why The case for delivering quality, advanced and

equitable eye health and vision care for patients.

OPTOMETRY?
AUGUST 2015
 Contents 1 6
Executive Optometric
Summary Education

Page 3 Page 20

2 7
Introduction Accreditation
Edited By
Imran A Khan
OD MSc MPH MBA FAAO Page 4 Page 21
Cindy Tromans
MCOptom DipTp(IP) FEAOO
Robert Chappell
OBE MPhil DSc FCOptom
3 8
The Changing Needs Legislation
Contributors and Demands of and Regulation
Kovin Naidoo Effective Eye Health
OD MPH PhD FAAO Page 6 Page 22
Hasan Minto
DipOptom FAAO
Gerald Lowther
OD MSc PhD
Peter Hendicott
4 9
DipAppSc(Optom), MAppSc, The Scope Workforce
PhD, GradCert(Ocul There) of Optometric Planning
Practice
Marc Taub
OD MS FAAO FCOVD Page 14 Page 24
Scott Mundle
OD
Maria Arce Moreira
MSc
5 10
Optometric Resources
Photographs courtesy of: Competency
Standards
SightSavers (page 4, 9, 19 and 25)
The College of Optometrists (page 16) Page 18 Page 27
Shehzad Naroo (page 20)

2
Executive Summary

Why Optometry? has been produced by predominantly private sector orientation

the World Council of Optometry (WCO) in to a public sector one as well. Optometry
response to the World Health Organisation’s functions in a primary care capacity in many
Global Action Plan for the Prevention of developed countries and in developing
Avoidable Blindness and Visual Impairment countries at a secondary level as part of a
2014-2019. It provides the case for delivering multidisciplinary team including doctors and
high quality, advanced and equitable eye ophthalmologists.
health and vision care for patients worldwide.
To support the development of optometric
The World Health Organisation (WHO) education, the WCO has developed a Global
estimates that 285 million people suffer from Competency-Based Model of Scope of
moderate to severe vision loss with 39 million Practice in Optometry that provides a vertical
considered blind. Of these, 123 million (43%) career ladder for individuals seeking to expand
have uncorrected distance refractive errors. their scope of clinical responsibility. This
In addition, there are 517 million people with will also help regulatory bodies guarantee
near vision impairment due to uncorrected practitioners’ competence to protect the public
presbyopia. Uncorrected refractive error is the and act as a stimulus for creating greater
leading cause of visual impairment globally uniformity of optometric practice worldwide by
which places a financial burden on the being applied to teaching curriculums.
economy, is a significant contributing factor to
poverty and is avoidable Optometric education and the practice of
optometry have developed differently and at
There are significant challenges for eye health different rates around the world. Optometric
with the increasing avoidable blindness and education is provided in major research
visual impairment. These include insufficient universities, as well as in independent schools
competent healthcare professionals, uneven and colleges of optometry. WCO encourages
distribution of resources and the inability to and helps to develop optometric education
afford treatment. In order to meet the aims of and facilitates the reviews of education
the Global Action Plan, there must be a focus providers by external agencies.
on the development of human resources,
including optometrists, and models of To meet present and future challenges, a
sustainable service delivery. paradigm shift is needed in the way optometry
approaches the delivery of eye care services
Optometry answers these challenges by delivery. WCO believes that an optometrist
providing a range of diagnostic, technical should possess the skills and competencies
and direct patient care and support services to perform eye examinations, prescribe
required by patients and other health care spectacles, diagnose and treat common eye
professions. It has increasingly focussed problems, and refer more serious conditions.
on universal health coverage; providing WCO believes that optometrists should be
accessible, equitable and affordable eye integrated within the eye care, and wider
health services to all and shifting from a health care team.

3
 Introduction

Our vision is of a world where optometry

makes high quality eye health and vision care
accessible to all people.

In order to achieve this vision, this mission

is to facilitate the development of optometry
around the world and support optometrists
in promoting eye health and vision care as a
human right through advocacy, education,
policy development and humanitarian
outreach.

Our objective is the

worldwide improvement
and conservation of human
vision through:
• The enhancement and development
of primary eye and vision care by
optometrists.
• The promotion of high standards of do not suffer financial hardship when paying
education and practice by optometrists for these services.” This means that all people
including by the promotion of international should enjoy access to the best quality eye
co-ordination of optometrists. health care without risk of impoverishment1
The Global Plan also recognises the important
• The provision of support to aid
role of optometry in achieving its target of 25%
programmes directed at the provision of
reduction in avoidable blindness and visual
eye and vision care to societies in need.
impairment by 2019.
• The promotion of the advancement of the
science of optometry. The World Council of Optometry (WCO) has
produced this document with the aim of
The World Health Organisation’s Global Action providing health professionals, government
Plan for the Prevention of Avoidable Blindness agencies and the general public with an
and Visual Impairment 2014-2019 - Towards overview of the practice activities of the
Universal Eye Health - defines universal eye optometrist and how they relate to the global
health as “ensuring that all people have access needs of the public.
to needed promotive, preventive, curative and
rehabilitative health services, of sufficient quality WCO represents optometry internationally
to be effective, while also ensuring that people and through its six regions: Africa, Asia

1 [Link] and [Link]

4
Pacific, Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, Latin care system for many patients who would
America and North America. National, state, otherwise not seek care they prepare our
provincial and local professional organisations children for the competitive marketplace
also exist and promote visual health and eye by assuring their visual health and
care. Through strategic alliances with other preparedness for learning and achievement;
health care practitioners, professional and they maximise employment productivity and
nongovernmental organisations, optometry can benefit economic stability; and they promote
maximise its role in responding to significant quality of life and individual independence
unmet vision and eye care needs worldwide. and reduce costly institutionalised and
supported care.
This document describes the global public
health challenges of eye care and the role of Over 200,000 optometrists and their
optometry as a primary care profession, its professional associations worldwide have
educational requirements and standards as dedicated themselves to preserving eye
well as legislative and regulatory frameworks. health and enhancing vision as the essence
of this mission. Notwithstanding the variations
Optometry is a healthcare profession that in the scope of optometric services that are
is autonomous, educated, and regulated defined legally by governmental entities, the
(licensed/registered), and optometrists profession of optometry shares a common
are the primary healthcare practitioners concept that unifies and harmonises its
of the eye and visual system who provide purpose worldwide.
comprehensive eye and vision care, which
includes refraction and dispensing, detection/ The profession of optometry is therefore well
diagnosis and management of disease in the placed to deliver Universal Eye Health as
eye, and the rehabilitation of conditions of the defined in the Global Action Plan. Optometry
visual system.2 is an integral part of the eye care team and
critical to the successful systems approach to
The profession of optometry has evolved the delivery of eye care services.
since the late 19th Century as the primary

‘
eye care health profession responding to the
universal need for quality, accessible, cost-
effective eye and vision care.
Our vision is of a world
where optometry
Optometrists are widely distributed in
communities around the world; they provide
economic value for the services they
makes high quality
eye health and vision
‘
offer; they detect sight and life threatening care accessible to
conditions such as glaucoma, diabetes and
hypertension at a savings to the health care all people.
system; they provide entry into the health

2 [Link]/en/about-wco/who-is-an-optometrist/[Link]

5
 The Changing Needs and Demands of Effective
Eye Health and its Integration into Public Health
Systems Frameworks

Health - the external context forging closer links between health and
other related sectors, particularly through
In recent times, health has become a priority national and international inter-sectoral
factor in ensuring sustainable development health and development plans and through
as it has a significant impact on economic increased use of planning tools such as health
growth and broader human development. impact assessment procedures, integrated
Three out of the eight United Nations’ monitoring and improved health information
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) systems.
are related to health3. Similarly, one of the
goals and related targets of the post-2015
Sustainable Development Goals refer to The current eye health context
health and disability.
In 2010, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
Average life expectancy has been an indicator estimated that 285 million people suffer from
for influencing health trends. Infant mortality moderate to severe vision loss (VA<6/18
has reduced considerably over the last 50 to ≥3/60) with 39 million considered blind
years, whilst life expectancy figures have (VA<3/60).5 Of these, 123 million (43%) have
increased. According to recent Help Age data, uncorrected distance refractive errors. In
by 2030 there will be more people over 60 addition, there are 517 million people with
than under 10 years of age. There are already near vision impairment due to uncorrected
more adults over 60 than children under 5 presbyopia.6
years of age4. This is all due to improved
outcomes resulting from medical advances, Globally, the leading causes of blindness are
continuing innovations and developments in cataract, macular degeneration, glaucoma,
technology. corneal opacity and uncorrected refractive
error, while the leading causes of vision
Over the last century, there has been a shift impairment are uncorrected refractive errors
in the burden of disease both in developed and cataract (Figure 1).7 These two alone
and developing countries from the infectious account for 76% of the global causes of visual
diseases of the 19th and early 20th centuries impairment. Both conditions can be remedied
to chronic diseases in the 20th century and simply and at low cost and are therefore
today. Much progress has been made in avoidable.

3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 Naidoo KS, Gichuhi S, Basáñez M-G, Flaxman SR, Jonas JB, Keeffe J, Leasher JL, Pesudovs K, Price H, Smith JL, Turner HC, White RA, Wong TY, Resnikoff S,
Taylor HR, Bourne RRA on behalf of the Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Prevalence and causes of vision loss in sub-Saharan Africa:
1990–2010. British Journal of Ophthalmology. Published Online First: doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2013-304081.
6 Holden B, Fricke T, Ho S, Wong R, Schlenther G, Cronje S, et al. Global vision impairment due to uncorrected presbyopia. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126(12):1731-9.
Brien Holden Vision Institute. Myopia Control. [cited 2013]; Available from: [Link]
7 Bourne, R.A., Stevens, G.A., White, R.A., Smith, J.L., Flaxman, S.R., Price, H., Jost, J.B., Keefe, J. et al. Causes of vision loss worldwide, 1990-2010: a systematic
analysis. Lancet Global Health. 2013 1(6): e339 - e349

6
 Global causes of visual impairment

Corneal Opaticy 1% Age related Macular Degeneration 1%

Diabetic Retinopathy 1% Trachoma 1%

Childhood Blindness 1% Glaucoma 2%

Undetermined 18%

Cataract 33%

Uncorrected Refractive Errors 42%

Figure 1: Global causes of visual impairment

7
 The Changing Needs and Demands of Effective
Eye Health and its Integration into Public Health
Systems Frameworks (continued)

The prevalence of refractive errors, such as Poor eye health and poverty
myopia, is rapidly increasing, particularly in
the Asia Pacific region. For example, in China, Some of the most significant contributing
around 50% of population has myopia which factors to poverty are visual impairment and
translates into more than 600 million people8. blindness. Equally, poor eye health can lead to
or deepen poverty. It is estimated that 80% of
The financial burden on the economy due visual impairment is preventable or treatable,
to uncorrected distance and near refractive and 90% of those with visual impairment
error is at least US$227.36 billion9. Yet reside in low or middle income countries.
alleviation and elimination of visual impairment People in the lower and extreme lower socio-
and blindness is one of the most cost- economic status of society face a greater risk
effective of all health interventions with the of becoming blind. Poor eye health causing
estimated cost of correction of distance vision vision disability affects people’s income and
between US$20 billion and US$28 billion10. livelihoods, access to basic services, nutrition
The WHO has recently released the Global and generates social exclusion13. Estimates
Burden of Disease data and for the first time suggest that almost 3.1 billion people (55%
has recognised vision impairment due to of the total world population) are in rural
uncorrected refractive errors as a cause of areas14 and at least 70 per cent of the world’s
disability. Research has shown that vision very poor people are rural . Additionally, it
impairment contributes to 2.7% of the global is estimated that almost two thirds of blind
years lived with disability. This indicates the people are women15. Considering the existing
need for a significant eye health response. gender barriers that prevent women accessing
Despite current efforts in blindness prevention, health services, it is possible to infer that
the problem of avoidable blindness continues if visual impairment and blindness are not
to rise. While the prevalence according to addressed then poverty and inequality will be
recent estimates seems to have decreased perpetuated.
from 1.9% in 1990 to 1.3% in 2010 for
blindness and 5.3% in 1990 to 4.0% in 2010 This situation affects some regions more than
for moderate to severe visual impairment: the others. Africa for instance, has approximately
absolute number of people with blindness and 10 per cent of the world’s population, 19 per
visual impairment has increased.12 cent of the world’s blindness and 51 per cent
of the world’s poor. The state of eye care in
Africa stands in alarming contrast to that in
the rest of the world. Poor practitioner-to-

8 Brien Holden Vision Institute. Myopia Control. [cited 2013]; Available from: [Link]
9 Fricke T, Holden BA, Wilson DA, Schlenther G, Naidoo KS, Resnikoff S, et al. Estimated Global Cost of Correcting Uncorrected Refractive Error. WHO Bulletin. 2012(Online
First). Frick K, Joy S, Naidoo K, Wilson D, Holden B. The global burden of potential productivity loss from presbyopia. Submitted. 2013.
10 Smith T, Frick K, Holden B, Fricke T, Naidoo K. Potential lost productivity resulting from the global burden of uncorrected refractive error. Bulletin of the World Health
Organization [Internet]. 2009 9 April 2009; 87. Available from: [Link]
11 Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and
injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet. 2012 380:2163-2196.
12 Naidoo, K.S. Gichuhi, S. Basáñez, M.G., Flaxman, S.R., Jonas, J.B., Keeffe, J., Leasher, J.L., Pesudovs, K. et al. Prevalence and causes of vision loss in Sub-Saharan
Africa: 1990-2010. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2013:
13 Jaggernath,,J., Øverland, L., Ramson, P., Kovai, V., Fai Chan,V., Naidoo, K. Poverty and Eye Health, SciRes, 2014
14 [Link]
15 [Link]

8
patient ratios, absence of eye-care personnel, tropical diseases are virtually non-existent, with
inadequate facilities, poor state funding a few exceptions.
and very limited educational programmes
are the hallmarks of eye care in Africa, with However, age-related macular degeneration
preventable and treatable conditions being the (AMD) is a significant cause of blindness in
leading cause of blindness16. developed countries. It is the third leading
cause of blindness globally accounting for
The challenges in the developing world can 8.7% of blindness, and is the leading cause in
be linked to problems with the availability developed countries accounting for over 50%
of trained human resources, equipment, of blindness. Despite the effectiveness of new
consumables, access to care, and affordability treatments for AMD, including the anti-VEGF
of these services which affect their supply. In therapies for the wet form of the disease, the
addition, there is a lack of awareness and/or dry form continues to affect millions of people.
a negative attitude towards examination and It is projected that by 2020, 196 million people
treatments, which affects their demand. will have macular degeneration, rising to 288
million in 2040. Glaucoma is the second most
These factors explain why uncorrected common cause of blindness, responsible for 10
refractive error and cataract remain the - 15% of global blindness (6-7 million people)3.
leading causes of visually impairment Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes
and blindness in these countries. These cause a significant burden of visual impairment,
conditions can be treated by cost-effective with 40% of patients with diabetes affected by
proven treatments: surgery for cataract and diabetic retinopathy (DR) with 8.2% having a
spectacles for refractive error. severe vision threatening form17.

The developed world context As in developing countries, vulnerable and low

income groups are more likely to be affected
In the developed world, cataract and by these conditions and to face difficulties
uncorrected refractive error have been largely accessing eye care services. Optometrists are
addressed by the presence of adequate health trained and ideally positioned to detect these
infrastructure and public awareness of these and other sight and health related problems at
conditions and their treatment. Neglected an early stage in their development.

16 Naidoo K. Poverty and blindness in Africa. International Centre for Eye Care Education (ICEE), African Vision Research Institute, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. 2007
17 USA NIoH. National Eye Institute - Facts about Diabetic retinopathy. [Online].; 2012.18 [Link]

9
 The Changing Needs and Demands of Effective
Eye Health and its Integration into Public Health
Systems Frameworks (continued)

The challenges faced by eye health integrated at all levels of health care delivery,
especially in primary health care and health
The alarming situation of increasing avoidable financing.
blindness is caused by multiple factors. In
many cases, the number of competent health Current population trends, with increases in
care professionals is insufficient, productivity aging populations and non-communicative
is low, there is an uneven distribution of disease, such as diabetes, in both developed
resources or in some cases people lack and developing countries will demand different
medical insurance or the ability to afford responses from the eye health community. In
treatment. In general, the poorest and most developed countries the elderly (over 65 years
remote areas have the least access to eye old) are already the fastest growing segment
care. Conditions like cataract, refractive error, of the population, and will continue to grow.
diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma have a They have increased prevalence of blindness
gradual onset. Due to a lack of access to and visual impairment due to cataract,
primary eye care, people try to self-medicate macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic
or use coping strategies. These lead to retinopathy. People over the age of 50
complications or even complete vision loss. account for two thirds of the visual impairment
Key issues to address this include human and 85% of blindness. With the increased
resource development and distribution prevalence of these conditions, the demand
for eye care will increase, creating an additional
The target of the WHO Global Action Plan burden on the existing services. The effect in
to reduce avoidable blindness and visual developing countries will still be significant, but
impairment by 25% by 2019 cannot be to a lesser degree given the low average age
achieved without ensuring that the millions of the populations.
of people unnecessarily blind due to
uncorrected refractive errors and those with Additionally, there is an increase in obesity
vision impairment can access qualified eye and diabetes due to lifestyle changes.
care professionals. That is why it is important Diabetic retinopathy is a leading cause of
to focus on the development of human visual impairment. This trend is significant
resources, including optometrists, and models in developed countries, as shown by the
of service delivery that have the capacity to changes in the prevalence of obesity and
deal with the unnecessary burden of vision diabetes from the US (figure 2) but also
impairment and blindness. emerging in developing countries with an
increased prevalence of diabetes and related
Early detection and treatment of common complications due to changes in diet. Due to
causes of blindness through primary health the lack of health service infrastructure and
care initiatives within the health system can community awareness around the prevention,
have a tremendous impact on eye health care detection, and treatment of diabetes and the
and prevention of blindness. Although eye related complications, the disease will have
health should be an integral part of the health a more debilitating impact on individuals and
care system, it has not always been sufficiently communities in these resource poor settings.

10
Age-adjusted prevalence of obesity and
diagnosed diabetes among US adults

Obesity (BMI > 30 kg/m2 Diabetes

1994 1994

2000 2000

2013 2013

< 14.% 14%-17.9% 18%-21.9% 22%-25.9% > 26.% < 4.5% 4.5%-5.9% 6%-7.4% 7.5-8.9% > 9%

Figure 2: Increasing prevalence of obesity and diabetes form 1994 to 2013; source: [Link]/diabetes/statistics

11
 The Changing Needs and Demands of Effective
Eye Health and its Integration into Public Health
Systems Frameworks (continued)

Developed countries face challenges with drastic increases in health care

costs (figure 3) and waiting times to see ophthalmologists (figure 4)

$9,000
USA

$8,000

$7,000

$6,000 Switzerland

$5,000 Canada
Germany
Sweden
$4,000 Australia
UK
$3,000 Japan
Italy

$2,000

$1,000

$0
1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012

Figure 3: Increased health expenditure per capita in developed countries; source: OECD health data 2013

Median waiting times for elective surgery, by specialty of surgeon, 2011-12

Cardiothoracic
Ear, nose and throat
General surgery
Gynaecology
Neurosurgery
Ophthalmology
Orthopaedic
Plastic Surgery
Urolgoy
Vascular surgery
Other
Total

0 20 40 60 80

Figure 4: Median waiting times for elective surgery, by specialty of surgeon, 2011-2012, Australian
Government Institute of Health and Welfare; source: [Link]

12
Eye care within universal health
coverage and access
There has been a significant shift in the way in
which eye care is provided in the 21st century.
Eye care has traditionally been positioned within
the private sector, with the sale of spectacles
and contact lenses as the primary reason to
visit an optometrist. However, the limitations
and barriers in reaching the poorest of the poor
around the world have shifted the provision
of eye care to a public health position. The
fundamentals of public health (epidemiology,
biostatistics, human resources, legislative issues,
etc.) have highlighted the disparities that exist in
eye care between the developed and developing
world.

Eye care is now fashioned against a backdrop

of universal health coverage and access and the
role of non-medical health care professionals
such as optometrists is rapidly changing and
increasing. By applying the fundamentals of
public health, eye health programmes can be
equitable, efficient and effective. Epidemiological
research has enabled the implementation of
eye health programmes to be more focussed,
as they are evidence based. This evidence has
also served as the template upon which the eye
health workforce has been derived. Developing
an adequate eye health workforce has been a
challenge in many contexts, however, a systems
approach has allowed the development of
various cadres of eye health professionals, each
serving discrete, yet integrated services. While
providing services to the poorest of the poor, it is
evident that innovative solutions also need to be
developed to ensure sustainable service delivery
together with the role that optometry is currently
playing and future challenges.

13
 The Scope of Optometric Practice

Optometry as defined by WCO is a

healthcare profession that is autonomous, Optometric scope of practice
educated, and regulated (licensed/ includes:
registered). Optometrists are the primary • Refraction
healthcare practitioners of the eye and • Dispensing
visual system, providing comprehensive eye o Spectacles and contact lenses are
and vision care, which includes refraction
medical devices
and dispensing, detection/diagnosis and
• Detection/diagnosis and management of
management of disease in the eye, and
visual problems
the rehabilitation of conditions of the visual
o Examination of the eye and visual
system. However, it is acknowledged that
system
optometry functions both independently and
o Assessment of binocular vision
in collaboration with the broader eye care
o Ocular and systemic pathology with
and health team.
ocular manifestations such as
• Glaucoma
Optometry answers the challenges of
• Diabetic Retinopathy
eye health care by providing a range of
• Hypertension
diagnostic, technical and direct patient care
• Cataract
and support services required by patients
• The use of diagnostic and therapeutic
and other health care professions. It has
drugs
increasingly focussed on universal health
• Contact lens fitting
coverage; providing accessible, equitable
• Low vision rehabilitation
and affordable eye health services to all and
• Referral to ophthalmology and other
shifting from a predominantly private sector
professionals.
orientation to a public sector one as well.

Optometric primary care

responsibilities
Optometrists have responsibilities in the
following areas of public health primary care:

• Prevention
• Health education
• Health promotion
• Health maintenance
• Diagnosis
• Treatment and rehabilitation
• Counselling
• Consultation

14
The WCO Scope of Practice Survey18 clearly collaboration with eye care, rehabilitation
shows that there are regional variations in and social services needs to be developed.
the scope of optometric practice which, It is very important to find a better
in many countries, restrict how optometry balance between public, private and non-
can respond to the challenges of vision governmental organisation (NGO) sectors so
loss. Optometry functions in a primary eye that those in need are well supported.
care capacity in many developed countries
and in many developing countries at a The initial steps
secondary level supporting primary eye care
nurses and also co-manages diseases with Optometry has been an established
ophthalmologists. profession in many parts of the world for over
100 years19/20. As a profession, optometry
As an integral part of the health care grew from education in technical optics
team, optometrists have a wide range of and refraction to include visual optics,
responsibilities, including ensuring provision anatomy and physiology of the eye and the
of high quality and affordable eye health recognition and treatment of ocular disease
services. Those in an academic environment and abnormalities. As a consequence of this
need to orientate their teaching towards evolution, optometry gained more recognition,
making students more aware of the public became regulated - not only by governments,
health challenges to eye health. Those in but also by professional councils - and
research need to provide the evidence for integrated into formal health structures in the
the clinicians and their health profession public and private sectors in many parts of
colleagues and legislators to ensure that the world.
service provision is focussed on the needs
of the public. Health promotion advocacy, A key event in advancing the role of
although historically neglected, is very optometry globally has been the recognition
important and needs to be made widely of WCO by WHO and the development of
available. working relations between the two bodies.
Optometry has also been recognised as an
The disability agenda has gained much independent eye care profession in the joint
traction in recent years. Visual impairment is World Health Organisation and International
a disability that has a significant impact on Agency for the Prevention of Blindness
an individual’s educational and economic VISION 2020: Right to Sight campaign. The
development, limiting opportunities and identification of refractive error as one of the
impacting on the quality of life. However, in priorities of the campaign alongside cataract
this debate optometry is conspicuous by and other ocular pathologies cemented
its absence. A multi-sectoral approach and optometry’s contribution to this effort.

18 [Link]
19 [Link]
20 The development of optometry in the U.S. is outlined in a paper by Dr Shilpa Register in the Journal of Optometric Education [Link]
Number_2_Article3.pdf

15
 The Scope of Optometric Practice (continued)

The current status of optometry

Depending on the health system in individual

countries, optometrists are regarded as either
primary or secondary health care providers.
This influences the cadres of healthcare
professionals and related health personnel
who make up the eye care team. Eye care
professionals include ophthalmologists,
optometrists, orthoptists, dispensing opticians
and nurses. The impact of optometry’s
contribution varies from country to country
due to the limited recognition of optometry
and the uneven distribution of optometrists.

There are huge disparities in the scope of

practice of optometrists in both developed
and developing countries. Whilst refraction
and the dispensing of spectacles was
optometry’s primary service, the scope of
practice has expanded to the provision
of primary eye care either directly or in
partnership with nurses in much of the
developing world. As the first point of contact
for the public in many countries, optometrists
are ideally situated to provide comprehensive
eye examinations including early recognition,
diagnosis and, where appropriate treatment such as paediatrics, therapeutics contact
of eye conditions. This has been enhanced by lenses, low vision and binocular vision allow
the introduction of diagnostic and therapeutic optometrists to provide focussed services to
services and the development of new those with particular needs.
diagnostic technologies.
In the developing world, where there is limited
In addition, eye health care technological access to even basic optometric services,
advances in spectacle lens materials and optometric practitioners often fill a secondary
designs have given optometrists and care role. Ophthalmic nurses, technicians
dispensing opticians the opportunity to and trained lay people provide primary
provide spectacles to meet the demands care, referring patients to optometrists . A
of 21st century living and working. On the sub-speciality area like low vision should
other hand, sub-speciality areas in optometry be well structured and delivered within a

16
multi-disciplinary health service framework in the public sector or in rural communities
developed countries. However, in developing particularly in developing countries. The
countries, the lack of availability of affordable development of mobile applications can
low vision devices and appropriately trained revolutionise the screening of ocular
personnel makes the service inaccessible pathology, especially in underserved
and inadequate to meet the needs of the populations. Critically, the paucity of
population. optometry schools in the developing world
needs to be addressed. Unless this is done
Optometry, its future as a public the objective of eliminating vision impairment
health profession and blindness due to avoidable causes such
as uncorrected refractive error will remain
The substantial changes taking place in the elusive.
optical industry have provided optometry
with advanced screening and diagnostic The academic community in optometry
instrumentation which facilitates both should be called upon to advance
refraction and the recognition and diagnosis the profession through research and
of ocular diseases. This has enabled development. Today, with the majority of
optometry to undertake co-management of the world seeking health care in the public
ocular disease alongside ophthalmologists sector, it is important that verified clinical
and medical practitioners. Current and and screening protocols are implemented
ongoing advances to simplify the screening to ensure comprehensiveness and quality
and diagnosis of patients with potentially of services provided. These can only be
blinding conditions such as diabetic identified through rigorous clinical trials.
retinopathy, macular degeneration and Research into development of technology
glaucoma have the potential to revolutionise to provide cost effective or affordable
access to and early detection of these screening instruments is critical to the
problems in the primary care setting. provision of successful and comprehensive
eye health. In a world where costs to
Despite the significant improvements in society are scrutinised intensely, more focus
technology, the access to this technology has to be put on generating the evidence of
is inequitable. Technology available in the the economic impact of vision impairment
developed world is often unaffordable for the and blindness.
poor within developing countries, highlighting
the need for the optical industry to design It is essential that eye care delivery is based
affordable instrumentation in order to serve on team work and interdisciplinary co-
the needs of the poor. operation to optimise the contribution of each
team member to reach more people in need.
Currently clinical diagnostic and screening This means taking a proportionate view of the
equipment, especially for ocular disease skills required at the primary, secondary and
identification, is unaffordable for use in tertiary levels of eye health care delivery.

17
 Optometric Competency Standards

In 2011, WCO adopted the broad in professional competency standards,

competencies of dispensing, refracting, where the term ‘standards’ is a convenient
prescribing and the detection of disease/ name for the overall structure that taken
abnormality as being the minimum required together comprises a detailed description of
for individuals to be called optometrists professional practice.”

The right competencies to The WCO Global Competency-

provide the best services Based Model of the Scope of
Practice in Optometry
Competency is the ability to perform the
activities within an occupation to the standard To support the development of optometric
expected in employment. Competencies are education, the WCO has developed a Global
the skills, attitudes and knowledge needed to Competency-Based Model of Scope of
be able to practise. Practice in Optometry that provides a vertical
career ladder for individuals seeking to
Kiely, in her 2008 article on the Australian expand their scope of clinical responsibility.
Competency Standards for Optometry21
defines competency standards as: The WCO Global Competency Based
Model22, first published in 2005 and revised in
“Listing the skill, knowledge and attributes 2015, recognises the historical development
that a person needs to be able to perform the of optometry and the cultural and legislative
activities associated with a particular trade or differences in the optometric scope of
occupation to a standard associated with the practice around the world. Moreover, it
workplace. The term ‘attributes’ is used to reflects optometrists’ commitment to achieve
indicate the personal qualities that underpin appropriate patient care outcomes aimed
performance and, hence, competence. at maintaining and improving their patients’
Attributes include capacities, skills, abilities and quality of life.
traits. Inevitably, to some extent such listings
are open ended as identifying and describing The model was built largely based on
human attributes is not an exact science. the competency statements and model
developed by the Optometrists Association
“A ‘competent’ professional has the capacity Australia (OAA). These competency
to perform the range of professional roles and statements have the added strength of having
activities at the required standard of practice. been developed through support received
The term ‘competence’ is a blanket term from, and then recognised by, the Australian
used to describe overall professional ability government. The categorical structure of the
and links (or integrates) three key ideas: a model parallels the structure developed for
practitioner’s ‘capacity’, ‘performance’, and the European Diploma in Optometry by the
the standards of the performance. These European Council of Optometry and Optics
three notions are represented centrally (ECOO) in the mid-1990s.

21 Clinical and Experimental OptometryVolume 92, Issue 4, pages 362–386, July 2009
22 The Global Model can be found at: [Link]

18
 ‘
It will also help regulatory bodies guarantee
practitioners’ competence as part of their WCO believes that an
responsibility to protect the public when optometrist should
faced with future migration of optometrists
across jurisdictional borders. It will also act possess the skills and
as a stimulus for creating greater uniformity competencies to perform
in optometric practice worldwide by being
applied to teaching curriculums and statutory eye examinations, prescribe
definitions of scope of practice. spectacles, diagnose
In October 2011, the WCO Governing
and treat common eye
Board adopted the broad competencies of problems, and refer
dispensing, refracting, prescribing and the
more serious conditions.
detection of disease/abnormality as being
the minimum required for individuals to call WCO believes that
themselves optometrists. This is in addition
to and does not conflict with the Concept
of Optometry which remains unaltered
optometrists should be ‘
integrated within the eye
and in many countries is still an aspiration. care, and wider health
The restructured competency model will
reflect this decision and clearly identify the
care team.
categories required for an optometrist.

19
 Optometric Education

Over the past century, optometry has optometric degree programme similar to
developed from a profession mainly providing the requirements for dental and medical
refractive services and spectacles to a primary education in the U.S.A.17 In other parts of
health care profession providing diagnosis the world, students go directly into the
and treatment for a wide range of vision and professional optometric programmes with
related general health conditions. Optometric higher level qualifications gained at school.
education has progressed from one and two This is generally the same as medical and
year post-secondary education to a minimum dental education in these countries.
of four years of college/university education in
many countries. The range of services provided by
optometrists varies considerably from country
Optometric education and the practice of to country. In countries such as the U.S.A.,
optometry have developed differently and at Canada, Australia and UK, optometrists not
different rates around the world. Optometric only provide refractive, low vision, contact
education is provided in major research lenses, binocular vision and optical services,
universities as well as in independent schools but also diagnose and treat many ocular
and colleges of optometry 23. The education conditions such as conjunctivitis, glaucoma,
requirements follow national cultures and ocular allergy, and dry eye among other ocular
are, for instance, greater in the U.S.A. and diseases. They monitor diabetic retinopathy,
Canada, for example, than in many countries provide pre- and post-operative care and
requiring a four-year undergraduate degree often work in hospitals, eye referral centres
prior to entering a four year professional and in practices with ophthalmologists. In

23 [Link]

20
 Accreditation

other countries, due to legislative restrictions, The level of oversight and evaluation of optometric
optometrists are limited in their scope of education institutions varies around the world. There
practice, in some cases mainly to refractive are accreditation agencies in some countries such as
services. In those countries the increase of the the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education
scope of practice will require the consequent (ACOE) for the U.S. and Canada25, Optometry
expansion of the optometric education Council of Australia and New Zealand (OCANZ)26,
provided. In countries where there is a lack the UK General Optical Council (GOC)27 and The
of practitioners. more optometric educational European Council of Optometry and Optics (ECOO)28.
institutions need to be established to educate These organisations have very similar procedures
a sufficient number of optometrists. and processes for the evaluation of optometric
educational programmes. In other instances, individual
Independent of their structure, optometry institutions have procedures for external review of their
educational departments share faculty programmes to assure a quality education.
with other health-related departments,
including medicine. They also collaborate As with any health care profession, optometry
in research and translational activities such relies upon a process of accreditation of education,
as patient care and communication. This audit and assessment of competencies to provide
multidisciplinary approach ensures both the reassurance to the public and related professions.
competency of optometrists and confidence
between optometry and the medical and
related professions. The purposes of
accreditation in the
WCO encourages and helps to develop
optometric education and in-depth international optometry
programme reviews of the institutions by context are:
external agencies. Technology now offers
options to provide distance continuing • Assisting the development of new
education to practitioners, especially in schools
remote locations or in countries with limited
resources. WCO is exploring a pilot on-line • Improving standards in established
scheme to provide this at little or no cost to schools
those optometric associations wanting to
upgrade the skills of their members. • Supporting the growth of the
profession in developing areas
WCO’s Education Committee has produced
a guide to help schools, colleges and • Benchmarking competencies to
universities intending to start or upgrade assist with the global movement of
an optometry programme with a basis for optometrists
designing their curriculum.24

24 [Link]/en/publications/curricular-support-elements-for-an-optometry- 26 [Link]
[Link]
27 [Link]
25 [Link]
education 28 [Link]

21
 Legislation and Regulation

Professional regulation29 misconduct. All procedures for regulation

should be open, transparent and auditable.
A profession is an occupation in which an Lay persons should be involved, where
individual uses an intellectual skill, based appropriate.
on an established body of knowledge and
practice, to provide a specialised service Governing bodies should keep the standards
in a defined area, exercising independent of education, training and practice required to
judgement in accordance with a code of enter the profession under regular review and
ethics and in the public interest. Some areas relevant to the needs of those who require
of work are reserved by statute to members professional services. The competence of
of a profession for the protection of the public, those seeking professional qualifications
on the basis that the profession’s governing should be determined by peer review.
body will ensure that those licensed to Areas of work involving health, safety and
practice are properly qualified and conduct professional competence should be subject
themselves in a professional manner. to periodic assessment and re-certification or
re-validation.
In the UK, a governing body may be
established by statute, by Royal Charter Governing bodies should require registrants
or incorporated as a company limited by to undertake personal responsibility for
guarantee. In other countries, they are monitoring their own performance, to
established by law. Governing bodies are undertake such further learning and training
accountable to the public they serve and necessary to maintain their competence,
should be independent of all other interests. and to maintain their commitment to a high
Governing bodies are required to support a fair standard of professional conduct.
and competitive market in which the public can
make informed choices between the providers Governing bodies should provide a clear
of professional services in each area, as well as and accessible complaints procedure which
between the qualified and unqualified. distinguishes between the investigation and the
disciplinary process. Disciplinary procedures
Principles of regulation should follow the requirements of natural
justice and include an appeal procedure to
The purpose of professional regulation is to an independent forum. The outcome of any
assure the quality of professional services disciplinary hearing should be published.
in the public interest. The regulation of a
profession involves the setting of standards The form which regulation can take a variety
of professional qualifications and practice; the of forms depending on national law and
keeping of a register of qualified persons and culture and, in the case of optometry, will
the award of titles; determining the conduct depend on the level of recognition of the
of registrants, the investigation of complaints profession and its scope of practice by
and disciplinary sanctions for professional governments.

29 UK Inter Professional Group, 2002, [Link]

22
Voluntary professional Licensure
self-regulation
Licensure is a method of regulation where a
Where there is no statutory regulation of licence to practice is issued by a regulating
the profession an association may decide authority which may be a government ministry
to establish its own standards of education or state board. The licence is issued based on
and ethical guidelines as a requirement for educational qualifications and may be lifelong
membership. This gives assurance to the or time limited and subject to periodic review.
public that association members practise to
an appropriate standard. Protection of title

Statutory self-regulation In some countries, there is limited regulation

of professional activities but the law protects
Governments may legislate for the regulation the title of optometrist. This means that whilst
of a profession such as optometry but then non-qualified persons can refract and fit
delegate the implementation of the legislation contact lenses, they cannot call themselves
in respect of educational standards, scope optometrists. The reassurance to the public
of practice and registration to a professional is that if they choose to go to an optometrist
association. This model is becoming less they know that person is properly qualified.
common in the current political climate of
deregulation as it is seen as a risk to the Whilst the nature and scope of regulation
creation and maintenance of monopolies. varies from country to country, WCO
recommends that optometry should
Statutory regulation be regulated in a similar way to other
independent health care professions in each
Legislation is enacted to establish a council country
or board with powers to regulate standards
of education, entry standards and continuing
professional development and to maintain
a register of suitably qualified practitioners
often together with disciplinary procedures to
protect the public against unethical behaviour
and to remove unsuitable practitioners from
the register. In some countries the council will
include lay and medical members.

23
 Workforce Planning

Optometrists currently work in many contexts The success of the profession in the private
and sectors eg private, public, industry and sector needs to be galvanised to support
academic. Workforce planning should be expansion of services in the public sector. The
based on the various roles that optometrists heavily resourced private sector can stimulate
can play as well as evidence of the numbers the development of programmes in the public
needed, mix and distribution worldwide. sector.
Optometrists should be appropriately trained
and optimally placed to provide the eye care WCO is at the forefront of ensuring that the
required by society. quality of optometric services is benchmarked
against the existing competency framework.
The global health workforce crisis is estimated It is imperative that by reaching adequate
to have the most significant impact in 56 numbers, the quality of service is not
countries, 36 of which are in Africa30. The compromised. A clear policy to develop
shortage optometrists and other eye health the optometric workforce is needed by
professionals in Africa is of particularly which WCO acknowledges that in some
concern. Very often, the limited and developing countries, and particularly in
misdistribution of the human resources for eye rural areas, there are insufficient clinicians to
health can be attributed to limited advocacy carry out refractions as part of a complete
and mobilisation of resources to ensure an (or comprehensive) eye examination which
equitable distribution of optometrists to serve includes detecting the early signs of disease
the interests of the public, especially in the and abnormality. However, in view of this
public sector. reality, WCO believes strongly that ‘stand-
alone’ refraction31 without an eye health
Governments need to acknowledge the examination is a serious public health issue
existence of the optometrists in the eye health and that a team approach with other eye
work force. Many countries still do not comply and health cadres needs to be developed
and hence optometric services are sparse in to address this deficit for the benefit of the
those countries as posts are not created. population.

There are various issues that WCO advocates

for with governments, for example, the
recognition of optometry as a profession
and the significant impact the profession
can have on health expenditure. WCO can
also advocate for the creation of posts
for optometrists in the public sector, and
emphasise the importance of a fair distribution
of optometrists in rural and urban settings.

30 WHO, OECD; International Migration of Health Workers. February 2010; [Link]/hrh/resources/oecd-who_policy_brief_en.p

31 [Link]

24
Optometry in an integrated eye financing, and governance, as illustrated in
health care team figure 5.

To meet present and future challenges, An integral component of a health system is

a paradigm shift is needed in the way human resources and, as discussed before,
optometry approaches the delivery of eye it is very important to ensure that there is the
care services. An approach that strengthens right number, the right quality, and the right
the health system needs to be supported distribution of trained health providers to meet
with each of the building blocks supported in the needs of the community.
integration with the others.
WCO believes that an optometrist should
The WHO defines the purpose of a possess the skills and competencies
health system as improved health for to perform eye examinations, prescribe
the beneficiaries, which is equitable and spectacles, diagnose and treat common eye
responsive to their needs. The health problems, and refer more serious conditions.
system is composed of service delivery, WCO believes that optometrists should be
health workforce, health information, integrated within the eye care, and wider
medical products and technology, health care team.

25
 Workforce Planning (continued)

The WHO Health System Framework

System Building Blocks Overall Goals / Outcomes

Security Delivery

Improved health
Health Workforce Access (level and equity)
Coverage
Information Responsiveness

Medical Products,
Social and Financial
Vaccines & Technologies Quality Risk Protection
Safety
Financing
Improved Efficiency

Leadership/Guidance

Figure 5: WHO health system framework

Academic institutions need to incorporate to do to reach its goals. The adoption

public health into their curriculums32 and of refractive error as one of the priorities
ensure that graduating optometrists have created an opportunity for the recognition
adequate skills and knowledge to address of optometry as a key player in the eye
the public health challenges that exist in eye health equation. In addition, the recent
care. Importantly, young graduates need to be focus on non-communicable diseases
encouraged to work in the public sector and such as diabetic retinopathy has also
in rural and underserved areas. In order for created another opportunity for optometry
this to be successful, health ministries need to to embrace its co-management role and
offer appropriate incentives. support millions of patients with diabetes
around the world. The achievement of
It has been fifteen years since the VISION the 25% target established by the WHO
2020 Right to Sight campaign was Action plan for 2014-2019 presents some
launched. While significant efforts have challenges to the profession but it should
been made across the world to eliminate also catalyse its efforts and motivate the
avoidable blindness, there is still a lot more profession to make a tangible impact

32 AVRI, BHVI, WCO Public health survey. Public health education in optometric institutions, 2014

26
Resources

[Link] [Link]

• Vision Mission and Objects • Optometry Giving Sight

• About WCO [Link]

• An introduction to WCO • European Diploma in Optometry and

Accreditation Scheme
• Definition of Optometry and Optometrists
[Link]
• Regional Structure
• International Agency for the Prevention of
• Position papers Blindness World Sight Day

• Scope of Practice Questionnaire [Link]

• Membership • Universal Eye Health: a global action

plan 2014-2019 [Link]/blindness/
• Regional News actionplan/en/

• Education and Resources

• Optometry Schools

• World Optometry Foundation

• e learning platform

• Education curriculum toolkit

• Global Competency Model

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 [Link]
enquiries@[Link]