STEM 11-Earth Science
Module 8
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
The Earth’s crust is constantly altered physically. There are changes that occur suddenly but
most changes take thousands of years to happen. Earth undergoes constant change – the formation
or deformation – much of which is visible on its surface. This change is brought about by processes
called “geological processes.” These processes are divided into two, namely, exogenic processes
(on the Earth’s surface) and endogenic processes (within the Earth’s surface). This lesson focuses
on the processes which occur on earth’s surface due to the influence of exogenic forces which are
called exogenic processes or exogenic geomorphic processes.
Learning Outcomes
After going through this module, you are expected to:
• describe how rocks undergo weathering;
• explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited elsewhere;
• categorize various mass wasting events as slow or fast;
• make a simple map showing places where erosion and landslides may pose risks in the
community.
Exogenic processes take place on the surface of planet Earth and result in the shaping and
reshaping of that surface. The forces which derive their strength from the earth’s exterior or originate
within the earth’s atmosphere are called as exogenic forces or external forces. The action of exogenic
forces results in wearing down and hence they are considered as land wearing forces. Weathering,
erosion, mass wasting or mass movement and deposition are exogenic processes.
All the exogenic processes are covered under a general term- denudation, which means strip
off or uncover. The exogenic processes break down rocks and erode rock fragments from sites of
higher energy, transporting them to locations of lower energy. The relocation of rock fragments can
be accomplished by the force of gravity alone or with the help of one of the geomorphic agents: flowing
water, wind, moving ice, or waves. Gravity and gradients are the two things which make these
agents mobile. All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due
to gradients– from higher levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure. The gravitational
force acts upon all earth materials having sloping surface and tends to produce movement of matter
in the down-slope direction. This creates stress and induces deformation to the particles.
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STEM 11-Earth Science
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are the main exogenic processes.
Weathering is the action of elements of weather and climate over earth material. It can be defined as
mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the actions of various
elements of weather and climate. When rocks undergo weathering, some minerals are removed
through chemical/ physical leaching by ground water and thereby the concentration of remaining
(valuable) minerals increase. Weathering can be classified as – physical, chemical and biological.
Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces. The applied
forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load, and shearing stress; (ii)
expansion force due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii) water pressure
controlled by wetting and drying cycles. Most of the physical weathering are caused by thermal
expansion and pressure.
A) UNLOADING AND EXPANSION:
Removal of overlying rock load because of continued
erosion causes vertical pressure release. Thus, the upper
layers of the remaining rock expand to produce
disintegration of rock masses. Fractures will develop
roughly parallel to the ground surface. In areas of curved
ground surfaces, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliated slabs. Exfoliation
is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of shells from over rocks or
bedrocks results in smooth and rounded surfaces. So, unloading and expansion create large,
smooth rounded domes called exfoliation domes.
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STEM 11-Earth Science
B) TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND EXPANSION:
With rising in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes
against its neighbor and as the temperature falls, a corresponding
contraction takes place. Due to differential heating and the resulting
expansion and contraction of surface layers and their subsequent
exfoliation from the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces in
rocks. In rock like granites, smooth surfaced and rounded small to
big boulders called tors form due to such exfoliation.
.C) FREEZING, THAWING AND FROST WEDGING:
Cycles of freezing and thawing (the weather becomes warmer and causes snow and ice to melt)
causes frost weathering. It is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitude where freezing and
melting is often repeated. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks, and small intergranular fractures to become wider and
wider till the rock breaks apart.
D) SALT WEATHERING:
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallization. Many salts like calcium,
sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium have a tendency to expand. The expansion depends on
temperature and their thermal properties. High temperature ranges between 30-50 0 C of surface
temperatures in desert favors such salt expansions. Salt crystallization is the most effective of all salt
weathering processes. It is favored in areas of alternative wetting and drying conditions.
Chemical weathering can be due to solution, carbonation, hydration or oxidation/reduction.
A) SOLUTION: When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved
content is called as a solution. This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon
the solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. When coming contact with water, many solids
disintegrate and mix up as a suspension in water. Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates,
sulphates, potassium are affected by this process. This kind of weathering mainly occurs in a rainy.
Minerals like calcium carbonate and magnesium bicarbonate present in limestone are soluble in water
containing carbonic acid (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide in water) and are carried away in
water as a solution. Common salt is also a rock forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of
solution.
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STEM 11-Earth Science
B) CARBONATION: Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is
common process helping to break down of feldspar and carbonate minerals. Carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid. Calcium
carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
C) HYDRATION: Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock. The process is reversible
and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their
disintegration. Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than
calcium sulphate.
D) OXIDATION AND REDUCTION: In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with
oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides. Minerals most commonly involved in this are iron, manganese,
sulphur etc. The red color of the iron upon oxidation turns to brown and yellow. In this process of
oxidation, rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen. When
oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
Biological weathering is a kind of weathering that is caused by several biological activities like
growth or movements of organisms. They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering.
Grazing of animals, ploughing by human beings are examples of biological weathering.
Mass Movements/Mass Wasting
These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slope under the direct influence of
gravity. Boulders of rocks and masses of soil that fell and accumulated at the base of Kennon Road
on the way to Baguio City is a good example of this geologic process. Mass movements are very
active over weathered slopes rather than over un-weathered slopes. Usual geographic agents like
running water, glaciers, wind, and waves do not have much role to play in mass movements, and it is
the gravity, which is the main driving force. Mass movements are classified into slow movements and
rapid movements.
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STEM 11-Earth Science
(1) Slow movements:
A) CREEP: It occurs on moderate steep, soil-covered slopes (doesn’t
need to be lubricated with water as in solifluction). The movement is
extremely slow and imperceptible except through extended observation. We
might notice that some of the electric posts in our region which are posted
in sloppy areas deviated from their horizontal linearity. This is an effect of
creep.
B) SOLIFLUCTION: It is the process of slow downslope flowing of soil
mass or fine-grained rock debris saturated or lubricated with water. It can
be said as a type of creep with lubricated water influences the movement.
It mainly occurs in permafrost regions as the layers of ground water are
occupied in between permanently frozen soil and rocks.
(2) Rapid movements
A) EARTHFLOW: Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle
terraces or hillsides is called earthflow.
B) MUDFLOW: In the absence of vegetation and cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of
weathered materials get saturated with water and either slow or rapidly flow down along definite
channels is called as mudflow.
C) DEBRIS AVALANCHE: It is more in humid regions with or without vegetation. It occurs in narrow
tracks on sleep slopes and is similar to snow avalanche.
D) LANDSLIDES:
In landslides, the materials involved are relatively dry irrespective of the above said rapid mass
movements. Landslides can be classified into slump, debris slide, rock slide.
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STEM 11-Earth Science
• Slump: It is a type of landslide in which slipping of several units of rock debris occurs with a
backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes place.
• Debris slide: In this type of landslide, there is no backward rotation. The fall is almost vertical.
• Rock slide: It is nothing but the slide of individual rock masses.
Erosion and Deposition
Erosion is the acquisition and transportation of rock debris by geomorphic agents like running
water, the wind, and waves. Though weathering aids erosion, it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
takes place. (i.e., erosion can take place in un-weathered conditions also) Deposition is a
consequence of erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and energy on gentle slopes and
materials carried by them start to settle themselves.
• Note: Deposition is not the work of any agents. It is just the end result of erosion.
Soil erosion in our country is expected because we live in the typhoon belt and so we
experience heavy precipitation or rain. Floods occur and carry a lot of sediments into the rivers
and finally into the sea.
Kaingin method, logging, infrastructure projects such as dams, roads, bridges, irrigations and
drainage basins, resorts, and hydroelectric plant, mining, and burning grasslands which may lead
to accidental fires can destroy plants and leave the soil bare are activities that cause much
erosion.
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References
Bayo-ang, Roly [Link] al (2016). Earth and Life Science for Senior High School. Educational
Resources Corporation, Quezon City
Dela Pena, Renato. et al (2016) Earth and Life Science. JFS Publishing Services, Manila
Petersan, J. F. et. al (2019). Earth and Life Sciences, 2 nd Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Salandanan,Gloria.,et al (2016). Earth and Life Sciences for Senior High School
LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
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