as API 5201521 (References 1 and 2). There are however certain
guidelines that should be followed within Genesis for front end work.

5.3.1 Flare Collection Systems

Normally radiation levels and hence stack height or boom length can be
reduced by using an HP flare system with a proprietary sonic tip. It may be
feasible to provide just an HP flare system, such as on a gas platform where
there are no low pressure sources. It is common to use a cold vent rather
than a flare on a gas platform where continuous flaring of gas is not required.

If the gas flare rate is relatively low, and the stack height or boom length is
reasonable (say below 12" diameter and 25 metres in height or length), an LP
flare system with a subsonic pipeflare can be used. A pipeflare is lower in
cost, and subsonic operation will keep noise levels and piping system
vibration to reasonable levels. A typical example would be a small onshore
gathering station with no gas recovery, or a small offshore oil platform with no
gas export.

Sometimes both an LP and HP system are required. This would be where the
stack height or boom length can be reduced by relief of high pressure
systems through the HP flare system via a proprietary sonic tip. An additional
LP flare system is typically required to reduce the back pressure to an
acceptable level for relief valves and control valves associated with
separators operating at relatively low pressure to meet oil export
specifications.

An LLP flare system may be required for very low backpressures approaching
atmospheric for systems such as glycol regeneration for example.

Typically an HP flare system with proprietary tip will operate at up to 10 barg

backpressure. For balanced bellow relief valves this would require a set
pressure of at least 20 barg to relieve into this system. An LP flare system will
operate with 1 to 3 barg backpressure.

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5.3.2 Types of Flare

A flare consists of an elevated flare stack whose function is to dispose of

relief gases by burning them at the stack exit. The height of the stack is set
by limits on the radiation flux level at grade or at the nearest manned location,
such as the monkey board on a drilling derrick. In offshore applications, the
stack can be vertical, or a boom provided canted at an angle of 30' to 60'
from the platform edge. In onshore applications it is always vertical.

The purpose of the flare tip is to improve combustion and reduce smoke
formation. There are different designs of flare tips. In their simplest form they
are open tips known as pipe flares. These can be designed as subsonic or
sonic depending upon the application, but they are usually used in subsonic
service for LP flare systems. They may be used as a cold vent in sonic
service.

At the other extreme there are proprietary flare tips supplied by companies
such as GKN Birwelw and Kaldair. These are designed as dedicated burners
that operate at sonic velocities to promote good combustion and reduce
radiation levels and smoke formation and a normally used for HP flare
systems.

The location of the flare tip is set by either the radiation or dispersion profile
for the design relieving rate. The profile requiring the greatest distance is
selected. In most deep-water applications the flare is located on the platform
or vessel. The choice between a vertical flare stack or canted flare boom
depends on the facility. It is a safe assumption to use a canted flare boom on
a fixed platform and a vertical flare for a floater. Most operators prefer a flare
boom on a fixed platform as burning liquid entrainment will fall directly to the
sea rather than onto the platform. If the flare design maximum relieving
flowrate is excessive (use 800 MMscfd as a first order rule of thumb), it may
be necessary to consider a remote flare.

In other situations such as very shallow waters it is more economic to use a

shorter, remote flare. This is the case in the Arabian Gulf. The remote flare is
located on its own platform and it can be bridged linked or connected by a
subsea pipeline. If a subsea line is utilised then pigging facilities must be
provided to sweep the pocketed line.

For offshore installations, an initial estimate of flare boom length or stack

height with either a pipeflare or sonic tip can be made for a known design
flare flow-rate with reference to methods in the ADEPT user manual (Ref 3).

For onshore installations the flare is normally sited away from the facilities.
The minimum distance is set by the sterile radius corresponding to the 6.3
kWIrn2 isopleth around the base of the stack. No equipment is located within
this area.

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5.3.3 Radiation Levels

For emergency relief the radiation level at grade or nearest point of concern
is 6.3 kWlm2.

For continuous flaring the radiation level is 1.9 kWlm2. Both these figures
shall include the effects of solar radiation. The radiation profiles should be
plotted at wind speeds of 10, 20 and 25mls. This analysis can be done using
Genesis in-house software (Refer section 6.0).

5.3.4 Dispersion

As well as radiation levels, engineers must also consider gas dispersion.

There may be instances when the flame is extinguished and hydrocarbons
are vented into the surroundings. In this case the tip location must be set so
that there is no possibility of a flammable mixture being present at the point of
interest or at any ignition source. Nor must there be a dangerous
concentration of toxic material at the nearest point of interest. (For hydrogen
sulphide this level is assumed to be 10ppmv)

For open vents this is the prime mechanism of disposal. It must be assumed
that the vented gases can be ignited so vent tip locations are also checked
for radiation levels.

Dispersion profiles are determined using PHAST. Running the program is the
responsibility of the Safety group.

5.3.5 Noise Levels

A further consideration regarding flares and vents is the noise level during
emergency relief. This must be maintained at 85dBA at the nearest normally
manned point.

5.3.6 Design Flowrates

It is normal practice to provide a single flare designed for the worst case
disposal rate. The determination of this rate for front-end design is as follows.

Table 5.3.1: Flare System Design Flow-rates

Gas production facility Use the design gas production

rate assuming full flow relief

Gas condensate facility Use the design gas production

rate assuming full flow relief
Oil production facility (light oil) Use the highest gas stream
rate from the simulation and
assume full flow relief
Oil production facility (heavy oil) Determine the vapour load from
fire exposure to the production
separation train

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There may be cases where the provision of full flow relief is not economically
justifiable or rejected by the client. The design of the relief system will then be
governed by the peak blowdown rate. The initial estimate is given by the
expression.

B = - .Ih - 4 (HOLD)
At P,

Where B = lnitial rate, kgls, I = Gas inventory, kg, At =Time interval secs,
P, = Initial pressure, Bara, P, = Pressure at end of time interval, Bara.

The gas inventory I , can be determined from the gas system volume, which
comes from the separator vapour volumes with a margin of 50% to allow for
piping. The pressure is the maximum operating pressure taken from the
simulation.

In the above expression the time interval is normally 900 secs and the
pressure at the end of this period is taken as 7.9 Bara.

If the rate is still too high then there are two options

1. Blowdown may be sectionalised so that the volume is reduced

2. The blowdown can be assumed to be at constant flowrate. In this case
the equation becomes

B=-.- (HOLD)
At 4
Where the terms are as before except that AP is the difference between the
initial and final pressures in bars.

For more detailed estimates blowdown calculations are done using the
dedicated blowdown routines in the PRO\II package. There is a degree of trial
and error in this approach. The valve constant is selected to give the
blowdown rates calculated by the above equations. The constant is then
adjusted to give the desired pressure profile.

5.3.7 Drum Sizing

The HP Flare is always provided with a KO drum to remove entrained liquids.

This minimises liquid carryover to the flare tip. The drum aspect ratio is 3:l to
allow for liquid separation and accumulation. There must be sufficient volume
to accommodate the liquids entering the vessel during the duration of design
case relief. This volume to be contained between normal and high high level
trip LSHH. For unmanned facilities use a duration of 2 minutes, for manned
facilities use 20 minutes. The drums will be sized to remove all particles
greater than 450 microns. No vessel internals or vapour liquid disengaging
device will be installed.

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For an initial drum sizing refer to the method given in the ADEPT User
manual (Ref 3). A more rigorous calculation can be made using the method
given in API RP521 (Ref 2), with the gas area above the LSHH checked to
prevent liquid entrainment of droplets greater than 450 micron, and the liquid
volume below LSHH checked to ensure residence time provided as
recommended above.

The same criteria for gas liquid separation is applied to the LP Flare KO
Drum. The LP Flare KO Drum is often used as the closed drain vessel so in
addition to the design vapour load it may also be sized to handle the inventory
of the largest liquid vessel with contents drained to low low level trip.

The LLP flare is not normally provided with a KO drum. If one is installed, use
5 minutes liquid residence time at design relief flowrate.

The pumpout pump for LP and HP Flare KO Drums is sized for at least 5
m3lhr.

5.3.8 Purging

The flare stack is continually purged to air entering the system. The
purge rate can be calculated from Tan's equation.

Where f is the purge flow in MM SM3D, d is the stack diameter in metres,

m is the molecular mass.

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5.4 HEAT EXCHANGERS

5.4.1 Types of Exchanger

There are a number of different types of exchanger. The ones most often
encountered by Genesis are shell and tube, air-cooled, printed circuit (PCHE)
and plate type exchangers. There are other special types such as platefin
exchangers and double pipe exchangers, which may be encountered, in
specific situations.

Shell and tube exchangers are the most commonly used. They are
applicable to the widest range of operating conditions and services and are
normally the first choice. They have a disadvantage in that they are relatively
heavy and require a total plot area of at least 100% of their installed plot area
to allow for tube bundle withdrawal. Their design and operation is well
understood and many literature references and standards are available.
Shells are normally fabricated in carbon steel. For corrosive services the shell
are clad. Tubes can be carbon steel, stainless steel or titanium

Printed circuit heat exchangers (PCHEs) are direct competitors for shell and
tubes in clean applications such as gas cooling and gas heating. They are
significantly smaller and lighter for equivalent duties. They are normally
fabricated in stainless steel and are subject to stress chloride cracking in
water services. The oxygen content and chloride concentration must be
controlled to low levels to prevent this occuring (Note that presently PCHEs
are not recommended for use in direct seawater applications due to
fabrication problems with titanium.) A further drawback is their susceptibility to
failure due to thermal cycling if the coolant flow is frequently shut off due to
poor tuning of the temperature controller, and the need to provide filtration
down to 300 microns upstream. Duplex strainers should be provided in
cooling medium service. Despite this they are the first choice for suitable
clean non fouling services such as gas cooling. Their design is proprietary,
and except for a preliminary sizing for conceptual design, any information
must be obtained from the manufacturer, Heatric.

Air cooled heat exchangers are utilised in process and utility cooling
applications where no cooling water is provided or it cannot be economically
justified. They are normally supplied in carbon steel or stainless steel. They
are designed for pressures up to 150 barg and temperatures up to 200°C.
Their disadvantages are that they are heavy, require the greatest plot area
and must be installed above the platform weather deck or away from
equipment that may interfere with the air flow. They are the least preferred
cooling option. They are most frequently used in shallow water compression
stations or in locations where water is not available.

Plate type exchangers are primarily for low-pressure liquid liquid service such
as crude oil product cooling or cooling medium cooling with seawater. They
are limited to operating pressures of no more than 14 bar g (Design pressure
of 25 barg) and temperatures of 150°C. They are again of a proprietary
design and use must normally be made of manufacturer information for sizing
purposes, except for a preliminary sizing during conceptual design.

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The double pipe type exchanger is used in very low duties for gas or viscous
liquids. They are fabricated in carbon steel or stainless steel. They are
suitable for high pressure and high temperatures the limits are set by the
piping design codes. Normally the design includes fins to provide additional
surface to overcome the high thermal resistances. A typical supplier is Brown
Fintube.

The plate-fin is used in low temperature gas processing for gaslgas and
gaslliquid recovery duties. They are specialist devices and information on
sizing and selection must be obtained from the manufacturer, (typical name
Altec)

5.4.2 Temperature Approach and Limitations

A significant factor in exchanger design is the temperature approach. The

approach is set by economic considerations. Table 5.4.1 gives suggested
values for the approaches for different services.

The temperature of seawater when used in direct cooling must not exceed
30°C to prevent scale formation and fouling of the exchanger.

Table 5.4.1 : Recommended values for temperature approaches

5.4.3 Temperature Difference Correction

The LMTD is calculated using the equations in the standard references. It

must be corrected using the factor FT. The value for FTcan be read from
charts which are included in the Standards of the Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association).

For shell and tube exchangers if the value of FTis below 0.8 the exchanger
may not operate satisfactorily. The configuration must be modified or the
temperatures revised to overcome this limitation.

The FT factor is also applied to air cooled heat exchangers. Refer to the
charts figures 13.11 and 13.12in Ref 3.

Care should also be taken to ensure there is no temperature cross within the
exchanger. This will occur for example if the cold, shell side outlet
temperature is raised to above the outlet temperature on the hot tube side of
a single shell pass exchanger.

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5.4.4 Film coefficient

The inside and outside film coefficients are determined by calculation from
the physical properties of the fluids. The correlations are based on
dimensional analysis and take the form of a proportionality relationship
between the Reynolds, Nusselt and Prandtl numbers. The general form is
shown here:

Film CO-efficientWlm2.K
Proportionality constant
fluid thermal conductivity, w1m.K
effective diameter, m
Fluid velocity, mls
Fluid density, kglm3
Fluid viscosity, kg1m.s
Fluid specific heat, kJ1kg.K
Power CO-efficienton Reynolds Number
Power CO-efficienton Prandtl Number

The power coefficients and proportionality constant vary according to the

service. Typical values are given in Table 5.4.2 for turbulent flow in tube type
exchangers from Campbell volume 2 (Reference 3). The values for the fluid
physical properties are taken from the simulations.

Table 5.4.2: Coefficients for Use in Equation 5.4.7 for turbulent Flow in
Tube Type Heat Exchangers

Service CO-effA Exponent a Exponent b

Inside vertical tubes
Cooling gas 0.0265 0.8 0.3
Cooling liquid (high visc.) 0.027 0.8 0.33
Heating gas 0.0243 0.8 0.4
Heating liquid (low visc.) 0.023 0.8 0.4
Heating liquid (high visc.) 0.027 0.8 0.33
Boiling liquid 0.029 0.8 0.4
Inside Horizontal Tubes
Cooling gas 0.023 0.8 0.3
Cooling liquid (low visc.) 0.0265 0.8 0.3
Cooling liquid (high visc.) 0.027 0.8 0.3
Heating gas 0.0225 0.8 0.3
Heating liquid (low visc.) 0.0255 0.8 0.3
Heating liquid (high visc.) 0.027 0.8 0.3
Flow normal to single tube, cooling
and heating
Gas 0.26 0.6 0.3
Liquid 0.38 0.56 0.3
Gas or Liquid flow normal to tube bank
Staggered I 0.33 0.6 0.33
In-Line 0.26 0.6 0.33

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Table 5.4.3: Typical values of Overall Heat Transfer coefficients for shell
and tube exchangers

Service Coefficient Wlm2K

Water Coolers
Gas to 3.5 Mpa 200-285
Gas from 3.5 to 7.0 Mpa 285-455
Gas over 7.0 Mpa 455-570
Natural gasoline 395-510
MEA 740-850
Air 85-140
Water 956-1135
Water Condensers
Amine regenerator 570-625
Fractionator Overhead 395-455
Light hydrocarbons 480-765
Reboilers
Steam 795-910
Hot oil 510-680
Glycol 55-115
Amine 570-680
General
Oil-oil 455-570
Propane-propane 570-740
Rich MEA-lean MEA 680-740
Gas-gas ( to 3.5 Mpa) 285-395
Gas -gas (about 70 Mpa) 310-425
Gas-propane chiller 340-510

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Table 5.4.4: Typical values of Overall Heat Transfer coefficients for air-
cooled heat exchangers

I LIQUID COOLERS I
Material Wlm2K Material Wlm2K
OIL 20" API Heavy oils 8-14
200F [Link]. 57 91
300 F [Link]. 74 125 300 F [Link]. 34 57
400 F [Link]. 170 227 400 F [Link]. 57 91

OIL 30" API Diesel 255 312

150 F [Link]. 68 130 Kerosene 312 340
200 F [Link]. 142 198 Heavy Naptha 340 369
300 F [Link]. 255 312 Light Naptha 369 397
400 F [Link]. 284 340 Gasoline 397 425

OIL 40" API Light HCs 567 454

AlcoholslOrganic 397 425
150 F [Link]. 142 198 solvents 567 680
200 F [Link]. 284 340 Ammonia 510 624
300 F [Link]. 312 369 Brine 75% water 680 794
400 F [Link]. 340 397 Water 567 680
50% EGlwater

1 CONDENSERS 1
Material WIm2K
Steam 794/ 851
I
Steam 10% non condensed 567 624
Steam 20% non condensed 539 567
Steam 40% non condensed 397 425

Pure li ht HCs
Mixed li ht HCs
Gasoline
Gasoline steam mix. 425
Medium HCs 255 284
Medium HCs
with steam 312 340
Pure Organic solvs 425 454
Ammonia 567 624

I VAPOUR COOLERS I
Material Wlm2K
Operating Pressure 1Opsig 5Opsig 1OOpsig 30Opsig 5OOpsig

Light HCs 85 170 255 369 397

Medium HCs & organic
Solvents 85 198 255 369 397
Light inorganic vapours 57 85 170 255 284
Air 45 85 142 227 255.
Ammonia 57 85 170 255 284
Steam 57 85 142 255 312
Hydrogen 100% vol 113 255 369 482 539
75% v01 96 227 340 454 482
50% v01 85 198 312 425 482
25% v01 68 170 255 369 454

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5.4.5 Calculation Methods

Genesis heat exchanger spreadsheets for shell and tube and for air-cooled
heat exchangers are available for initial estimates of size and weight (Refer
section 6.0). The spreadsheets assume typical configurations, in the case of
the shell and tube it is a TEMA type BEU. This is a one-pass shell two pass
tube design. The U values calculated by the program should be checked
against the values in the Tables 5.4.4 and 5.4.5. The weights are estimated
from calculated shell and tube thickness with assumptions for extras such as
channel covers, baffles, tube sheet and nozzles. . Shell and tube exchanger
dimensions are normally selected to give a shell length to diameter ratio
between 6:1 and 10:l.

For different applications such as kettle reboilers the shell diameter shall be
increased by 40% to accommodate the vapour space.

The shell and tube spreadsheet can also be used for first estimates of PCHE
sizes. The recommended procedure is to take 21% of the shell and tube
weight. For the dimensions assume a reasonable aspect ratio such as 1:2:4
(depth:width:height). Alternatively the heatric sizing programme HOLD may
be used (Refer section 6.0)

The basic air-cooler design is a 6-tube row type with the number of bays set by
the maximum tube length, typically 12m. This can be adjusted to obtain a realistic
width to length ratio.

An initial estimate of plate heat exchanger size may be carried out using the shell
and tube spreadsheet. Here the weight is taken as 65% of the shell and tube with
an upper limit of 15 tonnes. Alternatively the Alfa Laval sizing programme HOLD
may be used (Refer section 6.0).

5.4.6 Shell configuration1Sparing

Note that the film coefficients have a strong dependency on the fluid velocity.
If a large exchanger turndown is required a single shell may not perform
adequately. The same problem exists where an exchanger needs more
surface to meet a future expansion. To avoid this problem design for more
than one shell with appropriate valving. This should be considered even in the
early stages of design as heat exchangers have a significant impact on plant
layout.

If a temperature cross cannot be avoided in a single shell then a two shell

arrangement must be used. Refer also section 5.4.3.

All exchangers have a practical limit with respect to size. A shell and tube
exchanger is typically limited to 2 m in diameter, otherwise the tube bundle
becomes too large to handle. For plate heat exchangers and PCHEs, if the
initial size is beyond the limits of the sizing programme (Refer section 6.0), it
is best to consult a vendor.

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Exchangers are not normally spared. The inclusion of the fouling allowance
allows for the diminution of performance over an annual period. Assuming an
annual shutdown the exchanger can be cleaned and the initial performance
restored.

5.4.7 Pressure drop allowances

The pressure drop is normally based upon process conditions. Guidelines are
given below. Economic analysis is not normally justified except for very large
exchangers. If the exchanger pressure drop is calculated for viscous fluids
using the standard equations, the viscosity correction term must be included.

Liquids

Viscosity 1Nslm 0.35 bar

1 to 10 Ns/m 0.5 to 0.7 bar

Gases

High vacuum 0.004 to 0.008 bar

Medium vacuum 0.1 X absolute pressure
1 to 10 bar 0.35 to 0.5 bar
Above 10 bar 0.5 to l.O bar

5.4.8 Fouling Factors

Suggested fouling factors are presented in Table 5.4.5

Table 5.4.5 Suggested Fouling Factors

Service Fouling Factor, m2°KNV

Natural gas 0.00018
Propane 0.0002
Butane 0.0002
Gasoline 0.0002
Kerosene 0.0002
Light gas oil 0.0004
Heavy gas oil 0.0005
Crude 0.001
Treated water 0.0001
Seawater 0.0001

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5.4.9 Indirect vs Direct Cooling

Normally a rigorous study is completed in FEED for offshore installations to

determine the lowest cost option between a cooling medium system using
typically a glycoVwater mix, direct seawater cooling or air cooling.

For screening studies and conceptual design, a judgement needs to be made

in consulation with experienced engineers. Typically for a relatively large
platform with gas cooling, it is more economic to select printed circuit heat
exchangers where applicable and use indirect cooling medium system. This
reduces the size, weight and cost of the heat exchangers and cooling
medium distribution system (less exotic materials), at the expense of
additional seawaterlcooling medium exchangers, expansion drum and
circulation pumps. For a small oil field with relatively little cooling and
restrictions on space and weight such as on an FPSO it is generally more
economic to select direct seawater cooling.

Another advantage of indirect cooling medium systems is that the

temperature of the coolant can be controlled to avoid hydrates in wet gas
exchangers. For direct seawater cooling, a seawater recycle pump may be
required to prevent hydrate formation, which returns warm seawater from the
outlet to the inlet, to raise the inlet temperature.

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5.5 PIPING

In the absence of guidelines provided by the client, topsides pipework

pressure drop calculations shall be carried out using computer based
methods by ESI, or hand calculated methods given in 'Flow of Fluids', Crane
(Ref 2) or 'Gas Conditioning and Processing, Vol 1 and 2', J M Campbell (Ref
5). Equivalent lengths for valves and fittings can be found in API RP14E (Ref
1).

Tables are given in 'Flow of Fluids', Crane (Ref 2) and charts in API RP14E
(Ref l ) for a quick estimate of line size and pressure drop in liquid filled
pipework.

Flarenet shall be used as a computer based method for flare system line
sizing.

Guidelines on line sizing criteria are given in the Norsok Standard P-001,
Process Design section (Ref 4), which is available on the internet. There are
useful recommendations on pipe roughness, allowable pressure drops and
velocities for liquid, gas and twophase systems in this standard.

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5.6 PUMPS

Correct specification of a pump system requires consideration of:

Type of Pump
Sparing Strategy
Rated Flow
Rated Differential Head
NPSH
Design Pressure and Temperature
Pump Materials of Construction
Driver Selection and Rating

5.6.1 Type of Pump

Pump selection is a large and complex subject but the two pump types most
commonly selected are:

Centrifugal
This is the most common type and is primarily used for applications requiring
a medium to high capacity and a low to medium head (higher heads can be
achieved with a multi-stage design). Commonly used in hydrocarbon, water
and utility service. Centrifugal applications with very little NPSHA may require
a canned pump (e.g. tank farm pumps).

Vertical inline pumps are generally preferred for a single stage impeller within
the limits of the vendors range, as they are lower in cost and are more
compact. For larger multistage pumps it is possible to select vertical pumps
within the limits of the vendors range, which has significant space and weight
advantages particularly for offshore platforms. However selection of this type
of pump needs to be made in consultation with a mechanical specialist, as
the vendors experience may be relatively limited. Generally in these instances
a horizontal pump is preferred for reliability and ease of maintenance as the
motor does not need to be removed for access to pump internals.

Reciprocating
These are generally used for low flow andlor high head requirements
(typically 20 m31h and > 300 m of head). Often used for chemical injection,
glycol circulation, reservoir injection etc.

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Figure 5.6.1: Pump Selection Chart

5.6.2 Sparingnraining Strategy

The sparingltraining strategy depends on the overall process availability

target, the criticality of service and the expected flow against time
characteristic.

In continuous service where availability is important, calculations should be

based on a default configuration of 2 pumps X 100% of maximum flow;

If the service is not continuous or non critical then 1 X 100% of maximum flow
may be justifiable;

If the flow characteristic includes long periods of turndown operation then

other configurations should be considered (e.g. 3 X 50%). This is because
prolonged operation at low throughputs can reduce availability (see industry
text on suction specific speed etc.) and also wastes power.

5.6.3 Rated Flow

The "maximum" flow referred to above is the worst case taken from
simulations or design calculations. To this a margin of 10% should be added
to give the design or rated flow which is then used in all subsequent
documents (hydraulics, data sheets, equipment lists, driver selection etc).

The rated flow should also consider how the pump minimum flow requirement
is to be accommodated. For a large pump there is unlikely to be an impact as
a normally closed re-circulating control valve or Yarway valve will probably be

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used. For a small pump a constantly open bypass with a restriction orifice is a
simpler alternative but the rated flow must be increased to accommodate the
re-circulated flow. Assume a preliminary minimum flow requirement of 30% of
rated flow.

5.6.4 Rated Differential Head

A centrifugal pump is characterised by its head against flow curve rather than
pressure against flow. Consequently a pump is purchased against a rated
differential head and so to determine this requires an assessment of the
suction and discharge side friction and static losses together with any control
losses.

Friction losses are easily determined using equivalent lengths and vendor
data where necessary. Don't forget strainer losses (use 0.2 bar pressure drop
for conical suction strainers unless NPSH is critical) and the fact pump
nozzles are usually less then line size. Be careful not to undersize lines as
this can lead to NPSH and surge problems. Use the Norsok
recommendations for line sizing as a first approximation (Section 5.5) and
allow 1.0 bar pressure loss for any exchanger in the absence of other
information.

Static loss calculations should be performed for maximum and minimum fluid
densities to ensure the pump can deliver both fluids.

In a system with a fixed speed driver, control valve loss is important as this
determines the controllability of the system. Too little pressure loss and the
system will operate with virtually no design margin and an undersized control
valve. Too much pressure loss and pump CAPEX and power is wasted.
Ordinarily, for a control valve allow the maximum of the following:

25% of the friction loss of the whole system at rated flow excluding the
control valve (this figure may be reduced to say 15% for a system with a
high pressure drop e.g. a long pipeline);
10% of the static difference;
0.7 bar.

In a system with a variable speed driver (e.g. a long pipeline) a pump

discharge control valve may not be necessary if flow and pressure are
controlled by varying pump speed.

For a low differential system using a centrifugal pump, avoid specifying a

rated pump differential of less than 3.5 bar. This can be overcome by
installing a restriction orifice in the pump discharge.

5.6.5 NPSH

Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) is that needed by the pump to
stop cavitation within the pump system and is usually measured at the pump
suction nozzle. NPSH Available (NPSHA) is that delivered by the system at
the pump suction nozzle by virtue of the difference in height between the
suction vessel liquid level and the pump, the difference between suction
vessel pressure and vapour pressure, suction line friction losses.

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When calculating NPSH, the aim is to maintain a margin of not less than 1.5
m at rated flow. I.e. NPSHA > NPSHR + l .5 m.

Typical NPSHR characteristics are as shown below:

"Small" duties require 2 to 3 m of NPSHR

"Medium" duties require 3 to 10 m (e.g. seawater or crude booster)
"High" duties require 10 to 30 m (e.g. MOL or pipeline pumps)
Canned pumps can operate at NPSHRs of less than 2m.

An alternative method for estimating NPSHR is given in Figure 5.6.2

overpage (use a speed of 2950 initially but this is dependent on the pump
design selected). These are typical values for an initial estimate only. If NPSH
available is marginal and affects selection of pump type, it is best to obtain
vendor information.

The calculation of NPSHA - NPSHR is straight forward but bear in mind:

High heads usually need high speeds that in turn usually need a high
NPSHR. For an application like a MOL or pipeline pump, the NPSHR is
often sufficiently high that it is not practicable to raise the suction vessel
level adequately. Consequently a booster is often used in this application
whereby a low differential pump with a low NPSHR is used in series to
provide NPSHR to the main pump.

Perform NPSH calculations from the level of the LSLL in the suction
vessel.

If more than one pump is operated simultaneously in parallel then if one

pump trips the other may try to run-out and could cause NPSH and
cavitation problems. Whether any allowance needs to be made for this in
the design of the suction system needs to be discussed with the pump
specialist, and taken into account in the control system by using flow or
pressure control for example on the pump discharge.

Pumps are usually installed on a plinth that is typically 0.15 m above

grade. Pump suction nozzle centre line is a corresponding height above
this point.

The liquid in the suction vessel is often at its bubble point but it is a
contentious subject as to how the NPSH of a liquid below its bubble point
but saturated with gas should be calculated. For example, a produced
water system saturated with flash gas or blanketed in a tank. If the water
pressure in such a system is reduced then gas is evolved. The most
conservative approach adopted by some is to assume the system is at its
bubble point in the suction vessel. Others ignore the effect of the
dissolved gas or use a compromise. If this problem arises it is best
discussed with a pump specialist or vendor.

NPSH calculations for a reciprocating pump require an allowance for the

acceleration head created by stopping and starting flow.

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Figure 5.6.2: Required NPSH for Centrifugal Pumps

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5.6.6 Driver Selection and Rating

The usual driver is a fixed speed electric motor. For large pipeline pumps a
variable speed motor or a turbine may give a better match to the hydraulics of
the system and give better control characteristics. Diesel engine drives are
preferable for some applications (e.g. ship transfer pumps) and air diaphragm
pumps may be considered for low flow rates such as chemical injection.

The rating for a motor driver should be calculated by first calculating the
absorbed shaft power:

Absorbed Shaft Power (W)= Rated differential (N/m2) X Rated flow (m3ls) X
100
/ Pump efficiency (%)

Typical pump efficiencies are given in Figure 5.6.3 below, although for a first
approximation, a pump efficiency of 65% can be used.

Approximate motor rating can then be determined using:

Motor Rating = 1.25 X Absorbed Shaft Power (for pumps 20 kw)

Motor Rating = 1.l5 X Absorbed Shaft Power (for pumps > 20 & 75 kw)
Motor Rating = 1.10 X Absorbed Shaft Power (for pumps > 75 kw)

1 AVtKAGL LLN l Klf UGAL PUMP Ll l ICILNCILS I

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5.7 SEPARATION

Separator sizing is critical to the good operation of the process. Separators

should never be undersized as it is a major modification to correct the
problem at a later date. It is therefore best to err on the conservative side
when sizing these vessels. Proprietary or new technology should be carefully
evaluated before selecting equipment to ensure there is proven experience in
the field and it is suitable for the application.

There is general advice on separator sizing in references 1, 2 and 3.

Reference 3 provides a comparison of the performance of different types of
separator in order to select the appropriate internals for vessel sizing. For
further information on heavy oil processing refer to reference 5.

The guidelines given in this manual are suitable for initial size and weight
estimation during conceptual design studies only. For FEED and detailed
design guidance is given on data sheet preparation, such that separator
sizing can be obtained from vendors supplying proprietary internals.
Debottlenecking studies and investigations into operational problems will also
require support from vendors.

5.7.1 Design Criteria

Arrangement

Generally a vertical vessel is preferred for gaslliquid separation on offshore

platforms as it occupies a smaller plan area, provided there is sufficient
headroom to accommodate the height. Provided the layouts can
accommodate the arrangement, it is possible to penetrate the deck above if
there is insufficient height between decks.

However a horizontal separator is generally required if there are large

incoming slugs, large liquid loadings, or a long liquid residence time required
to achieve waterloil separation, degassing andlor defoaming.

The vertical demister pad separator will be larger than a vane pack or cyclone
separator. However demister pads have a higher liquid removal efficiency
and larger turndown ratio than vane packs, which may make them more
suitable for applications such as an inlet scrubber for a glycol contactor to
limit carryover of hydrocarbon liquid downstream. The cyclone separator will
be the most compact design, but will have a higher pressure drop. Typical
applications for each type of separator are also given in reference 3.

Typically separation systems are not spared and a 1XI 00% arrangement
provided. A maximum size of 4 m dia X 20 m long is typical for an offshore
horizontal separator, depending on the design pressure of the vessel. Vertical
vessels on an offshore installation are typically limited to a height of 7 m tan
to tan to fit between decks, although a taller vessel may be feasible if layouts
permit.

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Gas handling Capacity

Maximum gas flowrate through the vessel shall be determined for sizing
purposes based upon the worst case feed conditions from design basis and
process simulation, taking into account reservoir fluid composition, pressure
and temperature. The simulated flowrate for a gas field should include any
requirements for swing factor which will be a requirement of the sales gas
contract. Additional capacity may also be required for a gas field to increase
production for a short period to make up for any downtime caused by a short
term shutdown, to ensure the nominated quantity is delivered within the
required period (typically 24 hrs). This make up margin is typically 10% of
design capacity. To this simulation flowrate should be added margins to allow
for surges through the system. Surge factors given in Table 5.7.1 are
suggested for the first stage or inlet separator. For downstream separators,
the design margins given below should be halved.

Any motion experienced by the separator such as on floating production

systems should be specified on the data sheet, as this will affect sizing of the
vessel and internals provided by the vendor.

Table 5.7.1 : Separator Surge Factors

Design
Margin ,

Offshore Service

Separator handling natural flowing

production from:
a) its own platform 1.2
b) another platform or well in shallow water 1.3
c) another platform or well in deep water 1.4

Separator handling gas lifted production

from:
a) its own platform 1.4
b) another platform or well jacket 1.5

Onshore Service

Separator handling natural flowing

production or gas plant inlet separator in:
a) flat or low rolling country 1.2
b) hilly country 1.3

Separator handling gas lifted production in:

a) flat or low rolling country 1.4
b) hilly country 1.5

An additional margin will also be required for uncertainty in worst case

simulation. This may range from 10% to 30%, depending on the
circumstances. For example a margin of 30% may be appropriate for a

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compressor suction scrubber in flash gas service where recycle within the
process can result in significant change to flow with relatively small change in
feed composition.

Liquid handling Capacity

Maximum liquid flowrate through the vessel shall also be determined for
sizing purposes based upon the worst case feed conditions from the design
basis and process simulations, taking into account reservoir composition,
pressure and temperature throughout field life. For three phase separation,
worst case conditions for oil and produced water flow rates shall be
considered throughout the field life.

It may be necessary to add a margin to these simulated flowrates to allow for

the uncertainty in the worst case simulation. This should take into account
whether a margin has already been provided for reservoir uncertainty in the
Design Basis. It should also take into account capacities of downstream
equipment such as pumps.

A volume shall be provided to allow for incoming slugs from upstream subsea
flowlines or platform wells into the production separators. These slugs will be
caused either by the decrease in flowline hold up as the flowrates are
'ramped up', or slugs induced by the riser. This is best determined by
dynamic simulation of the flowline and topsides facilities (Refer section 5.9).
For conceptual purposes when this information is unavailable, the volume of
1 riser can be considered sufficient for subsea flowlines unless it is known
that slug sizes will be larger. This volume between normal liquid level and
high level alarm shall be checked to ensure the slug can be accomodated
(Refer section 5.7.3 for horizontal separator sizing).

Turndown

The range of minimumlmaximumflowing conditions including pressure and

temperature needs to be considered and stated on the data sheet. This in
particular applies to some proprietary internals in which a minimum and
maximum gas velocity is required to maintain efficient separation of liquid
from a gas stream. Typical turndown ratios for liquid separation from gas are
as follows:

Wiremesh demister pad: 4:l

Vane pack: 3: 1
Cyclone 2: 1

Liquid Residence Time

Sufficient liquid residence time needs to be provided for level control (Refer
the next section on liquid levels).

Residence time also needs to be provided for three phase separation to allow
for the breakdown of an emulsion to enable water and oil separation.

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There are a number of factors which affect the stability of the emulsion and
hence the residence time, such as:

Oil density.
Oil viscosity.
Temperature.
Upstream shear forces, affecting size of water and oil droplets.
Feed stream water cut, affecting whether it is a water in oil dispersion, or vice
versa.
Sand.
Asphaltenes.
Wax.
Motion of the separator such as on a floating installation.
Presence of chemicals such as some corrosion inhibitors that stabilise the
emulsion.

For conceptual design studies, the method referred to in the ADEPT User
manual (Ref 4) can be used to obtain an initial estimate for the residence
time. This is based upon a knowledge of the API gravity of the oil. This may
need to be adjusted depending on known factors such as the operating
temperature of the separator, and the stability of the emulsion. For FEED and
detailed design, this residence time will need to be adjusted based upon
emulsion testing results. Emulsion testing typically involves the mixing of oil
and water at specified shear rates and temperatures with and without
demulsifiers to investigate the stability of the emulsion. It is always difficult to
simulate actual conditions in the laboratory, and interpretation of the test
result with practical experience of similar crudes and operating conditions is
often the best means of determining the residence time. Residence time for
oil to be removed from the water, and vice versa need to be specified.

Generally the temperature of the separator needs to be at least 40 DegC to

obtain reasonable separation of the water from the oil. At temperatures less
than this unless the oil is more like a condensate and is light with little wax
content, it is generally found that the viscosity of the oil and wax content
tends to prevent water coalescence and breakdown of the emulsion even with
demulsifier injection.

A check should also be made to ensure that sufficient residence time is given
to degass the oil. It has been estimated that if bubbles greater than 200
microns are allowed to escape, carry-under will be negligible. From the
application of Stokes' law,

v, = Settling or rising rate or terminal velocity (mls)

v = kinematic viscosity of medium through which bubble is travelling

(m2/s)
p = Liquid density at operating conditions (kg/m3)

pg = Gas density at operating conditions (kg/m3)

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Sizing should be such that the liquid velocity vl should be less than the settling
velocity v, The liquid velocity is determined from the following:

Horizontal vessel vl = QAvL

Q, = Liquid volumetric flowrate (m3ls)

d = vessel diameter (m)
L = vessel length (m)

Outlet Stream Specifications

The allowable water content in the oil exiting a three phase separator needs
to be stated, which will affect whether internals need to be installed to
promote water droplet coalescence. This will be influenced by the export
specification for the final stage of separation, and may require a coalescer
prior to export. The water in oil content of the export oil will be influenced by
the allowable salt content as well as BS&W specification.

The crude oil salt content can be calculated from the following:

Oil salt content = (K X Y)Il00 glm3

K = Salt concentration of residual water glm3

Y = Residual water content %v01

Typically a three phase separator without internals to promote waterloil

separation will achieve 5 to lO%vol water in oil for light crudes (c 850 kg/m3),
and 10 to 20%vol for heavy crudes (>g00 kglm3). For a three phase
separator with internals such as a plate pack or structured packing to
promote waterloil separation, a water content of 1 to 5%vol can be
anticipated. A coalescer can typically achieve 0.1 to 0.5%vol water in oil.

The allowable oil content in the water exiting from a three phase separator
needs to be stated. This is typically specified as 1000 ppmv if there are
downstream water treatment facilities such as hydrocyclones.

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The maximum allowable liquid content in the gas stream leaving the
separator needs to be specified as this will influence the type of internals
installed in the separator. The type of downstream equipment and the
influence of carryover needs to be taken into account. It may be critical in
some applications, such as to prevent glycol entrainment into a dense phase
pipeline, or to minimise carryover of liquid hydrocarbon into a glycol
contactor. Typical efficiencies are as follows:

Wiremesh demister pad: >98%

Vane pack: >96%
Cyclone: >96%
Filter separator: >99%

A maximum acceptable liquid content of the gas exiting the vessel should be
stated in preference to an efficiency, as it is independent of the inlet liquid
flowrate. A typical specification is 0.1 US gal/MMscf but this may not be
acceptable in all circumstances.

Liquid levels

For control purposes, the vessel sizing shall as a minimum allow for the
following min residence times at normal throughput. If the residence time
shown below results in a distance between level settings of less than the rnin
distance, then the min distance shall apply.

Table 5.7.2: Liquid Level Settings

Min Residence time Min Distance

LSH to LSHH 1 min 100 mm

Normal Liquid level to LSH 1 min (Note 1) 180 mm
Normal liquid level to LSL 1 min 180 mm
LSL to LSLL 1 min 100 mm
LSLL to Vessel tan line or 300 mm
floor

Notes

1. The volume between normal liquid level and LSH should be sufficient to
accommodate the slug volume.
2. LSLL: Low low level trip, LSL: Low level alarm, LSH: High level alarm,
LSHH: High high level trip.

Note the residence times given above are for control purposes only, and
apply to oil level and interface level control. The residence time at normal
liquid level should also be sufficient for separation of water from oil if it is a
three phase separator. Sufficient time should also be given for separation of
gas bubbles from the oil to prevent entrainment to the next stage or to a
downstream pump. Sufficient volume should be allowed between the normal
liquid level and the high level alarm to handle the maximum anticipated slug
volume. Refer to section 5.7.2 and 5.7.3 for vessel sizing rules.

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Foaming tendency

Some crude oils have a tendency to foam. For conceptual design purposes it
shall be assumed this is controlled by injection of chemicals or internals, and
provision of an allowance above the liquid level for foam is not necessary.

However for FEED and detailed design this shall be considered more
carefully after taking into account the results of foaming tests. It may be
necessary to allow for a foam layer of up to 0.25 m between the high high
level trip and vessels internals such as feed nozzle and outlet demister to
allow for breakdown of the foam and prevent carryover into downstream
facilities. Discussions should be also be held with vendors on the use of
proprietary internals to break the foam.

Nozzle sizes

There are a variety of proprietary inlet devices to promote gaslliquid

separation, and to minimise breaking up the liquid into small droplets upon
entry into the vessel. For an initial estimate if required during conceptual
design, the following equation can be used for inlet nozzle, gas outlet nozzle
and liquid outlet nozzle sizes (Ref 1):

vi = Inlet nozzle velocity (mls)

vg = Outlet gas nozzle velocity (mls)
v1 = Outlet liquid nozzle velocity (mis)
p = Composite inlet mixture density (kglm3)
p, = Gas density (kglm3)

If using reference 3 for an initial estimate of vessel size, there are sizing rules
for inlet and outlet nozzles which should be used in preference to the
guidelines given above. For FEED and detailed design, nozzles sizes should
be based upon vendors recommendations. The vendor should also advise
the straight length upstream of the inlet nozzle required for layout purposes.
This is normally required to be the same diameter as inlet nozzle diameter,
and can be up to 5 X inlet nozzle diameter, which for large inlet nozzles can
have a significant influence on vessel layout.

Instrument nozzles should not protrude through the floor for a horizontal
vessel or the bottom head for a vertical vessel to prevent plugging by debris.
All instrument nozzles shall be 2" X 300 lb. Level bridles shall be connected
by 3" X 3001b nozzles.

Nucleonic level instruments should be assumed for interface control and trips
in sandy service or heavy oil service. These generally require a single
2"x3001b nozzle for insertion of the radioactive source, with detectors located
outside the vessel for control and trips.

Manways shall be 24" nb.

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Sand Removal

If sand production is sufficient to warrant jetting facilities in the separator to

remove sand, care shall be taken in FEED or detailed design to ensure that
the design of the vessel internals has proven experience in the field. Very
often vendors proposals have been found to be unsatisfactory. For
conceptual design purposes, the jetting system should be based on the use
of produced water from the degassing drum, with a pump provided sufficient
to jet the separator at normal operating pressure. The use of seawater should
normally be avoided to prevent scale production and corrosion of stainless
steel cladding (if any). The sand and jetting water may be drained through a
dedicated header via the produced water degassing drum, a separate vessel
or a sand clean up system prior to dumping overboard.

5.7.2 Vertical separator sizing

Wire mesh pad demister separator

This type of separator can be sized using the sizing programme [Link]
for conceptual design (Refer section 6.0). The sizing rules in this programme
are based upon K factors given in GPSA Engineering Data Book (Ref 2). The
liquid residence time should be calculated to ensure it takes into account the
liquid level setting for alarms and trips, requirements for waterloil separation
(if three phase) and requirement for degassing as given in section 5.8.1.

This type of separator is larger than the vane pack or cyclone separator, so
the size and weight needs to be used with care as it can result in a significant
over-estimate of overall topsides weight for offshore projects when multiplied
by factors for structural steel and pipinglinstrument bulks.

For FEED and detailed design, the vessel shall be sized by the vendor.

Vane pack separator

The vane pack consists of a series of changes in direction, causing the liquid
to impinge on the plates in the vane pack. The surface tension causes the
liquid to be retained on the surface, where it is collected in slots and drained
from the vane pack to the liquid in the bottom of the vessel.

Vane packs are less likely to block with wax or hydrates than wire mesh
demisters. They are also less likely to result in loose wire cuttings entering
into downstream equipment so are preferred for compressor suction scrubber
service. Their disadvantage is that they are less efficient at liquid removal of
small droplet sizes.

For an initial size and weight of the vessel, the sizing method given in the
ADEPT User manual (Ref 4) shall be used. This is based on sizing rules
given in reference 3 which are proprietary to Shell, and should only be used
for an initial size and weight during conceptual design studies. Alternatively
for an initial estimate the spreadsheet [Link] (Refer section 6.0) can be
used with a K factor of 0.14 mls. For vessel sizing in FEED and detailed

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design, vendors such as Kvaerner Paladon or CDS Engineering should be
approached for vessel sizes based upon their proprietary design.

Cyclone Separator

This type of separator is more compact than the demister or vane pack
separator. The internals are proprietary, and a vessel sizing and further
details must be obtained from a vendor. For conceptual design purposes it is
generally best to assume a vane pack separator for size and weight
estimation purposes. A cyclone separator is more compact and the selection
requires careful review of the application and vendors' technology, which is
normally not applicable to conceptual design. It is safer to allow for a larger
separator at conceptual design, and reduce the size during FEED studies,
unless space or weight is critical to the concept selection.

For vessel sizing in FEED and detailed design, vendors should be contacted.
Natco supply the GasUnie cyclone separator, which has a single cyclone
assembly. Kvaerner Paladon supply a multicyclone separator. CDS
Engineering supply a multicyclone assembly as well as the GasUnie cyclone
separator. Portatest supply a high efficiency recyling centrifugal separator.

The advantages of these separators are as follows:

High removal efficiency

Smaller diameter and less weight than demister or vane pack separators
Removes solids and resistant to erosion
No plugging by hydrates, solids or sludge.

These internals are particularly suited to debottlenecking or overcoming

operational problems, as they have a greater capacity than vane packs or
demisters.

Filter Separator

These have a very high separation efficiency, but use filter elements which
must be periodically replaced. They are used in applications such as
downstream of glycol contactors for glycol recovery and to meet stringent
specifications for glycol content in the gas export. For an initial size and
weight in conceptual design there are guidelines in the GPSA Engineering
Data book. However for FEED or detailed design, vendors such as Plenty
Equipment Ltd, CDS Engineering or Pall Europe Ltd must be contacted as
the internals are a proprietary design. Vendors claim removal efficiencies of
100% of particles 1 micron or larger. These claims must be carefully
considered.

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5.7.3 Horizontal Separator Sizing

For conceptual design purposes, horizontal separators shall be sized in

accordance with the sizing method referred to in the ADEPT User manual
(Ref 4), or using the sizing programme [Link] (Refer Section 6.0).
Both methods use the same approach in which the vessel size is initially
calculated based upon the residence time required. This size is then adjusted
to a larger diameter if the area above the liquid surface needs to be
increased to meet gas sizing criteria for the vane pack or demister pad
internals at the gas outlet.

The selected vessel diameter is dependent on whether it is dictated by the

liquid or gas sizing criteria. If it is dictated by the gas flow, it is possible to
arrange the vessel with a central feed inlet, and liquid and gas outlets at the
vessel ends, in which cased the gas flow can be halved. If it is dictated by the
liquid flow, it is possible to raise the normal liquid level above 50%. However
the high high level trip shall be no more than 70% of vessel diameter to allow
for vessel internals in the vapour space. The LengthIDiameter (UD) ratio may
be increased to provide more residence time for the same diameter.
Generally it is most economic for the UD ratio to be within the range of 3.0 to
5.0.

The liquid residence time shall be based upon the requirements for oil water
separation (if three phase separation) and oil degassing as discussed in
section 5.8.1, based upon the level controlled at normal liquid level. The size
should then be checked for the following:

Ensure allowance for level control requirements between the high and low
level alarm and trip settings as recommended in section 5.8.1.
Ensure sufficient volume is provided between normal liquid level and high
level alarm to handle the slug volume as discussed in section 5.8.1.
Ensure gas sizing criteria is met with the liquid level at the high high level
trip setting, to prevent liquid entrainment with the level at this condition.

The vessel size may need to be increased to accommodate any of these

requirements. For FEED and detailed design, the separator shall be sized by
vendors such as CDS Engineering, Kvaerner Paladon and Natco using
proprietary internals.

For an initial estimate of coalescer size sufficient for screening studies or

conceptual design, refer to the ADEPT User manual (Ref 4). For FEED and
detail design it is necessary to obtain a size from a vendor using proprietary
internals.

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6.0 SOFTWARE

6.1 GENERAL

In principal, Genesis only use software which complies with one of the
following criteria:

Is proprietary or an industry standard eg process simulation packages

Has been developed in-house and has been validated and is available as
a Genesis standard on the network
Has been written for a specific project and has been checked and
validated
Spreadsheet used to support a particular calculation and conforms with
the checking procedure for the calculation

Genesis do NOT use:

pirated software
unchecked spreadsheets

6.2 PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

Master disks and original documentation for proprietary software are retained
by IT.

The proprietary software used by Genesis is summarised by Table 6.1, along

with a nominated in-house engineer for technical guidance.

6.3 IN-HOUSE SOFTWARE

Documentation and validation is currently in progress and this list will be

updated as the tasks are completed.

Validated in-house software available for general use is summarised by Table

6.2 and is located in directory :

User notes, background information and validation checks are retained by

HOLD.

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6.4 PROJECT SPECIFIC SOFTWARE

Proprietary

It is recognised that some projects will require dedicated proprietary software,

as requested by the Client. This should be addressed as required.

lnhouse

In addition, specific spreadsheets may need to be written to assist with the

development of some calculations. It is important to note that the checking
requirements for these spreadsheets are identical to those required for all
formal calculations.

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TABLE 6.1 : PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

Name Description Version Refer to Remarks

PRO11I Process Simulation 4.17 G Burnett
Pipesim Steady state pipeline hydraulics G Burnett
Pipesim-Net Steady state pipeline network hydraulics G Burnett
OLGA Dynamic pipeline simulator M Fitchett
Flarenet Flare system hydraulics
HysimIHysis Process Simulation G Burnett

ESI Engineering Calculations

MAP Cost Estimation R Powell

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7.0 STANDARD CALCULATIONS

Calculations are given in this section that are occasionally required, and for
which there are no standard references or examples readily available. The
calculation method shown here may need to be modified to suit the problem
being tackled. They are primarily given to aid an individuals work and speed
up the solution, without necessarily being prescriptive. The skills group co-
ordinator should be advised of any other calculations which would be useful to
include in this list.
7.1 RELIEF VALVE SIZING FOR TWO PHASE FLOW

A relief valve which handles twophase flow, or a liquid which flashes to

produce some vapour as the pressure drops across the valve, shall be sized
by the Homogeneous Equilibrium model (HEM) as recommended by the
Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems (DIERS). The method
recommended in API RP520 which requires addition of the orifice area
required for the gas phase and liquid phase should not be used as this can
result in the valve being significantly undersized.

Genesis inhouse software is available for an initial estimate of the orifice area
using the HEM method (refer section 6.0). This should be confirmed with a
sizing completed by a relief valve vendor. The method requires a series of
isentropic flashes using PROll to calculate gas flow, liquid flow and mixture
specific volume. These should be carried out at pressures from the set
pressure to a pressure sufficiently low that the peak value for (-
2/vA2)Sum([Link])can be identified. This peak value is read from the graph,
which gives the mass flux at choked flow. Based on the total mass flow rate
and calculated discharge coefficients, the orifice area required can be
calculated. A sample calculation is given in appendix 6.
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7.2 SONIC FLOW WITH PRESSURE DISCONTINUITIES

It is frequently required to develop the pressure profile of particular systems to

confirm that the design pressure of the equipment is not exceeded as a result
of specific events. The events that would potentially lead to system
overpressure include:

pressure relief
blowdown
gas blowby

This calculation method provides a framework or mechanism to ensure

consistency in the approach to develop system pressure profiles where sonic
flow /pressure discontinuities are encountered. The general method used to
develop the pressure profile for gas blowby in a piping system is described
below. For relief or blowdown events, the method will be similar; the
restriction orifice in these cases will be relief or blowdown valves in place of
level control valves.

1) Assume critical flow through the valve.

2) Assume an upstream pressure equal to set pressure of the high high
pressure switch (relief pressure or blowdown pressure depending on
the case).
3) Calculate the flowrate downstream of the valve using the valve
manufacturer's characteristic equations.
4) Calculate the maximum pressure downstream of the control valve
associated with critical flow (Passumed).
5) Develop the pressure profile for the assumed flowrate, starting with the
lowest pressure point (vent to atmosphere) and working back to obtain
the pressure immediately downstream of the control valve (P),.
6) Compare the pressure downstream of the valve obtained in 5 with
Passumed.

a) , then the flow assumption is correct, critical

If Pal, I Passumed
flow does occur and no further work is necessary.

b) if PWI, > Passumedr

then calculations are conse~ative.

i If calculated pressures do not exceed design pressures

of equipment, no further work is necessary unless
knowledge of actual pressure is required (proceed as for
ii) below).

ii) If calculated pressures exceed design pressures of

equipment at any point, set Passumedequal to Palc,
calculate the flowrate associated with the newly
assumed downstream pressure using the valve
characteristic equations and repeat points 5 and 6.

Pressure drop calculations can be carried out using the ESI Engineering
Software package or similar pressure drop software or spreadsheets.

The impact of temperature variation should be assessed and should be taken

into account if considered significant.
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The maximum possible velocity of compressible fluid in a pipe is equivalent to

the speed of sound in the fluid (Refer 'Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings
and Pipe', Crane 1983, page 3-3).

The calculation method described above would, on the face of it, suggest a
continuous pressure profile where the downstream pressure of a system
component will equal the upstream pressure of the system component
immediately downstream of the first i.e. P, = P,,.

Control Valve

This holds true for cases where sonic velocity is not exceeded. In cases
where fluid velocities exceed sonic, a different phenomena is observed;
pressure discontinuity.

When sufficient driving force is available, the upstream pressure for each
system component will increase to maintain velocities equal to sonic in the
most downstream section of the component. The component upstream and
downstream pressures in this case, are determined using an iterative
procedure. Where the downstream pressure of one component exceeds the
upstream pressure of the next, pressure discontinuity exists viz P1<Pla. The
calculation method remains unchanged. As before, if the pressure
immediately downstream of the valve exceeds the pressure assumed, a lower
flowrate is to be assumed and the calculations repeated.

Care should be taken to ensure that the design pressures of components are
not exceeded at the pressure discontinuity points; the high pressure will not
be confined to the upstream component only and will be exerted at the
boundaries of the downstream component.

Table 7.2.1 contains typical results of pressure profiles developed for blowby
through various control valve Cvs. There are several "pressure loss
discontinuity" points in the system. For example, in order not to exceed sonic
velocity in the I " section of pipe for a CV of 1.5, the pressure in the
downstream end is 5.05bara, i.e. there is a pressure discontinuity of 2.92 bar
(5.05bara - 2.13bara) where the line increases to 2".
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Table 7.2.1 Pressure Profile

1.99 mmsdd 4.9mmscfd 8.06mmscfd 9.9mmscfd

Pu Pd Pu Pd Pu Pd Pu Pd
141G-1" Line from LCV to drain manifold 136 bar 15.2 5.05 37 12.4 61 20.5 75 25
144A-2" Drain manifold for V-5+V-6 19 bar 2.13 1.12 5.17 2.2 8.5 3.6 10.4 4.45
144A-4" -
Drain manifold for V1 V8 to sump 19 bar 1.12 4.02 1.59 c1.05 2.35 4.12 2.84 4.17
Drain Sump 95-026 (A-319) Atmospheric 4.02 4.02 4.05 -4.05 4.12 4.12 4.17 4.17
217A-6",12,16 LP Vent 19bar 1<1.02 1.013 c1.05 1.013 c1.12 1.013 4.17 1.013

Where Pu Upstream pressure of component

Pd Downstream pressure of component

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7.3 HEAT LOSS FROM A TANK

Heat loss from an uninsulated tank or vessel may be approximated by

the following equation:

Q =: K.D.H.(Tv - T,)

Q= Heat loss to ambient (BtuJhr)

K= Wind factor
K = 15.7 for 20 mph wind
K = 13.2 for l 0 mph wind
K = 9.8 for 5 mph wind
K = 6.3 for 0 mph wind
D = Diameter of vessel (ft)
H = Height or length of vessel (ft)
TV= Temperature of fluid in vessel (OF)
Ta= Temperature of air (OF)

It may also be approximated that the heat loss from insulated surfaces
will be 10% of the bare surface heat loss.

(Data source: Sivalls Tanks Inc, Texas)

7.4 REVERSE FLOW THROUGH A PARTIALLY OPEN CHECK VALVE

For reverse flow from a high pressure system to a low pressure

system, eg gas export or oil export pipeline, a relief valve shall be
provided to protect the low pressure system. This is on the basis that
the shutdown valves and check valve(s) are not fully closed when
export has stopped. It shall be assumed for the sizing of the relief
valve that all actuated valves are open. The check valve shall be
assumed to be partially closed, with a 1 mm particle stuck in the seat.
If any other check valves are provided, they shall be assumed to be
fully open. The equivalent orifice diameter shall be calculated using fig
5.3.1, and the flow of gas or liquid calculated using formula for flow
through an orifice. A sample calculation is given in appendix 7.

7.5 GROSS HEATING VALUE AND WOBBE INDEX

The gross (or higher) heating value is the energy evolved on burning a
standard volume of gas when the total combustion gases are cooled
to the reference temperature and the water of combustion condensed.
The condensing water releases its latent heat which is theoretically
available for heating. This represents the maximum possible heat
available, thus the word 'gross'.

The net (or lower) heating value is a lower number based on the
assumption that the water in the combustion gases remains in the
vapour state. This is the usual circumstance in most heating
equipment.

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The wobbe index is a measure of the fuel quality for burner use. It is
defined as:

Gross Heating Value

Wobbe No. =
$2-
Sg = Gas specific gravity.

A calculation of gross heating value and wobbe index for a known gas
compostion can be carried out as per the sample calculation given
below. Typical gas export specifications for Gross heating value and
Wobbe Index are given in section 9.3.

Propane 268.7 0.076034 2516.1 191.3089 44.1 3.353095

i-butane 26 0.007357 3251.9 23.9249 58.1 0.427454
n-butane 76.3 0.021591 3262.3 70.43492 58.1 1.254412
i-pentane 14.3 0.004046 4000.9 16.18949 72.2 0.292155
n-pentane 21.l 0.005971 4008.9 23.93576 72.2 0.431081
Hexane 8.6 0.002434 4755.9 1157366 86.2 0.209771
C7+N 0.0003 8.49E-08 7000 0.000594 235 1.99E-05
C7+SA 0.07 1.98E-05 7000 0.138655 143.36 0.00284
C7+SB 0 0 7000 0 291.76 0

TOTAL 3533.95 1 1304.016 BtulSft3 22.96939

:

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7.6 OVERBOARD DISCHARGE CAISSON SIZING

To prevent air being trapped in the caisson causing vibration and

surging, the overboard seawater and produced water disposal
caisson shall be sized in order that the Froude number exceeds 0.3.
Refer to fig 7.6.1 overpage for caisson size with known overboard
discharge flowrate.

INCLUDE CAISSON SIZING CHART.

7.7 FLOWING WELLHEAD & BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE

For the case of gas production or injection wells it is sometimes necessary to

know the flowing wellhead pressure for a given bulk reservoir pressure. The
pressure loss in the tubing string can be calculated from the correlation
overpage.

The recommended method is that given by Katz et a1 in the Handbook of

Natural Gas Engineering, Chapter 9. This method is for an initial approximate
estimate only if information is unavailable from the client. Predictions by
reservoir engineers should be used in preference.

The equation is a modification of the Darcy equation for isothermal fluid flow.
Here it is applied to vertical flow in the well riser.

In Imperial units;

Gas flowrate Mscfd

Flowing sand face pressure (Flowing bottomhole pressure), psia
Flowing wellhead pressure, psia
Average temperature, OR
Average compressibility
Gas specific gravity
Well depth, ft
Moody friction factor
Inside tubing diameter, inches

The method is iterative. It is assumed that the gas flowrate, gas gravity,
tubing diameter, well depth and reservoir temperature are known. The flowing

- -

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sandface pressure PS is assumed and the average pressure temperature and

compressibility are calculated using the standard methods.

The Moody friction factor is read from the standard charts for the calculated
value of Reynolds number for tubing flow.

The values are substituted into the equation and the correct answer is found
when the back-calculated value of P, agrees with the assumed value.

The closed in tubing head pressure may be estimated from the above
equation assuming Q = 0.

The above case is based on production from the reservoir. That is when
P, > P,. For the injection scenario the opposite holds and P, > P, .
The remaining step is the pressure loss from the sandface to the bulk
reservoir.

The steady state equation for laminar radial flow from the wellbore is in
imperial units

Where the symbols are as previously defined. The additional symbols are

h = Reservoir thickness, ft
K = Permeability, millidarcys
r, ,r, = Radius of well bore, radius of point of interest, ft
p = Gas viscosity, cP
p1 = Sand face or bottom hole pressure, psia
p2 = Reservoir pressure at point of interest, ft

There is a more complex relationship for the case of turbulent radial flow:

Where the symbols are as previously defined,

The new term ,8 is known as the turbulence factor. It is measured in the

laboratory and is supplied by operator or reservoir management.

For cycling operations, if these terms are known or can be assumed then the
pressure profile from the wellhead to the bulk reservoir can be determined for
injection and withdrawal operations.

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Figure 7.4.1: Equivalent Diameter Chart to Calculate Flow

through Part Open Check Valve

FIGURE l1 EQUIVALENT DIAMETER OF ANNULUS

( REF. [Link] *OPTIMUM PIPE SIZE SEEGIION")

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8.0 PROCESS DATA SHEETS

Process data sheets are available for most equipment items in

j:\data\skillsgp\process\processDataSheets\PROCESSDATA [Link].
Templates are provided in this subdirectory, which should be copied for the
job underway before filling in.

The format of the data sheet cannot be changed. If there is insufficient space
for additional data sheet for information required, then the continuation
sheets should be used.

Any changes or improvements to these data sheets should be advised to the

Process Skills Group co-ordinator, London Office so that they can be updated
as required.

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9.0 PROCESS DATA AND COMMONLY ACCEPTED VALUES

9.1 USEFUL VALUES

There are several useful values and conversion factors in Gas Conditioning
and Processing, Vol l,J M Campbell.

Density of carbon steel = 7850 kglm3

Density of stainless steel ASTM 304,316=8020 kglm3

Density of sand = HOLD kglm3

Density of air at 15 DegC and 100 kPa = 1.21 kglm3

Sp. Gravity of gas = (m01 wt gas)/(mol wt air) = (mol wt gas)/28.97

Thermal conductivity of carbon steel = 43 W1m.K

Thermal conductivity of stainless steel = 16.4 W1m.K

Heating value of diesel=43MJlkg

Values for the gas constant are as below:

Table 9.1.l: Gas Constant

Pressure Volume Temperature Gas Constant

Kpa m' K 8.314 kPa.rn3lkmol.K

Mpa m3 K 0.00831 MPa.rn3lkrnol.K
Bar m3 K 0.08314 bar.rn3lkmol.K
Psi ft3 R 10.73 psia.ft3llbmole.R
Ib/ftz ft3 R 1545 psfa.ft3llbmole.R

The CUBIC METRE under STANDARD CONDITIONS is:

1 m3 (st) at 15 'C (288.15 K) and 101,325 Pa (1-01325 bar)

The NORMAL CUBIC METRE is:

1 ~m~ at 0 'C (273.15 K) and 101,325 Pa (1-01325 bar)

The STANDARD CUBIC FOOT is:

1 sft3 (or Iscf) at 60 OF and 14.696 psi

This definition of standard cubic metre, m3 (st), is in line with the metric
references adopted by ASTM, AGA, API, GPSA, IP.

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Volumetric relationships:

1 sft3 - 0.028 m3(st)

l sft3 - 0.0268 Nm3
1 Nm3 - 1.055 m3(st)
1 Nm3 -- 37.3 sft3
0.948 Nm3
Im3(st)
Im3(st) -- 35.4 sft3

Table 9.1.2: Values for Standard Molal Volume

Pressure Temperature Molal Volume

100 kPa 15 OC 23.96 m3lkmol

100 kPa 0 OC 22.71 m3lkmol
101.325 kPa 15 OC 23.64 m3lkmol
101.325 kPa 0 OC 22.41 m3lkmol

In most cases measured volumes of gas are reported as 'dry' or when not
mentioned it may be implied that the volume is corrected for water content,
which means that the actual measured volume is greater by the amount of
water vapour in the gas. A higher pressures of say more than 10 bar and
temperatures less than 50 'C, the water content of gas when saturated is less
than 1 %vol. And therefore insignificant for most volume type calculations.
When however a gas is separated from crude oil or condensate at lower
pressures andlor higher temperatures, then it is important to check how much
water vapour is present in the gas. For example a 1 bar and 70 'C the water
content could be as high as 30 %vol.

If standard conditions are reported including water vapour up to saturation,

then the volume units may be converted to a dry volume by multiplying the
wet volume by a factor 0.983. This factor is only valid for converting from 15
'C wet to 15 'C dry and 60 OF wet to 60 OF dry both at standard pressure.

Other useful common conversions

To calculate barrels of oil equivalent (BOE), convert the gas volume to energy
by multiplying by the gross heating value. 5.8 MMBtU = 1 bbl of Brent crude.
For example, 1 MMscf = 172 barrels oil equivalent based upon a gross
heating value of 1000 BtUIscf.

Gas oil ratio is defined as ScfIBarrel stock tank oil. Stock tank oil is generally
produced in PVT testing by flashing down to 14.5 psia and 60°F in two or
more stages. Refer to the PVT test report for conditions used. Note for

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simulation purposes the same separator conditions should be assumed to

determine the reservoir fluids flow rate.

Toxicity of H2S:Whenever it is necessary to work in areas where the

concentration of H2Sin the atmosphere exceeds 10cm3lm3 (ppmv),
protective equipment must be worn. 10 ppmv is termed the threshold limit
value (TLV) and is the time weighted concentration for an 8 hour period to
which a person can be exposed without harmful effect.

9.2 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA

Environmental data is normally given by the client for the area in which the
facilities are located. Most of the environmental data is not required for
process engineering studies, and is more relevant to substructure and
pipeline design. Typical North Sea data of relevance to process design is
given below:

Max air ambient design temperature: 24 'C

Min air ambient design temperature: -6 'C
Max seabed temperature: 11 OC
Min seabed temperature: 4 'C

Wind speeds of 0 to 25 mls are normally used for flare radiation calculations.

Seawater Temperatures

Typical mean seawater temperatures by month for the Southern, Central and
Northern North Sea are given in Table 8.3.1.

Air Temperatures

Typical air temperatures for the Southern, Central and Northern North Sea in
winter and summer are given in Table 8.3.2.

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Table 9.2.1 : Monthly Mean Seawater Temperatures ('C)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

SNS

Surface 6.4 5.3 5.2 6.5 8.8 11.1 13.6 14.8 14.5 13.3 10.7 8.0
Depth = -10 m 6.8 5.5 5.4 6.5 11.0 11.0 13.0 14.9 15.0 13.4 10.7 8.5
Seabed 7.0 5.5 5.5 6.5 11.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 15.2 13.3 10.7 8.5

p---- P ~

CNS

Surface 7.2 6.5 6.5 6.7 8.2 10.7 13.3 14.2 13.2 11.5 9.5 8.5
Depth = -50 m 7.2 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.7 7.3 8.0 8.8 10.0 10.6 9.7 8.4
Seabed 7.2 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.3 9.0 9.5 9.2 8.4

NNS

Surface 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.7 8.5 10.3 13.1 13.3 12.5 10.5 9.6 8.8
Depth = -50 m 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.6 8.3 8.8 9.5 10.4 10.4 10.2 9.5 8.7
Seabed 8.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.9 8.4 8.4 9.4 9.4 8.7

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Table 9.2.2: Cumulative Temperature Distribution for Air Ambient Temperatures ('C)

0.1% 0.5% 1.O% 5.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 90.0% 95.0% 99.0% 99.9% -

8.0 8.8 9.5 10.8 12.5 13.8 15.0 16.4 17.2 18.2 20.2 22.0
All year -2.0 0.4 1.O 3.2 6.0 8.8 12.0 14.4 16.0 16.8 18.8 21.2
Winter -2.8 -1.6 -0.8 1.2 3.6 5.2 6.4 7.6 8.8 9.6 11.2 13.2

p- P

CNS

Summer 7.6 8.6 9.0 10.0 11.6 12.8 13.6 15.0 15.8 16.6 18.4 20.8
All year -1.O 0.4 1.2 3.2 5.6 8.0 10.4 12.8 14.4 15.0 17.0 19.4
Winter -3.6 -1.O 0.0 1.6 3.6 5.0 6.2 7.6 8.4 9.0 10.0 11.2

NNS

Summer 5.6 6.8 8.4 8.8 10.4 11.4 12.4 13.4 14.2 15.0 17.2 19.6
All year -2.4 -0.8 0.4 2.4 5.2 7.2 9.2 11.4 12.8 13.6 15.6 18.4
Winter -3.6 -2.0 -1.2 0.8 3.2 4.8 6.0 7.6 9.2 8.8 9.8 10.8

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I Typical environmental conditions for other areas

WEST OF SHETLANDS

Air temperatures Sea temperatures

Maximum 22OC Maximum 8OC

Minimum -6OC Minimum 4OC

IRISH SEA

Air temperatures Sea temperatures

Maximum 27(HOLD)OC Maximum 15OC

Minimum -3OC Minimum 4OC

KOREAN SEA

Air temperatures Sea temperatures

Maximum 35OC Maximum 15OC

Minimum -15OC Minimum 2-12OC

U ARABIAN GULF

Air temperatures Sea temperatures

Maximum 46OC Maximum 36OC

Minimum 5(HOLD) 'C Minimum 4-12OC

ONSHORE NE COLOMBIA

Air temperatures

Maximum 36(HOLD)OC
Minimum 5(HOLD) 'C
 GENESIS ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS
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PROCESS GROUP ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

9.3 PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS

This section gives details of typical product specifications for:

Gas Export to NTS (pre 1996)

Gas Export to BG Transco via a New Terminal (1996)
Gas Export to PowerGen @ Connahs Quay
Gas Export to an Asian Power Station
Dense Phase Export Requirements
Oil Export to tanker loading
Oil Export to BP Forties pipeline
Condensate Export via pipeline to Mossmorran

Table 9.3.1: Gas Export to NTS (pre 1996)

Parameter Units Value

Gross Heating Value MJIsM3 36.9 to 42.3
Wobbe Index MJlsM3 48.2 to 51.2
Water Dew Point Deg C =< -10 @ 73 bara
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Deg C =< -2 @ at any pressure up to
73 bara
Total Sulphur Content Ppmv =< 15
H2S Content Ppmv =< 3.3
C02 Content Mol% =< 4
Oxygen Content Ppmv =< 10

Table 9.3.2: Gas Export to BG Transco via a New Terminal (1996)

Parameter Units Value

Gross Heating Value MJlsM3 36.9 to 42.3 but only vary by +/-
l MJ/sM3
Wobbe Index MJIsM3 48.14 to 51.41
Water Dew Point Deg C =< -10 @ any pressure up to 75
barg
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Deg C =< -2 @ at any pressure up to
75 barg
Total Sulphur Content Ppmv =< 15
H2S Content Ppmv =< 3.3
lnerts Mol% =< 7 (C02 =< 2, N2 =< 5)
Oxygen Content Ppmv =< 10
Delivery Pressure Barg =< 75
Delivery Temperature Deg C 1 to 38
Odour Shall not have no odour
General Free from solids or liquids
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PROCESS GROUP ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

Table 9.3.3: Gas Export to PowerGen @ Connahs Quay

Parameter Units Value

Pressure Barg 28 to 40 (approx)
Temperature Deg C 0 to 150 but change at < 4 deg C 1
minute
Gross Heating Value BTUISCF 948 to 1091
Water Dew Point Deg C Not less than 1 Deg C below
delivery temp at delivery pressure .
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Deg C =c -2 @ at delivery pressure
Total Sulphur Content Ppmv =< 35 expressed as H2S
H2S Content Ppmv =<3.3 for NTS, =c20 for turbines
lnerts Mol% =< 20
Oxygen Content Mol% =< 0.1
General Free from materials, dust, solids,
fluids, wax, gum etc.

Table 9.3.4: Gas Export to an Asian Power Station (via an amine plant)

Parameter Units Value

Gross Heating Value MJIkg 47.2 to 52.2
Wobbe Index MJIkg 58.4 to 66.5
Water Dew Point Deg K =c 267 @ 60 bara
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Deg K =c 288 @ any pressure up to 60
bara
Total Sulphur Content Ppmv =c 20 expressed as H2S
H2S Content Ppmv =< 20
Delivery Pressure Barg 60 to 65 bara
Delivery Temperature Deg K 298 to 338
Odour Free from objectionable odours
Va Ppmwt =c 0.5
Pb Ppmwt =c 1
Na+K Ppmwt =C 1
Ca Ppmwt =C 1
Dust Ppmwt =c 2 (and less than 10 microns)
General Free from solids or liquids

Table 9.3.5: Typical Dense Phase Export Requirements

Parameter Units Value

Max Gas Cricondenbar Bara 100 to 105
Min Pipeline Pressure Bara P= Cricondenbar plus a margin
(say 10 bar)
Hydrocarbon Dew Point Cricondenbar andlor a
cricondentherm spec
Water Dew Point Water dry throughout i.e 1 to 2
Ib1MMscf
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PROCESS GROUP ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

Table 9.3.6: Oil Export to Tanker Loading (Typical)

Parameter Units Value

RVP Psi =< 10 (North Sea)
TVP Bara @ deg C =c 0.83 @ 27 deg C (North
Sea)
C4- Wt% Variable (=c 2.5 to 4.5)
BS&W Vol% =< 0.5
H2S Content Ppmv Variable (=c l to 5)
Methanol Ppm wt Variable (=c 40 or no spec)
Salt Mgl 1 Variable (=c 72 to 1500)

Table 9.3.7: Oil export to BP Forties pipeline

Parameter Units Value

Delivery Pressure Barg Up to 125 barg at Unity Platform
TVP Psig @ 60 deg f =< 125
Sediment & Water %v01 =c 2
Salt content Mgll =< 1500
Mercaptans Content Ppm wt =< 0.1
H2S Content Ppmwt =c 2
COS Content Ppmwt =< 0.02
C02 Content Mol% =< 0.35
Nitrogen Content Mol% =< 0.2
Acidity Mg KOH per gm =< 0.05
stabilised liquid
Mercury (total in any form) ppbwt =< 0.08
Vanadium + Nickel Content Ppm wt =c 5

Table 9.3.8: Condensate export via Shell to Mossmorran pipeline

Parameter Units Value

Delivery Temperature Deg C =< 30
TVP Bara @ 15.5 =c g
deg C
Water Ppm mol =c 5
Total Sulphur Ppmwt =< 17
H2S as Sulphur Ppmwt =C g
COS Content Ppmwt =c 4
Mercaptans as Sulphur Ppmwt Nil
C02 Content Mol% =< 0.2
CO2lEthane Ratio Wt =< 0.1
Salts, metals, sediment Nil
Methanol Ppmwt =c 100
Nitrogen Content Mol% =< 0.2
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PROCESS GROUP ENGINEERING PRACTICES MANUAL

APPENDICES

1) PROCESS SIMULATION CHECK LlST

2) PIPELINE THERMOHYDRAULICS - SIMULATION CHECK LlST

3) EQUIPMENT SIZING CHECK LlST

4) FLARE SYSTEM RELIEVING SCENARIOS CHECK LlST

5) P&ID CHECK LlST - HOLD

6) SAMPLE CALCULATION - TWOPHASE FLOW THROUGH RELIEF VALVE

7) SAMPLE CALCULATION - REVERSE FLOW THROUGH PARTIALLY OPEN

CHECK VALVE
 PROCESS SIMULATION CHECK LIST

Job No. Project Description Simulation No. Revision

Ref Item Comments Checked Date

1.0 Input Data
Il Correct Design Case
1.2 Flowrates
1.3 Compositional input
1.4 CharacterisationlPVT match
1.5 Pseudo components
1.6 Feed stream water saturated
1.7 Free water included
1.8 Interaction Parameters
1.9 Thermodynamics
1. l 0 Special Considerations

2.0 Model
2.1 Simulation model matches PFD
2.2 Process logic (pressures and
temperatures through systems)
2.3 Heat exchanger temperature approaches
2.4 Heat exchanger pressure drops included
2.5 Compressor discharge temperatures
2.6 Compressor pressure ratios
2.7 Dew pointing conditions
2.8 Allowance for fuel gas
2.9 Occurrence of hydrate conditions (inc
compressor recycle)
2.1 0 Two phase feed to pumpslcompressors
2.1 1 Other unit operationslSpecial cases

3.0 Output Streams

3.1 Mass balance (CFeeds = CProducts)
3.2 Product flows (Gas, oil, water)
3.3 Confirm GOR
3.4 Gas export specifications met (Wobbe,
calorific value, water dew point,
hydrocarbon dew point, compositional)
3.5 Phase envelope
3.6 Oil export specifications met (BS&W,
TVP, RVP, compositional)
3.7 Water treatment system
3.8 Recycle streams reasonable
 -
PIPELINE THERMOHYDRAULICS SIMULATION CHECK LIST

Job No. Project Description Simulation No. Revision

Ref Item Comments Checked Date

1.0 lnput Data Fluid
1.1 Correct Design Case
1.2 ~lowrates(maximum and minimum)
1.3 Compositional input
1.4 Black oil Model
1.5 GOR
1.6 Water included
1.7 Viscosity data
1.8 Flow correlations
1.9 Special Considerations

2.0 -
lnput Data Pipeline
2.1 Pipeline profile, water depth, riser height

2.3 Export pressure and temperature limits

2.4 Arrival pressure and temperature limits

2.6 Ambient temperatures

2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.1 1 Special considerations

3.0 Output Data

3.1 Arrival temperature considered (wax,
hydrates etc)
3.2 U Value
3.3 Export pressure
3.4 Pipeline diameter
3.5 Flow regimeslslugging
3.6 Other flowrates to be considered
3.7
3.8
 EQUIPMENT SIZING CHECK LIST

Job No Project Description Equipment No Reference Documents Rev

Ref Item Comments Checked Date

1.O Input Data
1.l Correct Design Case and Simulation(s)
1.2 Flowrates (max, normal, min)
1.3 Operating pressure (max, normal, min)
1.4 Operating temperature (max,normal, min)
1.5 Design pressure (max, min)
1.6 Design temperature (max, min)
1.7 Corrosive components/metallurgy
1.8 Vendor input received
1.9 Special Considerations eg compressor settle out

2.0 Exchanger Sizing

2.1 Type (shell & tube, plate, PCHE etc)
2.2 Service conditions acceptable (eg high pressure)
2.3 Design Duty
2.4 Heat exchanger temperature approaches
2.5 Pressure drops
2.6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
2.7 Fouling allowed forlcleaning
2.8 Hydrate formationlwax deposition considered
2.9 Configuration (number of units, shells etc)
2.10 F factor c 0.8 for U-tubes

3.0 Compressor Sizing

3.1 Type (centrifugal, reciprocating, screw)
3.2 Driver (electric, gas turbine, engine)
3.3 Compressor discharge temperatures
3.4 Compressor pressure ratios

3.6 Compression power

3.7 Unit selectionlDriver match
3.8 Minimum Row recyclelrecycle cooler
3.9 Proposed control
3.10 Correct Efficiency

4.0 SeparatorslScrubbers
4.1 Type (conventional, compact)
4.2 Orientation (vertical, horizontal)
4.3 Internals (demister,vane pack,portatest,cyclonic etc)
4.4 Two phasemhree phase
4.5 Dimensions (diameter c 4-6 m, wall thickness c4-6")
4.6 Wall thickness (c4-6")
4.7 -
Instrumentation control bands considered

5.0 Pumps
5.1 Type (centrifugal, reciprocating)
5.2 Driver (electric, turbine, engine)
5.3 NPSHR
5.4 Minimum Row recycle/recycle cooler
5.5 Proposed control
5.6 Correct efficiency used

6.0 Other Unit Operations

6.1
6.2
FLARE SYSTEM RELIEVING SCENARIOS CHECK LIST

Equipment Item:

Ite Relieving Scenario Comments Relief Rate

m
l Blocked outlets
2 Cooling water failure to
condenser
3 Top tower reflux failure
4 Side stream reflux failure
5 Lean oil failure to absorber
6 Accumulation of non
condensables
7 Entrance of volatile material
a) Water into hot oil
b) Light hydrocarbon into hot oil
8 Overfilling storage or surge Maximum filling
vessel rate
9 Failure of automatic controls
10 Abnormal heat or vapour input
ll Split exchanger tube
12 Internal explosion
13 Chemical reaction
14 Hydraulic expansion
a) Cold fluid shut-in See 3.14.3
b) Lines outside process area See 3.14.3
shut-in
15 Exterior fire See 3.15