MODULE 4

ATOMS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

The atom is the smallest part of matter that represents a particular element. It is
the smallest unit of an element and the fundamental building blocks of the universe. An
atom is composed of subatomic particles- protons, electrons and neutrons.

In classifying elements, scientists arranged them in a periodic table. Elements with

similar properties were grouped together. The periodic table contains a list of all
elements along with other information.
Atoms and The Periodic Table

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to;

1. Define atoms and enumerate the subatomic particles;

2. Write electron configuration of elements and ions;
3. Show occupancy of electrons in every energy level and each orbital;
4. Identify the number of valence and unpaired electrons for each atom/ion from
electron configuration and orbital representations;
5. Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons for a given atom or ion;
6. Describe how periodic table is set-up;
7. Define period, group and families;
8. Tell what group and period any element is in;
9. Identify the type of element according to its location in the periodic table;
10. Identify metals, nonmetals and metalloids; and
11. Discuss properties of metals, nonmetals and metalloids.

ATOMS
Every element is composed of atoms. The structure of its atoms makes each
element unique. An atom consists of three basic units: proton, neutron, and electron.

Protons and neutrons are located in a small, dense region at the center of the
atom known as nucleus. The nucleus accounts for only a small part of the total volume
of the atom, having a diameter approximately 1/10,000 that of the entire atom. Protons
and neutrons account for most of the mass of the atom; the mass of an electron is
negligible compared to the masses of the protons and neutrons. The electrons are
located outside the nucleus in regions known as orbitals. Orbitals are region of space
within the energy level where electrons are found.
 Proton (p) Electron (e)
charge: + charge: -
mass: 1 amu mass: 0 amu
e

P
n Energy level

Neutron (n)
charge: 0
mass: 1 amu Nucleus (center)

ELECTRON SHELLS/ ENERGY LEVELS

Electrons orbit around nucleus of atoms in clouds of distinct shapes and sizes.
The electron clouds are layered one inside the other into units called shells or energy
levels (as shown in the Bohr model). Each shell or energy level can contain only a
limited number of electrons. The higher the energy level (that is, the farther it is from
the nucleus), the larger it is and, therefore, the more electrons it can hold. The energy
levels are designated by n, and the capacity of each level for electrons is given by 2n2.

Learning activity 4.1

Answer the following:

1. Maximum number of electrons in the 4th shell _________

2. Number of orbitals in the d subshell ___________
3. Maximum number of electrons in the f subshell ________
4. Maximum number of electrons in the 5th energy level ______
5. Number of subshell or sublevel in the 3rd shell __________
Electron Configuration

The ground state or the lowest-energy arrangement of any atom can be found
by using knowledge of atomic orbitals and their energy levels. This arrangement of
electrons in the orbitals is known as electron configuration. The electrons are assigned
to the proper orbitals by the following rules:

1. The orbitals of lowest energy are filled first (Aufbau Principle).

2. Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and they must be of
opposite spins (Pauli Exclusion Principle).
3. If two or more empty orbitals of equal energy are available, one electron is
placed in each until all are half-full (Hund’s Rule).
What are IONS? Ions are atoms that has lost or gained electrons. Ions could be an
anion or a cation.

Cation – are positively-charged ions. These are atoms that has lost electrons.
(ex. Na+,
Ca2+)

Anions – are negatively-charged ions. These are atoms that has gained
electrons. (ex. F-, O2-).
 Learning Activity 4.2

Why is it that when atoms gained electrons it becomes negatively charged and
when it losses electrons it become positively charged?

Learning Activity 4.3

a. Use the periodic table and write the electron configuration of the
following:
1. Chlorine (Cl-)

2. Oxygen (O)

b. Use the electron configuration in A and distribute the electrons to each

energy level using the Bohr representation and to each orbital using
rectangular arrow method. Tell the number of valence and unpaired
electrons for each.
1. Chlorine (Cl-)

2. Oxygen (O)

Variations in filling
There are some variations in the electron configuration of some elements. Careful
inspection will show two slightest exceptions to the configurations predicted.
Experimental evidence indicates that filled and half-filled sublevels add to the stability of
an atom and, in several cases, the electrons are arranged to achieve this extra stability.
Example is in the case of chromium and copper.

For chromium (Cr) atomic number 24: instead of 4s23d4. It is 4s13d5.

For copper (Cu) atomic number 29, instead of 4s23d9, it is 4s13d10. Therefore, is added
stability by having a half-filled set of s orbitals and a completely filled set of d orbitals.
NUMBER OF PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS

Atoms of various types differ in their number pf protons, neutrons and electrons.
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the atom. Atoms, in their simplest
uncombined form are electrically neutral. Therefore, the number of positively charged
protons in an atom must be equal to the number of negatively charged electrons (no. of p
= no. of e). for cations (+ ions), where there is loss of electrons, electrons will be
subtracted by the number of equal to the charge of the ion. For anions (- ions), where
there is gain of electrons, electrons will be added by the number equal to the charge of
the ion.

Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass. The mass number (A)
(atomic mass rounded off to a whole number) is equal to the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons (A = p + n).

Ex:

Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number number protons neutrons electrons

Ag+1 47 108 47 61 46

Cl- 17 35 17 18 18

Al 13 27 13 14 13
 Learning Activity 4.4

Complete the table below.

Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number number protons neutrons electrons
Ca+
C
O
S-2

PERIODIC TABLE
Periodic table is the structured arrangement of the elements in a chart that
accentuates the relationships between the chemical properties of the different elements.
The structure of the modern version of the periodic table is explained by the electronic
configuration of the elements.

Each element in the periodic table has a symbol, which is an abbreviation for the
name. this symbol consists of the first letter of the name, which is capitalized (ex. Carbon- C,
hydrogen-H), and in some cases one other letter, which is not capitalized (ex. Copper-Cu,
cobalt- Co). some of these symbols come from the Latin name, such as Cu for copper from
cuprum, Na for sodium from natrium, Sb for antimony from stibium, Au for gold from
aurum, Fe for iron from ferrum, Pb (lead) from plumbum, Hg (mercury) from hydrargyrum,
K (potassium) from kalium, and others.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Below is a summary of the contributions of Newlands, Meyer, Mendeleev, and Moseley to
the development of the modern periodic table.

Johann W. Dobereiner (1817-1829)

• Examined properties of sets of elements called “triads” (Ca, Sr, Ba; Li, N, K; Cl,
Br, I; and S, Se, Te)
John Newlands (1837-1898)

• Arranged elements by increasing atomic mass

• Noticed the reputation of properties every eight element
• Created the law of octaves
Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)

• Demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elemental properties

• Arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass
 Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

• Demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elemental properties

• Arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass
• Predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered elements
Henry Moseley (1887-1915)

• Discovered that atoms contain a unique number of protons called the atomic
number
• Arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number, which resulted in
a periodic pattern of properties

Periodic Law - states that there are regularly repeating properties on going from element
to element with increasing atomic number of the elements.

Periods, Groups and Families

The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods, and the vertical columns are
called groups. The groups are divided into A and B subgroups. The A subgroups, due to their
similarities within the group, are often called families. The families are usually referred to
by special names, such as the alkali metals (Group IA), alkaline earth metals (Group IIA),
and halogens (Group VIIA). Other A subgroups are named according to the first member of
the subgroup or family. Thus IIIA is called Boron family, IVA as carbon family, VA as
nitrogen family and VIA as oxygen family.

Types of Elements

1. Representative elements (Group IA to Group VIIA)

2. Noble gases (Group VIIIA)
3. Transition elements (Group B)
4. Inner transition elements

Groups

1
Periods 2
3
4
5
6
7

Inner transition
elements
Noble gases are also called inert gases since they seldom react or form chemical
compounds. They exist naturally as individual atoms in the environment.

Learning Activity 4.5

Identify the following elements:

a. Boron
b. Nitrogen
c. Iron
d. Period 2, group IIIA
e. Period 4, group VA
METALS, NONMETALS AND METALLOIDS

Elements in the periodic table can be classified as metals, nonmetals or

semimetals/metalloids.

Metals (about 80% of the elements)

These are the elements to the left of the stair-stepped line shown in the periodic table.
Metals have the following properties:

- Characteristic luster
- Conducts heat and electricity
- Can be pounded into various shapes without breaking (malleability)
- Ability to be drawn into thin wire (ductility)
- Hardness
- High density
- Low volatility
Nonmetals

These are the elements to the right of the stair-stepped line shown in the periodic table
including hydrogen. Nonmetals have properties opposite those of the metals:

- Non-lustrous
- Poor conductor of heat and electricity
- Brittle in solid state
Metalloids/Semimetals

The elements that border the stair-stepped line in the periodic table (Be, Si, Ge, As, Sb,
Te, At), have properties that are somewhat of a cross between metals and nonmetals.
They tend to be economically important because of their unique conductivity
properties (they only partially conduct electricity), which make them valuable in the
semiconductor and computer chip industry.

Periodic trends

Trends among elements in the periodic table include their size and their ability to lose
or attract electrons.
Atomic radius/Atomic size

• The atoms become smaller going across a period from left to right, because the
nuclear charge increases, pulling the electrons in closer, though the number of
shells is the same.
• The atoms get bigger going down a group, because there are more shells of
electrons
• A positive ion is smaller than the neutral atom from which it was made, because
the ion is bigger than the neutral atom, because the extra repulsion between the
electrons causes them to spread out.

Learning Activity 4.6

Using only the periodic table, arrange each set of atoms in order from largest to smallest:

(a) K, Li, Cs

(b) Pb, Sn, Si

(c) F, O, N

Metallic properties

Going across the period from left to right, elements become less metallic or more
nonmetallic.

Within any group/family, metallic properties increase in going down.

Learning Activity 4.7

Identify which has more metallic property and explain your answer:

a. Na and Al

b. Mg and Ba

Ionization energy

Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an

atom or ion.

• Down a group. First ionization energy for the atoms generally decreases down
a group. As the distance from nucleus to outermost electron increases, the
attraction between them lessens, which makes the electron easier to remove.
 • Across a period. As we move left to right across a period, the number of energy
levels or shells is the same but the nuclear charge increases, which makes the
pull of electrons toward the nucleus stronger. Thus, it is more difficult to
remove an electron. Ionization energy increases across a period.
Exception: decrease in going across from IIA to IIIA & VA to VIA

Note: 2nd ionization energy is always higher than the first.

Learning Activity 4.8

Identify which has higher ionization energy and explain your answer:

a. Li and K

b. B and F

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the general tendency of that atom to attract electrons toward itself
in a compound.

• Down a group. Electronegativity of atoms generally decreases down a group. As

the distance from nucleus to outermost electron increases, the attraction
between them lessens, reducing the ability of atoms to attract electrons toward
itself.
• Across a period. As we move left to right across a period, the number of energy
levels or shells, is the same but the nuclear charge increases, which makes the
pull of electrons toward the nucleus stronger. Thus, it increases the ability of
atom to attract electrons toward itself. Fluorine is the most electronegative
element.

Learning Activity 4.9

Identify which has the higher electronegativity and explain your answer:

a. Ca and Ra

b. Na and S

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the energy released when an atom gains an electron.

• Down a group. Electron affinity of atoms generally decreases down a group.

• Across a period. As we move left to right across a period, electron affinity
increases.
Learning Activity 4.10

Identify which has the higher electron affinity and explain your answer:

a. K and Zn

b. N and Sb

SUMMARY

Atoms are composed of protons and neutrons, which are located in the nucleus,
and electrons, which travel outside the nucleus with different amounts of energy. The
arrangement of the electrons around the nucleus of an atom is called the electron
configuration. The electrons are present in different energy levels and different types of
orbitals (sublevels) depending on the energy they possess.

Periodic table contains information about the element. Elements are arranged
according to the periodic variations of its properties. It is composed of horizontal row
and vertical columns. Elements in the periodic table can be classified as: metals,
nonmetals or metalloids; representative, noble, transition or inner transition. Trends
among elements in the periodic table include their size and their ability to lose or attract
electrons.

References

Alvarez, MLC. 2018. Principles in Chemistry. University of Eastern Philippines.

Brown, TL, et al. 2012. Chemistry: the central science. Prentice Hall, New York, USA.
Chang. 2010. Chemistry, 10th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
 LEARNING EXERCISE 4

Name: __________________________________ Course & yr. _____________________ Date: _____________

Class ID: __________________ Class Schedule: _______________________ Score: _______________

1. Describe the three subatomic particles.

a. Proton

b. Neutron

c. Electron

2. Complete the table below:

Symbol Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Protons Neutron Electron
Fe2+
N
Br-
Ag

3. Use the periodic table and write the electron configuration of the following:

a. Manganese (Mn)

b. Bromide ion (Br-1)

4. Use the electron in number 3 and distribute the electrons on each energy level using the bohr
representation and to each orbital using rectangular arrow method. Tell the number of valence
and unpaired electron.

a. Manganese (Mn)

b. Bromide ion (Br-1)

5. Write the symbol of the following elements and identify as representative, transition, inner
transition or noble gases

a. Chromium

b. Sodium

c. Rhodium

d. Argon

e. Cerium

6. Write the symbol of the following elements and identify as metal, non-metal or metalloid.

a. Calcium

b. Silicon

c. Flourine

d. Lithium

e. Neon

7. Discuss briefly the properties of metals, non-metals and metalloids.

Metal Non-metal Metalloid

8. Discuss the general trend among elements in the periodic table in terms of; atomic size, ionization
electronegativity and electron affinity.