MODULE 2.
DATA PRESENTATION
Subject: STT 041
Lesson Title: Data Presentation
Lesson Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to
1. to tabulate a set of data into a frequency distribution
2. to enumerate the rules on construction of different types of graphs
3. to apply rules on graphical representation of data
4. to construct the appropriate graph for a set of data
Overview/Introduction:
Usually, researchers must work with sample data in order to analyze populations, but
occasionally it is possible to collect all the data for a given population. In this chapter, you
will learn ways to organize and describe data sets. The goal is to make the data easier to
understand by describing trends, averages, and variations. For instance, in the raw data
showing the ages of the 50 richest people in the world in 2009, it is not easy to see any
patterns or special characteristics. Here are some ways you can organize and describe the
data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
You will learn that there are many ways to organize and describe a data set. Important
characteristics to look for when organizing and describing a data set are its center, its
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variability (or spread) and its shape. When a data set has many entries, it can be difficult to
see patterns.
In this section, you will learn how to organize data sets by grouping the data into intervals
called classes and forming a frequency distribution. You will also learn how to use
frequency distributions to construct graphs.
A frequency distribution is a table that shows classes or intervals of data entries with a
count of the number of entries in each class. The frequency f of a class is the number of
data entries in the class.
In the frequency distribution shown at the left there are six
classes. The frequencies for each of the six classes are 5, 8,
6, 8, 5, and 4. Each class has a lower class limit, which is
the least number that can belong to the class, and an upper
class limit, which is the greatest number that can belong to
the class. In the frequency distribution shown, the lower
class limits are 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, and 26, and the upper class
limits are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30. The class width is the
distance between lower (or upper) limits of consecutive classes. For instance, the class width
in the frequency distribution shown is 6-1=5.
The difference between the maximum and minimum data entries is called the range. In the
frequency table shown, suppose the maximum data entry is 29, and the minimum data entry
is 1. The range then is 29 -1= 28.
Example. Constructing a Frequency Distribution from a Data Set
The following sample data set lists the prices (in dollars) of 30 portable global positioning
system (GPS) navigators. Construct a frequency distribution that has seven classes.
i. The number of classes (7)
ii. The minimum data entry is 59 and the maximum data entry is 450, so the range is
.
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iii. ( )
iv. The minimum data entry is a convenient lower limit for the first class. To find the lower limits of the
remaining six classes, add the class width of 56 to the lower limit of each previous class. The upper
limit of the first class is 114, which is one less than the lower limit of the second class. The upper
limits of the other classes are 114 + 56=170, 170 +56 = 226 and so on. The lower and upper limits for
all seven classes are shown.
v. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the appropriate class. For instance, the data entry 130 is in the
115–170 class, so make a tally mark in that class. Continue until you have made a tally mark for each
of the 30 data entries.
vi. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency of that class.
The midpoint of a class is the sum of the lower and upper limits of the class divided by two.
The midpoint is sometimes called the class mark.
( ) ( )
The relative frequency of a class is the portion or percentage of the data that falls in that
class. To find the relative frequency of a class, divide the frequency f by the sample size n.
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The cumulative frequency of a class is the sum of the frequencies of that class and all
previous classes. The cumulative frequency of the last class is equal to the sample size n.
After finding the first midpoint, you can find the remaining midpoints by adding the class
width to the previous midpoint. For instance, if the first midpoint is 86.5 and the class width
is 56, then the remaining midpoints are
You can write the relative frequency as a fraction, decimal, or percent. The sum of the
relative frequencies of all the classes should be equal to 1, or 100%. Due to rounding, the
sum may be slightly less than or greater than 1. So, values such as 0.99 and 1.01 are
sufficient.
Interpretation There are several patterns in the data set. For instance, the most common price range for GPS
navigators was $115 to $170.
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GRAPHS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
A frequency histogram is a bar graph that represents the frequency distribution of a
data set. A histogram has the following properties.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures the data values.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
Because consecutive bars of a histogram must touch, bars must begin and end at class
boundaries instead of class limits. Class boundaries are the numbers that separate classes
without forming gaps between them. If data entries are integers, subtract 0.5 from each
lower limit to find the lower class boundaries. To find the upper class boundaries, add 0.5 to
each upper [Link] upper boundary of a class will equal the lower boundary of the next
higher class.
.
Interpretation From either histogram, you can see that more than half of the GPS navigators are
priced below $226.50.
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A bar graph is a chart that plots data using rectangular bars or columns (called bins)
that represent the total amount of observations in the data for that category. Bar
charts can be displayed with vertical columns, horizontal bars, comparative bars
(multiple bars to show a comparison between values), or stacked bars (bars
containing multiple types of information).
A frequency polygon is a line graph that emphasizes the continuous change in frequencies.
Interpretation You can see that the frequency of GPS navigators increases up to $142.50 and then
decreases.
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A cumulative frequency graph, or ogive, a line graph that displays the cumulative
frequency of each class at its upper class boundary. The upper boundaries are marked on the
horizontal axis, and the cumulative frequencies are marked on the vertical axis.
Interpretation From the ogive, you can see that about 25 GPS navigators cost $300 or less. It is
evident that the greatest increase occurs between $114.50 and $170.50, because the line segment is
steepest between these two class boundaries.
Assessment:
Take the quiz on Moodle.
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