September 14, 2020
Difference between Education and Training
● Education (long-term)
○ University vs College
■ University (why?)
● Knowledge
○ Universal truth, broad knowledge, deeper understanding
● Innovation
○ Thinking, integrating knowledge, creativity, problem solving,
innovation
■ College
● Knowledge
○ Job-or-task specific knowledge (applied)
● Skills
○ Job-or-task specific, diagnosis of problem and selection of
appropriate solution related
● Training
○ Usually more short-term
○ Planned activity (systematic) conducted by an organization
○ Transfer to the job of relevant behaviours by members of organization in order to help
achieve organizational goals
Difference between Training and Development
● Short-term vs long-term
● Specific vs general
On average, the people factor has the strongest impact on organizational performance
Human Capital
● Value of human resources - people who work for an organization
● value comes from knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that people possess
● Some of KSAs are brought into the organization at time of selection.
○ However, many of these KSAs are developed through training and development. Human
capital is vital for organizational performance
● Canada relies more on education as gov’t subsidizes your tuition so that businesses don’t have to
pay as much
● % of those without a diploma went from 19% to 9% from 2000 to 2018
Why Canadian companies not spending resources in other developed countries on training and
development
● Canada has more working in primary industry
● Canadian organizations rely more on gov’t-funded training & education systems
● Canadian organizations tend to see training as a cost rather than an investment
● Canadian organization fail to think in terms of systems
Feedback loop is usually neglected, rarely evaluate the process
Instructional Systems Design Model
1. Needs Analysis
○ Organizational Analysis
○ Task Analysis
○ Person Analysis
2. Training Design and Delivery
○ Training objectives
○ Training content
○ Training methods
○ Learning principles
3. Training evaluation
○ Evaluation criteria
○ Evaluation design
Who gets Trained
● New employees
● Experienced employees who are promoted
● Experienced employees whos jobs change
● Due to:
○ New technology, procedures, restructuring/reengineering
● Not useful for someone who is lazy, etc.
○ Only useful if lack of performance is due to lack of knowledge or skills
Context of Training & Development
● Demographic changes
● High technology and Job Complexity
● Shifting from Manufacturing to Service & Information Industries
● Global Markets & Competition
● Training Technology
● Accountability
● Strategy
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Week 2: September 21st - Learning & Motivation
Kolb’s Learning Style Model
● Combinations of Thinking vs Feeling
● Watching vs Doing
Fleming’s Learning Style Model (VARK)
● Visual
● Aural/Auditory
● Reading/Writing
● Kinesthetic
V A R K
Y Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y
Learning Outcomes
● Robert Gagne
○ Verbal Information (Declarative Knowledge)
■ Info that we “just know” - facts
● e.g. what is the capital of Canada
○ Intellectual Skills (procedural knowledge)
■ Steps, e.g. - “how do you use clutch”
○ Cognitive strategies
■ Knowing how & when to apply knowledge
■ E.g. - when do you press down on the clutch, when do you release
○ Motor skills (become proficient at doing things)
■ E.g. - To actually get good at using a clutch
○ Attitudes (beliefs, feelings, preferences)
● Kurt Kraiger
○ Verbal, Intellectual, Cognitive = Cognitive Outcomes (Knowledge)
○ Motor skills = Skill-based outcomes
○ Attitudes = Affective Outcomes
Learning Theories for Training
● Reinforcement theory
○ Conditioning Process
■ Stimulus
● Events or cues in env’t attract our attention
■ Behaviour
● A response or set of responses
■ Consequence
● Positive reinforcement (reward
● Negative reinforcement
○ Removal of negative outcome after act increases likelihood of
act being repeated
● No consequence
○ Ignoring an act is likely to lead to cessation of the behaviour
● Punishment
○ Decreases likelihood of a behaviour
■ Training Concepts from Reinforcement Theory
● Shaping
○ Reinforcement of each step or improvement in a process until it
is mastered
● Chaining
○ Reinforced of entire sequences of a task
● Generalization
○ Conditioned response occurs in circumstances different from
those during learning
● Social learning theory
○ Can people learn just by watching others?
■ Yes, if pay attention to the right stimuli and behaviours
○ 3 key components
■ 1. Observation
● Learning by observing actions of others & consequences
● Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Reinforcement
■ 2. Self-efficacy
● Judgements people have about their abilities to successfully perform a
specific task
○ Influenced by 4 sources of information in order of importance
■ Task performance/success
■ Observation (self vs others)
■ Verbal persuasion & social influence
■ Physiological/emotional state
■ 3. Self-management
● Managing one own’s behaviour through a series of internal process
(internalize rewards)
○ Observe personal as well as others’ behaviours
○ Setting performance goals
○ Assess personal progress
○ Reward oneself for goal achievement
Principles of learning & retention
● Trainability = Motivation X Ability? (non-compensatory OR = Motivation +Ability?
(compensatory)
● Individual Differences
● Feedback (Knowledge of Results)
○ Specific vs general
○ Positive vs negative
○ Manner in which feedback is given
○ Integrating errors into learning & training
■ Error training
● Training that explicitly allows trainees to make errors while learning to
perform a task
● +
○ Forces people to develop thoughtful strategies
○ Deeper processing of information
○ Greater practice
○ Learn “error recovery strategies”
○ Greater exploration
■ Error management instructions
● Statements that emphasize the positive function of errors
■ Error avoidant training
● Training that explicitly avoids or minimizes trainee errors while learning
to perform a task
● Massed vs Distributed Practice
● Whole vs part learning
Ability, Motivation, and Performance
● Job performance, biggest indicator = motivation
● Training performance = ability is strongest indicator
How to enhance trainees’ abilities:
● Formal vs informal
Trainee motivation
1. Relevance of training to the job
2. Relevance of training & job performance to other desired outcomes
3. Level of trainee self-efficacy vs Training difficulty
4. Reinforcement
a. Timing
b. Frequency
c. Direction (Negative vs positive)
How to ensure trainees have ability to handle the demands of training
● Selection
● preparation/readiness
● Designing training according to the capabilities of the trainees
Gunning’s FOG Index
● Find out what it is
Feedback
● Specific vs General
Why do we forget things
● Failure to Store/Encode Information
○ Inattention
○ Attention to the wrong things
○ Not understanding, not considering the info to be important
● Failure to Retrieve Information
○ Memory Decay (ebbinghaus forgetting curve)
■ Over time forgotten most of what was learned
■ 1 year = 8% retention of what was learned
○ Some memories interfere with, compete with, or are merged/confused with other
memories
■ Proactive inhibition
● Going to england and looking the wrong way before crossing the street
● Learning something you already know but in a different context - old
information makes it harder
■ Retroactive inhibition
● Difficulty adapting back to regular context after learning new context
● Suppression & Repression
○ Motivated forgetting (traumatic events, stress, unpleasant memories
Enhancing the Encoding Process: Meaningfulness of Material
● Relevant/Important
● Clear/Understandable
● Organized/Systematic
● Overviews
● Examples
Post Midterm: November 16, 2020
Holland’s Career Model
2 - Realistic 2- 11 - Artistic 5 - Social 8- 4-
Investigative Enterprising Conventional
What people look for in a job: #1 = opportunity to use abilities (competence or achievement)
#2 = money or pay
#3 = first offer received
#4 = good place to work (reputation)
WEEK 6: Training Methods I
Orientation (Onboarding)
● Introducing new employees to organization, its philosophy, policies, rules, procedures and
beginning of socialization process
● Purposes - clarify rules, realistic expectations, reduce anxiety, increase job satisfaction, less
turnover, enhance organizational fit & commitment, increase job performance, protect from legal
suits
Formal orientation
● Lecture/Presentation, Video, Pamphlets, Interview with HR, Forms, Job site instruction
○ Company history, products, organization, benefits, training and promotion, performance
expectations, rules, training
Informal orientation
● OTJ by supervisors/coworkers
○ Tours, briefing employees, introducing to everyone and equipment, pairing with
“buddies”, shadowing experienced employees
● Job instruction training
○ Preparation, instruction, performance, follow up
● Job rotation, apprenticeships
● SW = effectiveness
○ Utilization of principles of learning & retention & transfer
○ Outcomes /performance
○ W = Cost, timeliness, cost
Off-site training methods
● Lecture, programmed instruction, tech-based trainin (DVDs), simulators, activity-based training
● Attitude Change
○ Conference (Discussion) groups
○ Emotion & vivid images
● Simulations
○ Case study, business games, role playing, behavioural role modelling
● Laboratory (T-Group or Sensitivity) Training
● Emotion and vivid images
○ Emotions appear to be much more effective in evoking attitude change than rational
arguments
○ Vivid images and movies can appeal to our emotions (bypassing logical arguments)
○ Vivid anecdotes vs statistics
Programmed Instruction
● Linear programming
○ Wrong or right
● Intrinsic (Branching) Programming
○ Multiple choices
Simulators
● Used when learning on actual equipment or in work setting is too dangerous, cost of mistakes =
too great
● Need to be high level of fidelity (similar to real life)
● Physical fidelity - physical look, feel, same of device on workplace
● Psychological fidelity - experience should be as similar as OTJ experience
Team training
● Provides team leaders with knowledge & skills to set up, lead, and motivate teams to facilitate
team performance
Team building
● Provides members of intact teams with KSAs to work together effectively; through experiential
exercises
● Sending individual members of disparate teams to team building sessions is not usually effective
● Involves trainees in
○ Sharing ideas and experiences
○ Building group identity
○ Understanding interpersonal dynamics
○ Learning their own strengths and weaknesses and those of their co-workers
● Sessions involve
○ Information, demonstration, practice, feedback
● Use techniques such as
○ Experiential exercises and games, role playing, adventure learning, and action learning
● Make effective by
○ Making exercises related to skills they have to develop
○ Skilled facilitator should lead discussion about
■ What happened in exercise, what was learned, how events in the exercise relate
to job situation, how to apply what was learned to the job
● Does it work?
○ Affective (attitudes, trust, satisfaction) = .44
○ Process (coordination, communication) = .44
○ Performance (productivity, sales volume) = 0.26
■ All outcomes = .37
Types of Team skills
● Task work skills - skills required to perform the team tasks
● Team work skills - skills team members need to work together effectively
● Team work KSAs
○ Communication, coordination, compensatory behaviour, mutual performance monitoring,
exchange of feedback and support, adaptation to situational demands, problem-solving
and decision making, interpersonal skills, motivation
Week 7: Training Methods II
Off-side Methods
Management Training & Development Methods
● Management education (EMBAs, Corporate U.)
● Management Training programs/Courses (classes, workshops, experiential - e.g. - outdoor
wilderness training)
● Job rotation, assessment centres, coaching, mentoring, leadership training (leader match,
managerial grid, transformational leadership)
Skills required by effective managers
● Verbal communication (listening)
● Managing time and stress
● Making individual decisions
● Recognizing, defining, solving problems
● Motivating and influencing others
● Delegating
● Setting goals and articulating a vision
● Self-awareness, Team building, Managing conflict
Content of Management Development Programs
● Conceptual skills
○ Problem-solving, decision making, planning, performance management, goal setting)
● Technical skills (accounting, recruiting, etc,)
● Interpersonal Skills
○ Communication, managing conflict, managing stress
Typical contents of assessment centre
● Pencil & paper tests, in-basket exercise, diadic situation (possibly based on in-basket), leaderless
group decision (cooperative or competitive), manufacturing problem/business game, writing
exercise (biographical essay), public speaking exercise, interview (based on biographical essay)
Coaching
● Special project assignments
● Job rotation/transfers
● Vacation replacement
● Job redesign
● Job enlargement
● Conference attendance
● Professional memberships
● teaching/publishing
Mentoring
● Confidentiality
● Choice of mentors
○ Knowledge, motivation, political connections, astuteness
● Training of mentors & proteges
● Matching Mentors & proteges
● Not everyone needs a mentor
Leadership (choices - long-term)
● Influence that particular individuals exert on the goal achievement of others in an organizational
context
○ Controlling, Planning, Budgeting, evaluating, facilitating, organizing, mentoring,
selecting talent, motivating, coaching, building trust, inspiring
● Management (Requirements - short-term)
Leadership vs Management Revisited
● Good managers are also leaders and good leaders are also managers
● Very much interrelated and share core roles
○ Interpersonal role
○ Informational role
○ Decisional role
Task vs Person Leadership
● Person-oriented leadership (consideration)
○ Extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern for subordinates
● Task-oriented Leadership (initiating structure
○ Degree to which leader concentrates on group goal attainment
Managerial grid (Blake & Mouton, 1985)
Path-Goal Theory (House & Evans)
● Leader Behaviour
○ Directive (Task)
○ Supportive (Person)
○ Achievement-Oriented
○ Participated
● Situational Factors
○ Employee characteristics & environmental factors
○ High need achievers = achievement-oriented leadership needed
○ Subordinates prefer being told what to do = directive leadership needed
○ Low task abilities = directive leadership & coaching behaviour
○ Capable of performing task = such behaviours = unnecessary
● Employee Outcomes
○ Job Satisfaction
○ Acceptance of Leader
○ Effort
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
● Same leadership = some positive but some negative
Transformational leadership
● Articulating a vision - inspiration
● Providing an appropriate role model
● Fostering acceptance of goals
● Communicating high performance expectations
● Providing individual support - optimism
● Providing intellectual stimulation
● Engaging in transactional leader behaviours
● Training needed
○ Workshops (lecture & role playing) and individual coaching sessions to train leaders
■ Make transparent decisions, consistent with reasoning
■ Display enthusiasm & optimism
■ Get employees to think about work-related problems in new ways
■ Make time to pay attention to individual concerns
Why leadership development efforts fail
● Overlooking context
● Underestimating mindsets of trainees, bosses, subordinates
● Leadership training doesn’t match demands and pressures of organization
● Failing to measure results of training
● Leadership dev’t in 21st century
○ Roselinde Torres, effective today’s leaders need to
■ 1. Anticipate Change
■ 2. Develop a Diverse Network
■ 3. Take Risks (abandon the past)
Week 8: Training Evaluation Cost & benefits
Kirkpatrick’s measures of training effectiveness
● Reaction
○ Do trainees like training program, trainer, materials facilities, etc.
○ Course evaluations, opinion surveys, “happy sheets”
● Learning
○ What do trainees know after the training program (tests)
● Behaviour
○ Can trainees apply what they learned (job performance)?
● Results
○ Does training contribute to organizational outcomes
○ Productivity, profitability, cost/benefits
Types of Criteria
● Subjective (supervisory ratings) vs objective (# of units produced)
● Criterion-Referenced or Absolute (i.e. against a specific standard) versus norm-referenced or
relative (i.e. - compared with other employees)
● Obtrusive (possibly intrusive) versus unobtrusive (inconspicuous)
Criterion Problem
● Ultimate criterion
○ Criterion efficiency
■ Dynamic
■ Multidimensional
● Actual criterion
○ Criterion contamination
■ Measurement Error
■ Contamination bias
● Opportunity bias
● Group characteristics
● Knowledge of training performance
○ Criterion Relevance (validity)
Usable criteria)
● Performance criteria must be
○ Valid of relevant - related to ultimate criterion
○ Reliable - consistent in how a given behaviour is appraised
○ Sensitive - able to distinguish bw good and poor performance
○ Acceptable - appear rational & fair to employees
○ Practical - realistically measurable
○ Appropriate to their purpose - Developmental vs Evaluative
Matching Criterion Format to its Purpose
● Multiple (Developmental - feedback)
○ # of cars sold, dollar sales, repeat customers, complete & accurate paperwork
● Global (evaluative - decision making e.g. - pay raise)
○ Overall performance rating
● Composite (developmental and evaluative)
○ # of cars sold, repeat customers, complete & accurate paperwork
○ Summer for an overall performance rating
Objective performance appraisal measures
● Production data
○ # of units produced, scrap rate, unit quality
● Sales data
○ # of units sold, dollar value of units, # of repeat sales, etc.
● Personnel records
○ # of days absent, # of days sick, # of times late, etc.
Subjective Performance Appraisal Measures
● Relative
○ Ranking
■ Lowest to Highest
■ Alternation ranking
■ Paired comparison
○ Forced distribution
● Absolute
○ Essay, graphic rating scales, behavioural checklists, critical incidents, Behaviourally
anchored rating scales (BARS), Behaviour observation scales (BOS)
Most effective training methods (Burke & Day)
● Reaction
○ Behaviour modelling
○ Sensitivity training
○ Lecture
● Learning
○ Lecture & discussion with role play or practice
○ Lectures
● Performance
○ Behaviour modelling
○ Lecture with discussion, role play, or practice
○ Lecture with discussion
Training costs
● Cost effectiveness of training
○ Costs of different training programs/methods
○ Effectiveness of different training programs/methods
● Training vs selection
○ Offloading the cost of training
○ Attracting trained employees from other organizations (higher pay)
● Other solutions
○ Simplifying jobs
○ Robotization
Effective Performance Management Interviews (Employee Dev’t)
● 1. Provide advance notice, explaining the purpose of the meeting.
● [Link] clearly and specifically what was done to deserve praise or recognition.
● [Link] the employee to make suggestions as to areas of the job where you could provide assistance
● [Link] the employee fails to mention important problem areas, raise a maximum of two or three
areas where you think improvement is needed:a)Focus on behaviours, not personalityb)Be
constructive rather than critical
● 5. Ask for and listen openly to the employee's reactions and concerns.
● [Link] to an agreement on the steps to be taken by each of you.
● [Link] specific and challenging (but reasonable) goals jointly with the employee.
● [Link] a specific follow-up date.
● [Link] incentives (e.g., monetary rewards) to performance, if possible.
● [Link] performance feedback on a day-to-day basis.
Week 9: Career Planning & Training
Holland’s Career Model
● Realistic
○ Enjoy sports/mechanics; like working outdoors or with hands
● Investigative
○ Enjoy math & science = like working on own to solve hard problems
● Artistic
○ Enjoy creative activities; like using imagiation & dealing with ideas
● Social
○ Enjoy helping others or social relationships; “people person”
● Enterprising
○ Enjoy public speaking/leading or influencing others to course of action
○ Enjoy politics/economics
● Conventional
○ Enjoy working in office/with numbers or words; like organizing materials/working
indoors
● Basis of several career interest measures
○ Kuder Occupational Interest Survey
○ Strong interest inventory
○ The O*NET = computerized interest profiler to identify career interests
What people look for in a job
● Opportunity to use abilities (competence or achievement)
● Use creativity
● Autonomy or independence
● interesting/fun work
● Money or pay
● security/stability
● Geographical location
● Free time
● prestige/fame
● Good place to work (rep)
● What people look for in a job: #1 = opportunity to use abilities (competence or achievement)
● #2 = money or pay
● #3 = first offer received
● #4 = good place to work (reputation)
Organizational Career development
● Career planning
○ Occupational & organizational choice
○ Choice of job assignment
○ Career self-development
● Career management
○ Recruitment & selection
○ Human resource
○ Allocation
○ T&D
○ Appraisal & eval
○ Identify career
○ Paths
Setting up a career planning and management program
● 1. At Organizational Entry–RJPs, Career Opportunities and Prospects
● [Link] the Job – Challenging first job, Sequence jobs for progressive skill acquisition, and
Challenges and growth opportunities (e.g., job rotation)
● [Link] Supervisors/Managers – Train supervisors & managers to do career planning and reward
them for doing so
● [Link] Terms of Organizational Structures & Procedures – Offer career planning programs and
services and integrate them with the HR Planning function
● [Link] Resource Policies a)Institute policies to promote career planning b)Legitimize lateral
and downward transfers c)Provide incentives for poor employees to leave the organization d)
Involve families in career decisions
○ Communicate openly with employees about career opportunities, probabilities, and
problems, etc.
Greenhaus 5-Stage Model of Careeer Development
● Stage 1 (age 0 – 25):Preparation for Work – education and growth, development of interests and
personality
● Stage 2 (age 18 – 25): Organizational Entry and Exploration – select profession, job, and
organization
● Stage 3 (age 25 – 40): Early Career – establishment, achievement, and advancement (fit into
chosen occupation and organization, increase competence)
● Stage 4 (age 40 – 55): Mid Career – Reappraise career and reaffirm or modify (remain
productive, grow, or stagnate)
● Stage 5 (age 55 – retirement): Late Career –Career lessens in importance, plan for retirement,
seek identity outside work, remain productive
Career Planning today
● Job plateaus
● Career Changes/multiple careers
● consulting/self-employment/entrepreneurship
● Family/work balance
Who gets trained
● 10% = executives
● 24% = managers
● 27% = professional employees
● 39% = hourly employees (75%-95% of workforce)
Trends in training - training delivery
● Technology: Multimedia and web-based training, simulators, etc.
● Just-in-time training: scheduling & sequencing training when needed
● Decentralization of the training function: training line managers and supervisors how to train
● Role of training function
○ Performance consulting
■ Addressing organizational performance problems through training interventions
○ Performance management
■ Linking performance evaluations and professional development to training
○ Facilitation of learning
■ Making information and resources available to employees
● The trainees
○ More older workers
○ Higher education
○ Greater diversity
○ More immigrants & foreign nationals
○ Changing values
○ Virtual work arrangements
Projected training needs
● Service sector
○ Customer service
○ Sales
○ Interpersonal skills
○ Diversity awareness
○ Specific job skills
○ New technology - related skills
● Information sector
○ Continual updating K&S - life-long learning
○ Teamwork skills
○ Communication skills (written & oral)
○ New technology-related skills
Main reasons for failure & best practices
● Lack of alignment with business needs & strategy of the organization
● Failure to recognize non-training solutions
● Lack of objectives to provide direction and focus
● Training solution too expensive
○ costs/benefits = not considered
● Regarding training as an event (not part of a larger system)
● Participants = not accountable for results
○ Failure to ensure transfer to workplace
● Failure to Prepare the Job Environment for Transfer (not removing barriers)
● Lack of Management Reinforcement and Support for Use of KSAs on the Job
● Failure to Isolate or Demonstrate the Effects of Training on Job Performance
● Lack of Commitment and Involvement from Executives (resources, participation)
● Failure to Provide Feedback About Results to Key Stakeholders and to Use the Information to
Improve Training Outcomes
Training and Bottom Line - Realigning Efforts
● 70/20/10 rule (ASTD)
○ Employees learn
■ 70% = real life and OTJ experiences
■ 20% = mentoring or coaching
■ 10% = formal training
● Transfer of learning takes place when organizations
○ develop an overall learning transfer plan
○ implement tools and processes to reinforce the application of learning right after training;
○ measure if and to what extent learning is applied on the job
○ advocate for full management support and involvement.
● Increasing application of learning
○ Incorporate real projects in the training (make training more relevant)
○ Conduct more training and/or better marketing and communication on what exists\
○ Communicate a transparent measurement strategy
○ Establish change management guidelines•Increase managers’ involvement before and
after training