PRPM110L NOTES endosperm.

The seeds which store their food in endosperm are called

endospermic seed or albuminous seed (e.g. castor been, rubber
MODULE 5 etc). The seeds which store their food in cotyledons (endosperm
absent) are called non-endospermic or exalbuminous (e.g. bean,
Evaluating botanical drugs and describing indigenous plant
gram etc).
drugs is of paramount importance in pharmacy. Determination of their
quality and purity being a crude source of future medicines / To start exploring on the world of seeds, it is quite essential to
supplements can be done by making use of your sense organs, thus review the morphological structures of seeds especially those that has
the term "organoleptic" comes in. How the plant looks like, its been the source of medicinal and pharmaceutical value.
characteristic odor and taste, or even the sound of breaking the stem
or bark, and the "feel". Three examples of seeds is illustrated here and characteristic
structures is defined throughout the discussion.
LESSON 1: SEEDS
Gram seed is a dicot, non-endospermic seed. The seeds are
A new generation begins once a SEED is formed. produced within the pods or leguminous fruits. A gram seed appears
conical-pyriform in outline. It has the following parts:

Seeds are ripened fertilized ovules and are the principal

means of perpetuation of the species. It consists of an embryonic 1. Seed Coat: It consists of two layers-outer testa and inner tegmen.
plant, reserve food and protective seed coat. The embryo in the seed
a. Testa is thick and brownish.
is made up of embryonal axis. It contains radicle (embryonic root) and
plumule (embryonic shoot). On the side, one or two embryonic leaves b. The tegmen is thin, membranous, and whitish and
or cotyledons are present. In some seeds, food is stored in the remains fused with testa.
 The pointed beak like end of the seed has a minute pore a) Testa: It is the outer layer of seed coat. It is thick, hard and
called micropyle. If a soaked seed is gently pressed, a drop of water brittle. The external surface appears smooth, shinning and
oozes out of the micropyle. A small oval scar seen near the micropyle mottled brown in color.
is called hilum through which the seed was attached to fruit. Another b) Tegmen: It is the inner layer of seed coat that appears dull
oval scar present in the middle is called chalaza or strophiole. A and papery. Now it is called as perisperm or persistent
distinct ridge called raphe runs from hilum to chalaza. nucellus.
c) Caruncle: It is a white spongy bilobed outgrowth present near
2. Embryo: It presents inner to seed coat. It consists of two
the narrow end of the seed. If partially covers the hilum (dark
circular yellowish cotyledons that are attached to the embryo
scar) and completely covers the micropyle (small pore).
axis. The part of embryo axis above the point of attachment to Caruncle absorbs water which percolates through the
the cotyledons is called epicotyle. The tip of epicotyle is called micropyle into the seed.
plumule. Similarly, the region of the embryo axis below the
d) Raphae: It is a shallow ridge present on the testa of flat
point of attachment of cotyledons is called the hypocotyle.
surface of the seed. The distinct bifurcation of raphae
The tip of hypocotyle is called radicle. During germination, the
represents chalaza.
radicle comes out first through the micropyle and grows to
form a tap root. The plumule gives rise to shoot system. e) Endosperm: It is a white oily food storage tissue that is
present inner to the perisperm. From this layer castor oil of
Castor seed is a dicotyledonous, endospermic seed. The castor
commerce is extracted.
seeds are produced within a schizocarpic fruit called the regma which
on maturity breaks up into 3 cocci, each containing a single seed. A f) Embryo: It lies in the center of endosperm. It consists of a
castor seed is roughly oblong in outline with distinct convex (dorsal) radicle, a plumule and two lateral cotyledons, all of which are
and flat (ventral) surfaces. present on a short embryo axis. The cotyledons are thin, semi-
transparent and oval in outline. They have palmate venation.
The middle costa or rib is more prominent and bears a few
lateral veins.

Radicle lies outside the cotyledons towards the micropylar end. It

is a knob-like outgrowth. Plumule lies in between the two cotyledons
and is quite indistinct. Epicotyl is also indistinct. In between the place
of origin of the two cotyledons and the radicle is present a short
hypocotyl. Castor-oil seed is dicotyledonous (having two cotyledons),
endospermic (with a special food storing tissue called endosperm)
and perispermic (having perisperm or persistent nucellus).
 Maize or Corn seed is actually a one seeded fruit called The embryo axis has plumule (upper end) and radicle (lower
caryopsis or grain. It is a monocot, endospermic seed. end). The plumule contains a few rudimentary leaves and a conical
protective sheath called coleoptile. The coleoptile has a terminal pore
for the emergence of first leaf during germination. The sheath is
capable of growth. It assists the future shoot in passing through the
soil during germination.
The radicle has two protective sheaths, inner root cap and outer
coleorhiza. Roughly in the middle of embryo axis arises a vascular
strand. It ramifies into the scutellum. The place of origin of the
vascular strand from the embryo axis is called cotyledonary node.

 ANGIOSPERMS: Seed-producing flowering plants whose seeds

are enclosed within an ovary, usually in a fruit.

 GYMNOSPERMS: Seed-producing non-flowering plants whose

seeds are unenclosed or “naked.”found on scales, leaves or as
cones.

Seed germination is defined as the sum of events that begin with

hydration of the seed and culminate in emergence of the embryonic
axis (usually the radicle) from the seed coat.
          Germination is the process of a plant emerging from a seed and
a) Seed coat: it is fused with the fruit wall (pericarp). It encloses beginning to grow. For seedlings to grow properly from a seed they
a kernel which includes embryo and endosperm. need the right conditions. Water and oxygen are required for seeds to
germinate. Many seeds germinate at a temperature just above normal
b) Endosperm: It constitutes 2/3 of the grain. Endosperm room temperature but others respond better to warmer temperatures,
consists of outer aleurone layer and inner starchy cooler temperatures or even changes in temperature. While light can
endosperm. be an important trigger for germination, some seeds actually need
c) Embryo: It lies on one side of the starchy endosperm and darkness to germinate. 
appears to be a lighter oval area in the whole seed. Embryo
consists of a scutellum and a short embryo axis (tigellum).
The scutellum is a shield-shaped cotyledon attached to a node LESSON 2: ROOTS & UNDERGROUND PARTS
of embryo axis. The surface of scutellum facing endosperm is Underground structures of plants used as drugs are roots, tuberous
called epithelial layer. It is both secretory and absorptive in roots, tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, and corms. Below is a few to mention
nature. The epithelial layer secretes hormones into the
list of root vegetables:
endosperm for the synthesis of enzymes required for
solubilization of food. The solubilized food is absorbed by it
and then transferred to the embryo axis.
 tip is called the root cap which provides protection for the apical
meristem. It also secretes a complex polysaccharide called slime or
mucigel which helps lubricate the passage of roots through the soil
and causes the soil to release nutrient, ions and permit diffusion to the
roots.

 Roots represent descending axes of plants which are devoid of

leaves.
o Tuberous roots are roots which are swollen for food
storage and which show different internal structure from
true roots.
 Tubers are short, thick, solid, underground stems borne
usually at the end of slender creeping branches (stolons)
which arise from the lower region of the aerial stem.
 Rhizomes are creeping underground stems of horizontal,
vertical or oblique growth.
 Bulbs are short, vertical, underground stems covered with Above the root cap is the zone of cell division which is
numerous fleshy scales which comprise the greater bulk. composed of actively dividing cells and is protected by a thick cell. A
 Corms are thickened, solid, erect, generally subspherical, region of mitotically inactive cell called the Quiescent center is
underground stems with leaf scars in the upper surface and present in the meristematic region. It is activated and produces new
cells when the root apical meristem is damaged. In this zone, three
root scars in the lower surface.
primary meristems are present: the protoderm, which develops in to
the epidermis; the ground meristem, which stores food and uptakes
Shown in the figure below is the structure of root tip. The root tips minerals; and the procambium which gives rise to the stele.
is the region where growth in length takes place. The end of the root
 Next above the zone of cell division is the zone of elongation
where cells expands greatly. In this region cells begin to differentiate
into visible patterns but no cell maturation occurs. The protoderm TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEM
differentiates into the epidermis, the ground meristem into the root Roots may be taproots, which are thick and single or few in
complex and the procambium into the primary xylem and primary number (like the carrot), or they may be fibrous roots, which are thin
phloem. and numerous (like grasses). In some plants, the taproots have well-
On top of the zone of elongation is the zone of maturation. In developed secondary wood, and the outer surface has a thickened
this region root hair starts to grow which greatly increase the bark. The anatomy of a root is best seen in cross-section. A typical
absorption capability of the roots. It is also responsible for the transfer small root, such as a fibrous root or a very young taproot, contains,
of minerals from the epidermis to the vascular tissues. moving from the outside toward the center, a single-layered
epidermis, a ring of parenchyma called the cortex, a single-layered
hypodermis, and a central vascular cylinder, which contains a small
amount of outer parenchyma (pericycle), small bundles of phloem,
and a variously shaped central xylem. Occasionally (especially in
monocots) vascular tissues are found in a ring around a central area
of parenchyma (pith) without vascular tissue, but usually roots have
no pith. Such very small roots are seldom harvested (except
incidentally when attached to stems, rhizomes, etc.) and provide few
identifying characters.
A. Tap root system: with a main taproot that is larger and grows
faster than the branch roots
B. Adventitious root system: roots that form on any plant part ILLUSTRATIONS - MODIFIED ROOT SYSTEM
other than the roots

C. Fibrous root system: with all roots about the same size

1. Tuberous: The swollen root is shapeless and occurs singly.

(Sweet potato)
2. Fasciculated: When several tuberous roots occur in a
cluster arising from the same place.     (Aspapragus, Dahlia)
3. Beaded or moniliferous root: Here the adventitious roots
have swollen regions at frequent intervals. (Portulaca,
Momordica, Yam)
4. Prop. They are pillar like structures hanging vertically
downward from aerial branches.     (banyan tree)
5. Stilt: These are short roots growing obliquely from near the
base of the main stem and provide additional support.
(Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane)
6. Parasitic: Parasitic plants develop roots which penetrate The main difference between the two is that diffusion can occur
into the host tissue and suck or absorb the nutrients. in any mixture, even when two solutions aren’t separated by a
( Cuscuta) semipermeable membrane, whereas osmosis, exclusively occurs
across a semipermeable membrane.
7. Assimilatory: in some plants, adventitious roots arise from
There are actually three types of passive transport processes.
the aerial stem, become green and photosynthetic. Such Besides diffusion and osmosis, there’s also facilitated diffusion.
roots are known as assimilatory roots. (Tinospora, Trapa) While diffusion and osmosis do not involve proteins when transporting
substances, facilitated diffusion needs the assistance of proteins.
8. Nodulose: The root gets swollen at or near the apex.
(Mango, Curcuma)
9. Climbing or clinging root: They arise from the nodes or LESSON 3: STEMS
internodes and secrete a sticky juice to gain hold of A plant stem is one of the two main structural axes of a vascular
substratum. (Betelvine) plant. It is the part of the plant that lies above the ground. Few stems
are also found underground and are considered to be stem
10. Respiratory roots: They are developed on floating modifications.
branches and are soft, light, spongy and colorless and help
in storing air for facilitating respiration. (Jussiaea repens)
11. Epiphytic roots: These are green hanging roots,
surrounded by a spongy tissue called velamen which is
hygroscopic and helps in absorbing moisture from the
surrounding air. (Orchids)

VIDEO TO WATCH - EXPERIMENT ON OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION

The process of osmosis is essential for the mechanism
whereby plants get water from their roots to their leaves, even dozens
of feet above ground level. In brief, plants transport sugars and other
solutes to their roots in order to generate a gradient between the
inside and outside of the root; water from the soil then moves in to the
root by osmosis. From that point, a process called transpiration
results in the water being pulled up tubes inside the plant called the
xylem and evaporating out the leaves. Ideally, once this water column
is established, it remains intact throughout the life of the plant.
Diffusion and osmosis are both passive transport processes,
meaning they require no energy input to move substances. Both
processes are essential to the proper functioning of biological
processes such as the transport of water or nutrients between cells.