Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform
Fourier transform can be used to represent both periodic and
aperiodic (or non-periodic) signals. Fourier transform is, in fact, a
limiting case of Fourier series (in the sense when T0 → ∞).
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform
Fourier transform can be used to represent both periodic and
aperiodic (or non-periodic) signals. Fourier transform is, in fact, a
limiting case of Fourier series (in the sense when T0 → ∞).
Incentives to study the Fourier transform: Signal analysis (useful for
compression, feature extraction, biometrics, detection, etc.) and
signal filtering (useful for noise removal, enhancement, etc).
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform
Fourier transform can be used to represent both periodic and
aperiodic (or non-periodic) signals. Fourier transform is, in fact, a
limiting case of Fourier series (in the sense when T0 → ∞).
Incentives to study the Fourier transform: Signal analysis (useful for
compression, feature extraction, biometrics, detection, etc.) and
signal filtering (useful for noise removal, enhancement, etc).
Definitions:
Z ∞
X (ω) = F [x(t)] = x(t)e −jωt dt. Fourier Transform
−∞

Z ∞
−1 1
x(t) = F [X (ω)] = X (ω)e jωt dω. Inverse Fourier Transform
2π −∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform - characteristics

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform - characteristics

x(t) and X (ω) form a Fourier Transform Pair, denoted as

x(t) ↔ X (ω)

X (ω) is the frequency-domain representation of the time-domain

signal x(t). Both functions x(t) and X (ω) represent the same thing.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform - characteristics

x(t) and X (ω) form a Fourier Transform Pair, denoted as

x(t) ↔ X (ω)

X (ω) is the frequency-domain representation of the time-domain

signal x(t). Both functions x(t) and X (ω) represent the same thing.
The transformation pair is unique, one-to-one, and invertible.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform - characteristics

x(t) and X (ω) form a Fourier Transform Pair, denoted as

x(t) ↔ X (ω)

X (ω) is the frequency-domain representation of the time-domain

signal x(t). Both functions x(t) and X (ω) represent the same thing.
The transformation pair is unique, one-to-one, and invertible.
X (ω) is a complex-valued function. Thus,

X (ω) = |X (ω)|e jθ(ω)

where |X (ω)| is the magnitude of X (ω) and θ(ω) is the phase of

X (ω).
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transform - characteristics

x(t) and X (ω) form a Fourier Transform Pair, denoted as

x(t) ↔ X (ω)

X (ω) is the frequency-domain representation of the time-domain

signal x(t). Both functions x(t) and X (ω) represent the same thing.
The transformation pair is unique, one-to-one, and invertible.
X (ω) is a complex-valued function. Thus,

X (ω) = |X (ω)|e jθ(ω)

where |X (ω)| is the magnitude of X (ω) and θ(ω) is the phase of

X (ω).
If x(t) is real-valued signal, then X (−ω) = X ∗ (ω).
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

The Fourier Transform X (ω) of x(t) exists if the following Dirichlet

conditions are satisfied.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

The Fourier Transform X (ω) of x(t) exists if the following Dirichlet

conditions are satisfied.
R∞
x(t) is absolutely integrable; that is, −∞ |x(t)|dt < ∞.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

The Fourier Transform X (ω) of x(t) exists if the following Dirichlet

conditions are satisfied.
R∞
x(t) is absolutely integrable; that is, −∞ |x(t)|dt < ∞.
x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite
interval.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

The Fourier Transform X (ω) of x(t) exists if the following Dirichlet

conditions are satisfied.
R∞
x(t) is absolutely integrable; that is, −∞ |x(t)|dt < ∞.
x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite
interval.
x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within any finite interval,
and each of these discontinuities is finite.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Conditions for Fourier Transform’s Existence

The Fourier Transform X (ω) of x(t) exists if the following Dirichlet

conditions are satisfied.
R∞
x(t) is absolutely integrable; that is, −∞ |x(t)|dt < ∞.
x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite
interval.
x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within any finite interval,
and each of these discontinuities is finite.
Note that this set of conditions are sufficient but not necessary.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Z τ Z τ
2 2
= Ae −jωt dt = A e −jωt dt
− τ2 − τ2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Z τ Z τ
2 2
= Ae −jωt dt = A e −jωt dt
− τ2 − τ2
 −jωt τ /2  −jωτ /2
e jωτ /2

e e
=A =A −
−jω −τ /2 −jω −jω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Z τ Z τ
2 2
= Ae −jωt dt = A e −jωt dt
− τ2 − τ2
 −jωt τ /2  −jωτ /2
e jωτ /2

e e
=A =A −
−jω −τ /2 −jω −jω
 
2A ωτ
= sin Using Euler’s formula
ω 2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.3: Find the Fourier transform of the rectangular gate function
(
A, for − τ2 < t < τ2
x(t) =
0, elsewhere
Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Z τ Z τ
2 2
= Ae −jωt dt = A e −jωt dt
− τ2 − τ2
 −jωt τ /2  −jωτ /2
e jωτ /2

e e
=A =A −
−jω −τ /2 −jω −jω
 
2A ωτ
= sin Using Euler’s formula
ω 2
 
ωτ
X (ω) = Aτ sinc .
2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.4: Find the Fourier transform of the single-sided exponential

signal x(t) given below, for a > 0.
(
e −at , for t ≥ 0
x(t) =
0, otherwise
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.4: Find the Fourier transform of the single-sided exponential

signal x(t) given below, for a > 0.
(
e −at , for t ≥ 0
x(t) =
0, otherwise

Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
−∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.4: Find the Fourier transform of the single-sided exponential

signal x(t) given below, for a > 0.
(
e −at , for t ≥ 0
x(t) =
0, otherwise

Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
Z−∞
∞ Z ∞
−at −jωt
= e e dt = e −(a+jω)t dt
0 0
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.4: Find the Fourier transform of the single-sided exponential

signal x(t) given below, for a > 0.
(
e −at , for t ≥ 0
x(t) =
0, otherwise

Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
Z−∞
∞ Z ∞
−at −jωt
= e e dt = e −(a+jω)t dt
0 0
∞
e −(a+jω)t

=
−(a + jω) 0
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.4: Find the Fourier transform of the single-sided exponential

signal x(t) given below, for a > 0.
(
e −at , for t ≥ 0
x(t) =
0, otherwise

Z ∞
Answer: X (ω) = x(t)e −jωt dt
Z−∞
∞ Z ∞
−at −jωt
= e e dt = e −(a+jω)t dt
0 0
∞
e −(a+jω)t

=
−(a + jω) 0
1
X (ω) = .
a + jω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Constant A: F [A] = 2πA δ(ω).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Constant A: F [A] = 2πA δ(ω).

Exponential e ±jω0 t : F [e ±jω0 t ] = 2π δ(ω ∓ ω0 ).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Constant A: F [A] = 2πA δ(ω).

Exponential e ±jω0 t : F [e ±jω0 t ] = 2π δ(ω ∓ ω0 ).

Impulse train δT0 (t): F [δT0 (t)] = ω0 δω0 (ω).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Constant A: F [A] = 2πA δ(ω).

Exponential e ±jω0 t : F [e ±jω0 t ] = 2π δ(ω ∓ ω0 ).

Impulse train δT0 (t): F [δT0 (t)] = ω0 δω0 (ω).

Signum funtion sgn(t): F [sgn(t)] = 2

jω .
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Fourier Transforms of some other standard functions

Unit-strength impulse function: F [δ(t)] = 1.

Impulse function with strength A: F [A δ(t)] = A.

Constant A: F [A] = 2πA δ(ω).

Exponential e ±jω0 t : F [e ±jω0 t ] = 2π δ(ω ∓ ω0 ).

Impulse train δT0 (t): F [δT0 (t)] = ω0 δω0 (ω).

Signum funtion sgn(t): F [sgn(t)] = 2

jω .

Refer [Link] for the summary of Fourier Transform pairs.

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Properties of Fourier Transform

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Properties of Fourier Transform

Linearity: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t) ↔ a1 X1 (ω) + a2 X2 (ω).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Properties of Fourier Transform

Linearity: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t) ↔ a1 X1 (ω) + a2 X2 (ω).

Time shifting: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then x(t − τ ) ↔ e −jωτ X (ω).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Properties of Fourier Transform

Linearity: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t) ↔ a1 X1 (ω) + a2 X2 (ω).

Time shifting: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then x(t − τ ) ↔ e −jωτ X (ω).

Frequency shifting: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then x(t)e jω0 t ↔ X (ω − ω0 ).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Properties of Fourier Transform

Linearity: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t) ↔ a1 X1 (ω) + a2 X2 (ω).

Time shifting: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then x(t − τ ) ↔ e −jωτ X (ω).

Frequency shifting: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then x(t)e jω0 t ↔ X (ω − ω0 ).

Time differentiation: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then

d
[x(t)] ↔ jωX (ω).
dt
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Time convolution: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) X2 (ω).

convolution in time domain ⇐⇒ multiplication in frequency domain.

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Time convolution: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) X2 (ω).

convolution in time domain ⇐⇒ multiplication in frequency domain.

Time multiplication: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then
1
x1 (t) x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) ∗ X2 (ω).
2π
multiplication in time domain ⇐⇒ convolution in frequency domain.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Time convolution: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) X2 (ω).

convolution in time domain ⇐⇒ multiplication in frequency domain.

Time multiplication: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then
1
x1 (t) x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) ∗ X2 (ω).
2π
multiplication in time domain ⇐⇒ convolution in frequency domain.
Parseval’s Theorem: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 1
|x(t)| dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Time convolution: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then

x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) X2 (ω).

convolution in time domain ⇐⇒ multiplication in frequency domain.

Time multiplication: If x1 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) and x2 (t) ↔ X2 (ω), then
1
x1 (t) x2 (t) ↔ X1 (ω) ∗ X2 (ω).
2π
multiplication in time domain ⇐⇒ convolution in frequency domain.
Parseval’s Theorem: If x(t) ↔ X (ω), then
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 1
|x(t)| dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞

Refer [Link] for the summary of Fourier Transform properties.

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.5: Find the Fourier transform of the signal f (t) shown in
figure 3. Use time-shifting property.

Figure 3: Signal f (t) in Example 3.5

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.5: Find the Fourier transform of the signal f (t) shown in
figure 3. Use time-shifting property.

Figure 3: Signal f (t) in Example 3.5

Answer: The above signal can be expressed as

t − τ2
 
f (t) = A rect .
τ
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2

Since f (t) = g (t − τ2 ), the Fourier Transform of f (t) is equal to the

Fourier Transform of g (t − τ2 ).
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2

Since f (t) = g (t − τ2 ), the Fourier Transform of f (t) is equal to the

Fourier Transform of g (t − τ2 ).
Therefore, using the time shifting property,
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2

Since f (t) = g (t − τ2 ), the Fourier Transform of f (t) is equal to the

Fourier Transform of g (t − τ2 ).
Therefore, using the time shifting property,
τ
F (ω) = e −jω 2 G (ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2

Since f (t) = g (t − τ2 ), the Fourier Transform of f (t) is equal to the

Fourier Transform of g (t − τ2 ).
Therefore, using the time shifting property,
τ
F (ω) = e −jω 2 G (ω)
 
τ ωτ
= e −jω 2 Aτ sin
2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Consider a signal g (t) = A rect( τt ). Its Fourier Transform is

 
ωτ
G (ω) = Aτ sin . [Refer Example 3.3]
2

Since f (t) = g (t − τ2 ), the Fourier Transform of f (t) is equal to the

Fourier Transform of g (t − τ2 ).
Therefore, using the time shifting property,
τ
F (ω) = e −jω 2 G (ω)
 
τ ωτ
= e −jω 2 Aτ sin
2
 
τ ωτ
F (ω) = Aτ e −jω 2 sin .
2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.6: Find the energy of the signal x(t) given its Fourier Transform

2
X (ω) = .
3 + jω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.6: Find the energy of the signal x(t) given its Fourier Transform

2
X (ω) = .
3 + jω
Answer: According to Parseval’s Theorem,
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Ex = |x(t)|2 dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.6: Find the energy of the signal x(t) given its Fourier Transform

2
X (ω) = .
3 + jω
Answer: According to Parseval’s Theorem,
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Ex = |x(t)|2 dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞

Therefore,
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.6: Find the energy of the signal x(t) given its Fourier Transform

2
X (ω) = .
3 + jω
Answer: According to Parseval’s Theorem,
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Ex = |x(t)|2 dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞

Therefore,
Z ∞
1
Ex = |X (ω)|2 dω
2π −∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.6: Find the energy of the signal x(t) given its Fourier Transform

2
X (ω) = .
3 + jω
Answer: According to Parseval’s Theorem,
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
Ex = |x(t)|2 dt = |X (ω)|2 dω.
−∞ 2π −∞

Therefore,
Z ∞
1
Ex = |X (ω)|2 dω
2π −∞
Z ∞
1 4
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
  ∞
4 1 −1 ω 1 1
tan−1 ( ωa )
R
= × tan Since a2 +ω 2
dω = a
2π 3 3 −∞
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
  ∞
4 1 −1 ω
tan−1 ( ωa )
R 1 1
= × tan Since a2 +ω 2 dω = a
2π 3 3 −∞
 
4 1 −1 −1
= × × tan (∞) − tan (−∞)
2π 3
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
  ∞
4 1 −1 ω
tan−1 ( ωa )
R 1 1
= × tan Since a2 +ω 2 dω = a
2π 3 3 −∞
 
4 1 −1 −1
= × × tan (∞) − tan (−∞)
2π 3
 
4 1 π π
= × × +
2π 3 2 2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
  ∞
4 1 −1 ω
tan−1 ( ωa )
R 1 1
= × tan Since a2 +ω 2 dω = a
2π 3 3 −∞
 
4 1 −1 −1
= × × tan (∞) − tan (−∞)
2π 3
 
4 1 π π
= × × +
2π 3 2 2
4 π
= ×
2π 3
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Z ∞
4 1
= dω
2π −∞ 9 + ω 2
  ∞
4 1 −1 ω
tan−1 ( ωa )
R 1 1
= × tan Since a2 +ω 2 dω = a
2π 3 3 −∞
 
4 1 −1 −1
= × × tan (∞) − tan (−∞)
2π 3
 
4 1 π π
= × × +
2π 3 2 2
4 π
= ×
2π 3
2
Ex = .
3
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Frequency Response of a CT LTI System
The Fourier transform of the impluse response is called the frequency
response. That is, they form a Fourier Transform pair: h(t) ↔ H(ω).

Figure 4: Frequency response and impulse response of an LTI system; Note X (ω),
H(ω), and Y (ω), are the Fourier Transforms of x(t), h(t), and y (t), respectively.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,
 
dy (t)
F 2 + y (t) = F [x(t)]
dt
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,
 
dy (t)
F 2 + y (t) = F [x(t)]
dt
2(jω)Y (ω) + Y (ω) = X (ω) Using time-differentiation property
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,
 
dy (t)
F 2 + y (t) = F [x(t)]
dt
2(jω)Y (ω) + Y (ω) = X (ω) Using time-differentiation property
(1 + j2ω)Y (ω) = X (ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

Example 3.7: Consider an LTI system with transfer function

dy (t)
2 + y (t) = x(t).
dt
Evaluate its frequency response and impulse response.
Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,
 
dy (t)
F 2 + y (t) = F [x(t)]
dt
2(jω)Y (ω) + Y (ω) = X (ω) Using time-differentiation property
(1 + j2ω)Y (ω) = X (ω)

Therefore, the frequency response

Y (ω) 1
H(ω) = = .
X (ω) 1 + j2ω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

The impulse response,

 
−1
h(t) = F H(ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

The impulse response,

 
−1
h(t) = F H(ω)
 
1
= F −1
1 + j2ω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

The impulse response,

 
−1
h(t) = F H(ω)
 
1
= F −1
1 + j2ω
 
−1 0.5
=F
0.5 + jω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

The impulse response,

 
−1
h(t) = F H(ω)
 
1
= F −1
1 + j2ω
 
−1 0.5
=F
0.5 + jω
 
−1 1
= 0.5 × F .
0.5 + jω
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals

The impulse response,

 
−1
h(t) = F H(ω)
 
1
= F −1
1 + j2ω
 
−1 0.5
=F
0.5 + jω
 
−1 1
= 0.5 × F .
0.5 + jω
 
Since F −1 1
a+jω = e −at u(t),

h(t) = 0.5 e −0.5t u(t).

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

 2   2 
d y (t) d x(t)
F − 9y (t) = F − 21x(t)
dt 2 dt 2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

 2   2 
d y (t) d x(t)
F − 9y (t) = F − 21x(t)
dt 2 dt 2
(jω)2 Y (ω) − 9Y (ω) = (jω)2 X (ω) − 21X (ω) Time-differentiation property
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

 2   2 
d y (t) d x(t)
F − 9y (t) = F − 21x(t)
dt 2 dt 2
(jω)2 Y (ω) − 9Y (ω) = (jω)2 X (ω) − 21X (ω) Time-differentiation property
(−9 − ω 2 )Y (ω) = (−21 − ω 2 )X (ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

 2   2 
d y (t) d x(t)
F − 9y (t) = F − 21x(t)
dt 2 dt 2
(jω)2 Y (ω) − 9Y (ω) = (jω)2 X (ω) − 21X (ω) Time-differentiation property
(−9 − ω 2 )Y (ω) = (−21 − ω 2 )X (ω)
(9 + ω 2 )Y (ω) = (21 + ω 2 )X (ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
Example 3.8: Find the impulse response of the following LTI system
d 2 y (t) d 2 x(t)
− 9y (t) = − 21x(t).
dt 2 dt 2

Answer: Taking the Fourier Transform on both sides of the ODE,

 2   2 
d y (t) d x(t)
F − 9y (t) = F − 21x(t)
dt 2 dt 2
(jω)2 Y (ω) − 9Y (ω) = (jω)2 X (ω) − 21X (ω) Time-differentiation property
(−9 − ω 2 )Y (ω) = (−21 − ω 2 )X (ω)
(9 + ω 2 )Y (ω) = (21 + ω 2 )X (ω)
Therefore, the frequency response
Y (ω) 21 + ω 2
H(ω) = = .
X (ω) 9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
2
 
−1 21 + ω
=F
9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
2
 
−1 21 + ω
=F
9 + ω2
2
 
−1 9 + ω 12
=F +
9 + ω2 9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
2
 
−1 21 + ω
=F
9 + ω2
2
 
−1 9 + ω 12
=F +
9 + ω2 9 + ω2
 
12
= F −1 1 +
9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
2
 
−1 21 + ω
=F
9 + ω2
2
 
−1 9 + ω 12
=F +
9 + ω2 9 + ω2
 
12
= F −1 1 +
9 + ω2
 
−1 −1 1
= F [1] + 12 × F
9 + ω2
Module 3: Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time Signals
The impulse response,
 
h(t) = F −1 H(ω)
2
 
−1 21 + ω
=F
9 + ω2
2
 
−1 9 + ω 12
=F +
9 + ω2 9 + ω2
 
12
= F −1 1 +
9 + ω2
 
−1 −1 1
= F [1] + 12 × F
9 + ω2
 
Since F −1 [1] = δ(t) and F −1 a2 +ω
1
2
1 −a|t|
= 2a e ,

h(t) = δ(t) + 2e −3|t| .