Evolution—History of life.

Evolution is the process by which new species are formed from pre-existing one over a long
period of time. It is believed that life exists only on earth of all planets.

Specific objectives
The learner should be able to
• Explain the theories related to the origin of life

Theories for origin of the earth

1. Stead – state. Cosmologist maintain that the earth and universe never had origin, has always
been able to support life, has change remarkably little if at all, and that the has 5,000 x106
years based on radioactive decay rates.

2. Other hypothesis suggest that the universe may have began as a ball of neutrons exploded in
a ‘big bang’ emerged from one of several black holes

[Link] was a design of a creator.

Theories for origin of life on earth

1. Special creation; life was created by a supernatural being at a particular time. Genesis 1; 1- 26
[Link] generation; life arose from non- living matter on numerous occasions.
[Link]- state. Life has no origin
[Link]; life arrived on this planet from elsewhere.
5. Biochemical evolution; life arose according to chemical and physical laws.

Modern view.
Modern geologists believe the earth is over billion years old. They speculate that the mountains
deserts and oceans of today formed from slow, gradual but continuous process of erosion and
uplifting. The about 3.5 billion year ago, life began From simple unicellular organism, new life
forms arose and changed in response to environmental pressures producing the past and present
biodiversity [evolution]

Theories of evolution.
Evolution is an overall gradual development which is both ordered and sequential. In terms living
organism it may be defined as; the development of differentiated organism from pre-existing less
differentiated organism over the course of life.

Lamarckian theory.
The French biologist Lamarckian proposed, in 1805 a hypothesis to account for the mechanism of
evolution based on two conditions; The use and disuse of parts and inheritance of acquired
characteristics. Changes in environment may lead to changed pattern of behaviour which
necessitate new increase use or disuse of certain organism /or structure.

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Extensive use would lead to increased size and or efficiency whilst disuse would lead to
degeneracy and a trophy. These traits acquire during the lifetime of individual were believed to
be heritable and thus transmitted to off spring.

According to Lamarckism, as the theory came be to known, the long neck and legs of the modern
giraffe were the results of generation of short necked and legged giraffe ancestor feeding on
leaves at progressively higher levels trees. The slightly longer necks and legs produced in each
generation were passed on the subsequent generation until the size of the present-day giraffe was
reached.

Darwin, Wallace and the origin of species by natural selection

Darwin and Wallace proposed that natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise
from pre-existing species. This hypothesis / theory is based on three observations and two
deductions which may be summarized as follows:

Observation 1; Individuals within a population have a great reproduction potential, e.g.,

American oyster produces 10 eggs per season.

Observation 2; The number of individual in a population remain approximately constant.

Deduction 1; Many individuals fail to survive or reproduce. There is a ‘struggle for existence’
with the population

Observation 3. Variations exists within all populations.

Deduction 2: In the ‘struggle for existence’ those individuals showing variation best adapted to
their environment have a ‘reproductive advantage’ and produce more off spring than less adapted
organism.

Natural Selection
This is a natural mechanism by which those organisms which appear physically, physiologically
and behaviorally better adapted to the environment survive and reproduce. Those organisms not
so well adapted fail to reproduce or die. The former organisms pass on their successful
characteristics to the next generation.

Variation.
The term variation describes the differences in characteristics shown by organism belonging to
the same natural population or species.

Types of variation
1. Continuous variation.

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 Variation is said to be continuous when there is a gradual change of character from one
individual to another e.g. skin color, length of leaves, and height of individuals. i.e. it is
quantitative.

2. Discontinuous variation
In discontinuous variation, there is a clear – cut difference between the characteristics
e.g. blood groups, tongue- rolling, sex etc.

Variation and selection

Selection is the process by which those organisms which appear physically, physiologically and
behaviorally well adapted to the environment survive and reproduce. They pass on their
successful characteristic to the next generation while the less adapted die.

Therefore, selection can be seen to operate through the process of differential mortality and
differential reproduction potential. Selection has an adaptive significance in perpetuating those
organisms most likely to ensure survival of the species and depends upon the existence of
phenotypic variation with the population.

Selection pressures include food availability in animal and light in plants. This produces
competition for resources between members of the population. Those organisms exhibiting
characteristics which give them a competitive advantage will obtain the resources, survive and
produce organism without those characteristics are at a disadvantage and may die before
reproducing.

Both environmental limiting factors and population size operate together to produce a selective
pressure which can vary in intensity and from time to time and from place to place.

Importance of natural selection

- organisms that are best adapted to a particular environment are allowed to survive and
reproduce
- population size of a given environment is regulated to supportable limit.
- undesirable genes are eliminated from a population
- leads constant improvement of the population to better species

Types of selection.
Three types of natural selection
1. Directional selection
2. Stabilising selection
3. Disruptive selection

1. Directional selection occurs when an extreme phenotype is favored. Such a shift occurs
when a population is adapting to changing environment. E.g.,

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 a. The gradual increase in size of a modern horse with change in environment from
forest-like [which required penetration of thicket] condition to grass land [which required
escape from the predator] conditions.
b. Industrial melanism; the gradual increase in darkened peppered moth with increasing
pollution that accompanied the industrial revolution in UK. Which enabled darkened form
to hide easily on blacked walls and tree trunks.
c. Emergence of bacteria and insects resistant to chemicals following prolonged
indiscriminate use of antibiotic and pesticides
d. Increase in proportion of mammals with long fur when the average environment
temperature decreases to increase insulation of the animal or increase in proportion of
mammal with short fur when the average environmental temperature increases.

2. Stabilizing selection occurs when an intermediate phenotype is favored. It can improve

adaptation of a population for those aspects of the environment that remain constant. With
stabilizing selection extreme phenotypes are selected against and individuals near the average
are favored e.g. birth weight in human infants. Babies heavier or lighter than 3.6 kg in
London are at selective disadvantage and have a slightly increased rate of mortality.

3. Disruptive selection; Here two or more extreme phenotypes are favored over any
intermediate phenotype. Fluctuating condition in an environment, say associated with season
and climate may favor the presence of more than one phenotype within a population.
Selection pressure acting from with in the population as a result of increased competition may
push the phenotype away from the population mean towards the extremes of the population.

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Effects of disruptive selection
(i) It split the population into two subpopulations, each which may give rise to a new species (ii)
It can lead to appearance of different phenotypes within the population, i.e. polymorphism.

Polymorphism
This is the existence or more forms of the same population and can be applied to biochemical
morphological and behavioral characteristics e.g., land snail cepaea nemoralis, the shell
species may be yellow, brown or various shades

Types of polymorphism.
1. Transient polymorphism
This arises when different forms or morphs, exist in a population undergoing a strong
selection pressure. The frequency of the phenotypic appearance of each form is
determined by the intensity of selection pressure, e.g., melanic and non-melanic form of
peppered moth. Transient polymorphism usually applies in situation where one form is
gradually replaced by another

3. Balanced polymorphism.
This occurs when different forms co-exist in the same population in a stable environment.
E.g.
(i) Existence of the two sexes in animals and plants (ii)
Existence of A,B,AB and O blood group in human.

Causes of variation
Variations are caused by both genetical and environment differences. From the evolution
point of view genetic variations are more important because they can be transmitted from
parents to off springs.

The causes of genetic variations

1. Gene reshuffling
a. Independent assortment of genes at meiosis I allow gene reshuffling in in two ways
- orientation on the equator in metaphase I
During metaphase I of the first meiotic division homologous chromosomes came together
in pairs and subsequently segregate into a daughter cells independently of each other. The
result of this independent assortment is the production of the wide variety of different
gametes depending on which particular chromosome end up with one another in each cell.

- Crossing over
In prophase of the first meiotic division, homologous chromosomes came together and
make intimate contact with each other. Chromatid of homologous chromosome may break
and rejoin at any place called chiasmata.

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 b. Fertilization
Union of gametes at fertilization results in alleles present in one gamete being united with
alleles in another. If a population consist of large number of out breeding individual, the
amount of variation that may result from this is again virtually infinite.

Despite the tremendous amount of variation these three processes may generate, they play
only a limited role in evolution. The reason is that although they may establish a new
combination of alleles in one generation, they do not generate long lasting variation of a
novel kind.

2. Mutation
This is a change in the amount or structure of DNA of an organism. This produces a
change in the genotype which may be inherited by cells derived by mitosis or meiosis.
Individuals showing the new characteristics are referred to as mutants. Mutants arise
spontaneously and in no sense ‘directed’ by the environment, although the environment
greatly influence the mutation rate.

Factors or agents that speed up or lead to mutations are called mutagens include; Gamma
rays, ultraviolet and a number of chemicals e.g., mustard gas, colchicine in plants

Effect of mutation
1. Mutations are persistent; they tend to be transmitted through many generation without
further change.
[Link] vast majority of mutation confers disadvantages on organism that inherit them.

Causes of mutation
Ultraviolent light
Chemicals
Freezing of cells

Types of mutation.
1. Chromosomal mutation
This may be the result of changes in the number or structure of chromosomes

a. Change in number of chromosomes.

This is usually due to errors occurring during meiosis and mitosis. The changes may
involve the loss or gain of single chromosome a condition called Aneuploidy or the
increase in entire haploid set of chromosomes a condition called euploidy[polyploidy]

Aneuploidy
In this condition where half of the daughter cell produced have an extra chromosome [n + 1],
[2n + 1] and so on, while the other half have a chromosome missing [n- 1], [2n- 1] and so on.
An aneuploidy can arise from the failure of a pair or pairs of homologous chromosome to
separate during anaphase 1 of meiosis. If this occurs both sets of chromosomes pass to the
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 same pole of the cell and separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase II may
lead to information of gametes containing either one or more chromosome too many or too
few. This is known as non-disjunction.

One of the commonest form of chromosomal mutation in human resulting from

nondisjunction of the G 2, chromosome is Dawn’s syndrome [2n +1] characterized by mental
retardation, reduced resistance to disease, congenital heart abnormalities a short stocky body
and thick neck and the characteristic fold of skin over the inner corner of the eyes. Dawn’s
syndrome and other related chromosomal abnormalities occur more frequently in children
born to older women. Klinefelter’s syndrome is due to non-disjunction is sex chromosomes,
which may result into individuals who have genetic constitution, XXY, XXXY, or XXXXY.
These individuals are phenotypically male but have small testes and no sperm in the
ejaculate. There may be abnormal breast development and the body proportions are generally
female. Y is the cause of maleness.

Turner syndrome [2n- 1]: individual inherit a single X-chromosome (XO). Individuals with
this condition often do not survive pregnancy and are aborted. Those that do are
phenotypically female, but small in stature and sexually immature. Despite having a single X
chromosome, like males, they are female, indicating again that the Y chromosome is the
cause of maleness

Polyploidy
This occur when there is an increase in the entire haploid sets of chromosomes; i.e., 3n
triploid], 4n [tetraploid]

Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants. Polyploidy is often associated with
advantageous characteristics such as increased sized and greater, hardness of seeds, though
such advantages are sometimes offset by reduced fertility. Polyploidy is sometimes induced
by colchicine an alkaloid substance extracted from the crocus colchicum.

b. Structural change in chromosomes

These include loss, multiplication or changes in the sequence of bases on a chromosome (i)
Deletion; This involved loss of a piece of chromosome together with its genes.
(ii) Inversion; Here a chromosome breaks in two places and the middle piece then turns
around and joins up again so that the normal sequence of gene is reversed.
(iii) Translocation; a section of one chromosome break off and becomes attached to another
chromosome.
(iv) Duplication; a section of a chromosome replicates so that a set of gene is repeated.

2. Gene mutation
Gene mutation arises as a result of a chemical change in an individual gene and it ‘s thought
to be very important in generating evolutionary change. An alternation in a sequence of
nucleotide in a gene may change the order of amino acids making proteins. This may affect
the fitness of the organism. It includes.
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 (i) substitution; here one base is substituted with another e.g., sickle cell anemia (ii)
insertion; here an extra base nucleotide is inserted into the genetical code.
(iii) deletion; here a base is lost from the genetic stand
(iv) There may be a change in the sequence of nucleotides in the gene

3. Somatic mutation.
Here mutation in non-reproductive cells of an organism. The resulting genetic change will
present in all descended cells from the original mutant cell and may have profound effect of
individuals.
However, as the genetic change is only in non-reproductive cell, it cannot be transmitted to
feature generation.

Gene pool
A gene pool is the stock of different genes in an interbreeding population

Species with small gene pools may be easier to wipe out due to a natural event that favors one
trait over the other. A large gene pool means variety of genes which prevents this

The composition of gene pool may be constantly changing from generation to generation as a
result of natural selection or may be static in a stable environment.

Allele frequency
This the fraction of organisms in a population carrying a particular allele.

Genotype frequency
This is the fraction of organisms in a population carrying a particular genotype. The
frequency of dominants and recessive allele in a population will remain constant
from generation to generation provided the following conditions exist. i. The
population is large ii. Mating is random iii. No mutation occurs
iv. All genotype is equally fertile so that, no selection occurs
v. There is no emigration or immigration from and into the population, that is, there is no
gene flow between population.

Any change in allele or genotype frequencies must therefore result from the alteration of one
or more of the condition above. These are factors that significant in producing evolutionary a

Factors producing change of genotype are allele in population.

1. non- random breeding
Nonrandom mating occurs when the probability that two individuals in a population will
mate is not the same for all possible pairs of individuals.

Sexual selection occurs whenever the presence of one or more inherited characteristics that
increases likelihood of bringing about successful fertilization of gametes of some organisms
and not in other.
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 There are many structural and behavioral mechanism in both plants and animals which
prevent mating from being random, e.g. flowers possessing increased size of petals and
amount of nectar are likely to attract more insects and increase the likelihood of pollination.

Thus, sexual selection, as a mechanism of non- random mating ensures that certain individual
within the population have an increased reproductive potential so that their alleles are more
likely to be passed to the next generation.

Examples of nonrandom mating;

(i) Inbreeding - individuals are more likely to mate with close relatives (e.g. their
neighbors) than with distant relatives.
(ii) Large blister beetles tend to choose mates of large size and small blister beetles tend to
choose small mates
2. Genetic drift.
This refers to the fact that variation in gene frequencies with populations can occur by chance
rather than by natural selection. E.g., chance events such as premature accidental death prior
to mating of an organism in a small population which is the sole possessor of a particular
allele would result in the elimination of that allele from the population.

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Note that
• Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population
change over generations due to chance (sampling error).
• Genetic drift occurs in all populations of non-infinite size, but its effects are strongest in
small populations.
• Genetic drift may result in the loss of some alleles (including beneficial ones) and the
fixation, or rise to 100\%100%100, percent frequency, of other alleles.
• Genetic drift can have major effects when a population is sharply reduced in size by a
natural disaster (bottleneck effect) or when a small group splits off from the main
population to found a colony (founder effect).

Genetic load
This is the existence within a population of disadvantageous alleles in heterozygous genotype
e.g. sickle cell trait in region where malaria is endemic.

Gene flow.
It’s the movement of alleles from one population to another as a result of interbreeding
between members of the two population.

Heterozygotes as a reservoir of genetic variation (the Hardy-Weinberg

principle)
For a particular character in a population, the dominant form expresses itself more often that
a recessive form, for example normal skin color is more common than albino. In a large
population, proportion of dominant allele and recessive alleles of a particular gene remain
constant. It is not altered by interbreeding. This constancy is known as the Hardy-Weinberg
principle is expressed by a mathematical law

P2 +2pq+ q2 =1

Where p = frequency of allele for dominant character

q = frequency of allele for recessive character

The formula can be used to calculate the frequency of any allele in the population. For
example, imagine that a particular metal defect is the result of a recessive allele. If the
number of babies born with the defect is 1 in 20000, the frequency of the allele can be
calculated as follow:

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 The defect will only express itself in individual who are homozygous recessive. Therefore,
the frequency of these individuals (q2) = 1/20000 = 0.00005

The frequency of the allele q = √0.00005 = 0.007

Since P + q = 1

The frequency p of the dominant allele = 1- 0.007 = 0. 997

From the Hardy-Weinberg formula, the frequency of heterozygotes is 2pq i.e.,

2 x 0.997 x 0.007 = 0.014

in other words, 14 in 1000 or 280 in 20000 are carriers (heterozygotes) of allele.

This means that in a population of 20000 individual, one individual will suffer the defect and
about 280 will carry the allele. The heterozygotes are acting as a reservoir of the allele,
maintain it in the gene pool. As these heterozygotes are normal, they are not specifically
selected against, and so the allele remains. Even if the defective individuals are selectively
removed, the frequency of the allele will hardly be affected. In our population of 20000, there
is one individual who has two recessive alleles and 280 with one recessive allele- a total of
282. The removal of the defective individual will reduce the number of alleles in the
population by just 2, to 282. Even with the removal of the defective individual, it would take
thousands of years just to halve the allele’s frequency.

Occasionally, as the sickle cell anemia the heterozygotes individual have a selective
advantage. This is known as heterozygote superiority.

Conditions that allow Hardy-Weinberg principle to be true

1. No mutation
2. The population is isolated i.e. there in no immigration or emigration
3. There is no natural selection or individuals are equally fertile
4. The population is large and mating random

Speciation
Speciation means the development of different genetic traits in an isolated sub population
leading to a species distinctly different from original parent population. Or speciation is the
process by which one or more species arise from previously existing species.

A species is a group of organisms which are potentially able to breed amongst themselves but
not any other species.

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 A single specie may give rise to new species [intraspecific speciation] or as is common in
many flowering plants two different species may give rise to a new species [(interspecific
hybridization). If intraspecific speciation occurs whilst the population are separated it is
termed allopatric speciation. E.g. Galapagos island. If the process occurs whilst the
population are occupying the same geographical area it is called sympatric speciation

Intraspecific speciation this will occur when gene flow with population is interrupted and
each subpopulation is genetically isolated. Then change in allele and genotype frequencies
with in each subpopulation as a result of natural selection on the range of phenotype
produced by mutation and sex recombination lead to the formation of race and subspecies. If
genetics isolation persists over a long period of time the subspecies may form new species

Speciation will only occur as a result of the formation of barrier which lead to reproductive
isolation between members of the population.

Isolation mechanisms
An isolating mechanism is a mean of producing and maintaining isolation within a
population. This can be brought about by mechanisms acting before or after fertilization.
(a) Prezygotic mechanism [barrier to the formation of hybrids]
(iii)Seasonal isolation; occurs when two species mate or flower at different time of the
year. E.g., California Pinus radiata flowers in February whereas Pinus attenuata flowers
in April

(iv)Ecological isolation; occurs where two species inhabit the similar regions but have
difference habitat preference e.g., Viola arvensis grows on calcareous soil whereas
viola tricolor prefers.

(v) Behavioral isolation; occurs where animals exhibit courtship patterns, that attract one
individual for sex but not another.

(vi)Mechanical isolation; occur in animal where difference in genitalia prevent successful

copulation and in plant where related species of flower are pollinated by different
animals.

(b) Postzygotic mechanism [barrier affecting hybrids]

(i) Hybrid in-viability; Hybrid are produced but fail to develop to maturing. E.g. hybrid
formed between northern and southern race of the leopard frog [Rana pipens] in North
America.

(ii) Hybrid sterility; hybrid fail to reproduce functional gametes; e.g., the male [2n= 63]
result from the cross between the horse [Equus hernionus 2n = 66]

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 (iii) Hybrid breakdown; F1 hybrid are fertile but the F2 generation and back crosses
between F1 hybrid and parental stock fail to develop or and infertile i.e., hybrid formed
between species [genus Gossypium].

Allopatric speciation.
This is characterized by occurrence at some stage of spatial separation. Geographical barriers
such as mountains range, seas, river or habitant preference may produce a barrier to gene flow
because of spatial separation. This inability of organism or their gametes to meet leads to
reproductive isolation. Adaption to new conditions lead to change in alleles and genotype
frequencies. Prolonged separation of population may result in them becoming genetically
isolated even if brought together. In this way new species arise.

Sympatric speciation
This is the speciation that occur within the population in the same geographical areas where
reproduction isolation may result from structural, physiological behavior of individuals within a
population, e.g. polyploidy in plants.

Artificial selection: This when breeders’ animals and plant select individuals with the
characteristic that are wanted and allow them to interbreed, individual lacking the desire qualities
are prevented from breeding. By rigorous selection over many generation special breed or
varieties may be developed for particular purpose.

Animals that have been subjected to artificial selection include.

-cow for beef and milk
-Sheep for wool and meat
-horse for racing and holing
-pig for bacon and lard production
-dog for beauty

Among plants crops such as wheat, barley and potatoes, have been bred for higher yield, greater
resistance to disease and drought.

Inbreeding.
This is the crossing of closely related individuals. Inbreeding leads to a loss of fitness known as
in breeding depression. This is because an individual produced as a result of the crossing of the
close relatives is more likely to have two copies of harmful or ever lethal recessive alleles.

Hybrid.
Is the result of cross between individuals belonging to two different varieties [out breeding] such
individuals show hybrid vigor. This is because hybrid tend to be heterozygous at many of their
loci. Any harmful allele therefore has their effect masked by healthy ones.

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The green revolution
This is the production of new varieties of the world major food crop such as rice, wheat, maize
and barley by agriculturalist in the recent past.

In general, the new varieties display some or all the following advantage over the older one.

1. There stems are shorter, resulting in dwarf varieties which are less likely to be flattened by
wind and rain and can be more easily harvested.

2. They give a higher yield per unit area

3. They show a greater response to water & fertilizer.

4. They are relatively insensitive to day length and or imperative, with the result that two or
even three crops may be grown per year.

5. They are more resistant to pests and disease.

The disadvantage of green revolution.

New varieties required high level of fertilizer which are expensive and not always available in
developing countries introduction of these species in developing world concentrates wealth in
the hands of the minorly of farms able to afford artificial fertilizer.

EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION.
1. Geographical distribution
2. Comparative anatomy
3. Embryology
4. Taxonomy
5. Paleontology

1. Geographical distribution
The earth is believed to have been composed of one continent from which different day present
continents involve apart. For instance, the following provide evidence that the eastern coast of
south America was once in contact with the western coast of Africa.

a. The two coastlines of the two continents are complementary.

b. Presence of fossil deposit of mosasaurs [fossil reptile] only on the eastern part of Africa
with no evidence of migration.

The distribution of animals and plant on different continent provide due to the possibility of
evolution as described in the following;

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Example
a. The Northern hemisphere where continents are close together and where evidence point
that there was a continuous land bridge linking them in the geological past; mammals on
these continents are very similar. It possible that mammals that evolved to give rise to
new species and generally some which moved from North America to Euroasia or vice
versa. In other words, different mammals evolved in these two continents but the
geographical closeness of the two regions kept their faunas together and prevented them
from diverging greatly.

b. The southern hemisphere where the continents were widely separated from each other
there is a sharp contrast in mammal that inhabit Africa [lion, giraffe], Southern America
[e.g., tapir, puma and Australia [kangaroo]. The wide separation meant that only very
rarely was there exchange of mammals between them, so the mammals each evolved
independently along their own.

c. Oceanic Islands [islands that originated from volcanic eruption and never had any contact
with the main land]

i. Species on these islands had close similarities to those on the mainland but plants and
animals on the islands such as the giant tortoise were noticeably larger in most case
probably because they lacked competition from larger and more dominant, Advanced
species which were absent from the islands but which co- habited with smaller related
species on the main land.

ii. The competition for food, space and mate between the a abundant Iguana lizard on the
Galapagos island probably lead to evolution of the two species one on land and another
in water. The aquatic form had adaption for locomotion in water such as a laterally-
flattened tail and well-developed webs of skin between the toes of all for limbs and
feeds on marine algae.

iii. The competition for food probably lead to evolution of finches’ beaks shape to enable
different finches to feed on different food e.g. Darwin found finches with beaks for
crushing seed, eating insects, sucking nectar, catching insect in flight and others for
eating insect larvae or Galapagos island

2. Comparative anatomy
Comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals and plants[morphology] released that
certain structural features are basically similar. For example, the basic structure of all flower
consists of sepals, petals, stamen, stigma, style and ovary, yet the size number of parts and
specific structure are different for each individual. Similarly, the limb- bone pattern of all
tetrapod from amphibian to mammal has the same structural plan; called the pentadactyl limb.
These common basic structures on organism suggest common ancestry. In each case, structure
are modified for a particular function in a particular environment. Some homologous structure
that fail to develop full functions and/or structure are referred to as vestigial organs.

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Homologous structure
These are organs that have a similar basic structure, similar topographic relationship as structure
in other species the same histological appearance, similar embryonic development but showing
adaptation to different environmental condition and modes of life. E.g., wings of bird and arms
of man, Halters of Diptera [housefly] and hind wing many flies.

Adaptive radiation
This is a term used to describe the differentiation of homologous structure to perform a variety of
function e.g., mouth parts of insects consist of the same basic structure but maxilla in butterfly is
modified for suckling and manipulating food in grasshopper;

Adaptive radiation is the relatively fast evolution of many species from a single common
ancestor. Adaptive radiation generally occurs when an organism enters a new area and different
traits affect its survival. An example of adaptive radiation is the development of mammals
after the extinction of dinosaurs

Divergent evolution.
Divergent evolution is the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and
accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of new species.

Analogous structure
These are structure of organism bearing no close phylogenetic link but showing adaptation to
perform the same function e.g.,

-wings of insects and bats

-the jointed legs of insects and vertebrates

Convergent evolution
This is the evolution where structure believed to have different ancestry origin are modified to
perform the same basic function. E.g. wings of bird and insects

Vestigial structures.
These are structures that have been greatly reduced or lost from organisms. For example, the
third digit in birds wings is very much reduced while the fourth and fifth are missing. The
existence of vestigial structure has been used as evidence for evolution. It is thought that
vestigial structure performed a function in the ancestor but have since been reduced to such an
extent that they are lost or greatly changed their original function.

Pentadactyl limb.
It is so called because typically has five digits is formed in all four classes of terrestrial
vertebrate [amphibian, reptile, birds and mammals] some of the limbs bone can even be traced
back the fins of certain fossil fishes from which the first amphibians are thought to have evolved.

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Through divergent evolution the pentadactyl limb have become adapted for different function in
some species some or all the foes or finger have been lost eg
Seal - for swimming
Human - for manipulation / grasping
Horse - for running
Mole - for digging
Bat or bird - for flight

3. Molecular biology / Biochemistry / cell biology

The following examples of comparative molecular biology / Biochemistry provide evidence for
evolution.

(i) The presence of similar biological molecules such as nucleotide, ATP, cytochrome and
certain organelles such ad ribosome in all living organism support the view that all living
organism had a common ancestry.
(ii) The differing degree in amino acid sequence of proteins from one species or another is also
used to show evolution. The closure species in evolution the closure the similarities in the
amino acid sequences in their proteins
(iii)Like with proteins close evolutionary species show close similarities in their DNA base
sequences, the comparison carried out by a technique of DNA hybridization.

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(iv) Embryology; Similarities in embryonic development stage in thought to have evolutionary
significance. Species believed to have a close evolutionary past have been found to show
similar embryonic stages. For example, presence of branchial groves and segmental
myotomes in human embryo is suggestive of a fish ancestry.

4. Embryology
Similarities in embryonic development stages is though to have evolutionary significance

Species believed to have a close evolutionary past have been found to show similar
embryonic stages. For example, presence of branchial groves and segmented myotomes
in human embryo is suggestive of a fish ancestry.

5. Paleontology
This is the study of animals and plants of the past as seen in the fossil records. Fossils are
any form of preserved remains through to be derived from living organism. They include
entire organism, hard skeletal structure, moulds and casts, petrifactions, impression ,
imprints and coprolites [fossilized fecal pellets]

(i) There is evidence from fossil that there has been progressive increase of complexity
of organism which denies the fixity of species. The oldest fossil bearing rock contain
very few types of fossilized organism and they all have a simple structure. Young
rocks contain a greater variety of fossils with increasing complex structures.

(ii) Throughout the fossil record many species which appear at an early stratigraphic level
disappear at a later level. This is interpreted in evolutionary term as indicating the
time at which species originated and became extinct.

(iii) Geographical evidence suggest that geographical regions and climatic conditions
have varied throughout the earth’s history. Since organism are adapted to particular
environment, the constantly changing condition may have favored a mechanism for
evolutionary change that account 4 that progressive change in the structure of
organism as shown in fossil record.

Ecological consideration also fit in with the fossil evidence. e.g. Plants appeared on
land before animals, and insects appeared before insect pollinated flowers

6. Taxonomy
This is the study of principals, rules and methods of classification. The system of
classification proposed by Linnaeus before the time of Darwin and Wallace, based on
phylogenetic similarity and differences between organism may suggest existence of
evolutionary process. There are similarities and differences between organism may be
explained by organism with each taxonomic group to particular environmental conditions
over a time.

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 Numerical taxonomist, working mainly from comparative phenotypic characters have
found it possible to construct phenetic classification system which in consistent, to the
extent of present knowledge with the concept of evolution organism that have close
evolutionary relationship share very many similar characteristics.

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