ISPEC

11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY

(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)

EDITED BY
Assist Prof. Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal

ISBN: 978-625-7720-62-5

[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 ISPEC
11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY

(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)

EDITOR
Assist. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal

All rights of this book belong to ISPEC. Without permission can’t be duplicate or copied.
Authors are responsible both ethically and juridically
ISPEC Publications – 2021 ©
Issued: 25.09.2021
ISBN: 978-625-7720-62-5

Bu Kitabın Tüm Hakları ISPEC Yayınevi’ne aittir.

Yazarlar etik ve hukuki olarak eserlerden sorumludurlar.
ISPEC Yayınevi – 2021 ©
Yayın Tarihi: 25.09.2021
ISBN: 978-625-7720-62-5

[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 CONFERENCE ID
CONFERENCE TITLE
ISPEC
th
11 International Conference On
Engineering & Natural Sciences

DATE and PLACE

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY

ORGANIZATION
ISPEC JOURNAL

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gülcan DEMİROĞLU TOPÇU
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kerim GÜLLAP
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa OKANT
Gönül EDEŞLER
Neslihan BALCI

NUMBER of ACCEPTED PAPERS - 109

NUMBER of REJECTED PAPERS - 23

PARTICIPANTS COUNTRY
Turkey-49, ABD-2, Brazil-1, Budapest-1, Algeria-3, Morocco-3, France-1,
South Korea-2, India-12, Iranian-8, Canada-1, Kenya-1, Colombia-1, Malaysia-3,
Egypt-1, Nigeria-2, Pakistan-15, Russia-1, Greece-2

*Double blinded evaluation proces

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Dr. Ahu PAKDEMİRLİ- Izmir Demokrasi University
Dr. Ahmet H. ERTAŞ- Bursa Technical University
Dr. Akile ZENGİN- Turgut Özal University
Dr. Ali BİLGİLİ- Ankara University
Dr. Almaz AHMEDOV- Bakü State University
Dr. Anatoliy LOGINOV- Ukraine Shevchenko Lugan National University
Dr. Aysel GÜVEN- Başkent University
Dr. Ayslu B. SARSEKENOVA- Orleu National Development Institute
Dr. Ayşe KABATAŞ- Karadeniz Technical University
Dr. Aziz AKSOY- Bitlis Eren University
Dr. BOUKHATEM Mohamed Nadjib- Université Saad Dahlab Blida
Dr. Canan DEMİR-Van Yüzüncü Yıl University
Dr. Cholpon TOKTOSUNOVA- Rasulbekov Kyrgiz Economy University
Dr. Derya OKUYAN- Balıkesir University University
Dr. Elif Ayşe ANLI- Ankara University
Dr. Elif BAŞKAYA- Karadeniz Technical University
Dr. Fatih ÇOLAK- Usak University
Dr. Feda REHIMOV- Bakü State University
Dr. Filiz BORAN- Hitit University
Dr. George RUDIC- Montreal Pedagogy Institute
Dr. Gökhan KÖK- Ege University
Dr. Günay MERHAN MUĞLU- Atatürk University
Dr. Hale UYAR HAZAR- Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Dr. Hilale CAFEROVA- AMEA Institute
Dr. İbrahim GÜNEŞ- Istanbul Cerrahpaşa University
Dr. İsmail ALTINTOP- Kayseri State Hospital
Dr. Jale ÇATAK- Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University
Dr. Kenes JUSUPOV- M. Tinisbaev Kazakh Vehicle Academy
Dr. Kerem ASMAZ- Yıldız Technical University
Dr. Kevser Sevgi ÜNAL ASLAN- Osmaniye Korkut Ata University
Dr. Khan Nadezhda- E.A. Buketov Karaganda State University
Dr. Leyla ÇİMEN- Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University
Dr. Maira ESIMBOLOVA- Kazakhistan Narkhoz University
Dr. Maria LEONTIK- Macedonia Ishtib Gotse Delchev University
Dr. Maha Hamdan ALANAZI- Riyad King Abdulaziz Technology Institute
Dr. Mahmut Alkan- Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University
Dr. Mavlyanov ABDIGAPPAR- Kyrgiz Elaralık University
Dr. Meixia HUOU- Capital Normal University
Dr. Merdin DANIŞMAZ-Ahi Evran University
Dr. Merve OKUTAN-Hitit University
Dr. Murat EYVAZ- Gebze Technical University
Dr. Murat SÖNMEZ- METU
Dr. Mustafa ŞAHİN- Selçuk University
Dr. Mustafa TALAS- Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University
Dr. Mutlu KESKİN- Altınbaş University

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
Dr. Nazile Abdullazadeh- Azərbaycan Dövlət Pedaqoji University
Dr. Nazmiye ÖZLEM ŞANLI- Istanbul University
Dr. Nurhayat ATASOY- Van Yüzüncü Yıl University
Dr. Özlem ÖZDEMİR- Gazi University
Dr. Remzi TUNTAŞ-Van Yüzüncü Yıl University
Dr. Rovshan ALİYEV- Bakü State University
Dr. Sevde AKSU- Balikesir University
Dr. Seyithan SEYDOŞOĞLU- Siirt University
Dr. Şevket TULUN-Aksaray University
Dr. Şeyma AYDEMİR- Hitit University
Dr. Ümran SEVİL- Ege University
Dr. Yılmaz KOÇAK- Van Yüzüncü Yıl University
Dr. Yüksel KAPLAN- Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 ISPEC
11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
September 18-19, 2021 / Mus

CONFERENCE PROGRAM
Online (with Video Conference) Presentation

Meeting ID: 891 1587 2623

Passcode: 000111
 Önemli, Dikkatle Okuyunuz Lütfen
 Kongremizde Yazım Kurallarına uygun gönderilmiş ve bilim kurulundan geçen bildiriler için online
(video konferans sistemi üzerinden) sunum imkanı sağlanmıştır.
 Online sunum yapabilmek için [Link] sitesi üzerinden giriş yaparak “Meeting ID or
Personal Link Name” yerine ID numarasını girerek oturuma katılabilirsiniz.
 Zoom uygulaması ücretsizdir ve hesap oluşturmaya gerek yoktur.
 Zoom uygulaması kaydolmadan kullanılabilir.
 Uygulama tablet, telefon ve PC’lerde çalışıyor.
 Her oturumdaki sunucular, sunum saatinden 5 dk öncesinde oturuma bağlanmış olmaları
gerekmektedir.
 Tüm kongre katılımcıları canlı bağlanarak tüm oturumları dinleyebilir.
 Moderatör – oturumdaki sunum ve bilimsel tartışma (soru-cevap) kısmından sorumludur.

Dikkat Edilmesi Gerekenler- TEKNİK BİLGİLER

 Bilgisayarınızda mikrofon olduğuna ve çalıştığına emin olun.
 Zoom'da ekran paylaşma özelliğine kullanabilmelisiniz.
 Kabul edilen bildiri sahiplerinin mail adreslerine Zoom uygulamasında oluşturduğumuz oturuma ait ID
numarası gönderilecektir.
 Katılım belgeleri kongre sonunda tarafınıza pdf olarak gönderilecektir
 Kongre programında yer ve saat değişikliği gibi talepler dikkate alınmayacaktır

IMPORTANT, PLEASE READ CAREFULLY

 To be able to attend a meeting online, login via [Link] site, enter ID “Meeting ID or
Personal Link Name” and solidify the session.
 The Zoom application is free and no need to create an account.
 The Zoom application can be used without registration.
 The application works on tablets, phones and PCs.
 The participant must be connected to the session 5 minutes before the presentation time.
 All congress participants can connect live and listen to all sessions.
 Moderator is responsible for the presentation and scientific discussion (question-answer) section of the
session.
Points to Take into Consideration - TECHNICAL INFORMATION
 Make sure your computer has a microphone and is working.
 You should be able to use screen sharing feature in Zoom.
 Attendance certificates will be sent to you as pdf at the end of the congress.
 Requests such as change of place and time will not be taken into consideration in the congress program.

Before you login to Zoom please indicate your name surname and hall number,
exp. H-1, Fatih SAYIN

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 0900-1130
Session - 1, Hall - 2
Head of Session: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ayşe AYTAÇ
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

DECOLORIZATION
POTENTIAL OF CALCINATED
Fatih SAYIN Eskisehir Osmangazi University
CLAY FOR DIFFERENT
SYNTHETIC DYES

REMOVAL OF REACTIVE RED

45(RR45) DYESTUFF
Assist. Prof. Dr. Sema ÇELİK CONTAMINATED SOLUTIONS
Eskisehir Osmangazi University
USING MODIFIED
PYRCANTHA COCINEA
BIOMASS

CLASSIFICATION OF
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL
Musa TOKMAK Orta Dogu Teknik University
DETERIORATIONS OBSERVED
IN KAYSERI STONE
MONUMENTS

THE PRODUCTION OF Ag NP-

Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ Kocaeli University DOPED HOLLOW PLA-PU
& & BLEND NANOFIBERS AND
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ayşe AYTAÇ Kocaeli University EXAMINATION OF
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

PRODUCTION OF WOUND
DRESSING WITH
Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ Kocaeli University
ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT
& &
FROM BICOMPONENT
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ayşe AYTAÇ Kocaeli University
NANOFIBERS WITH CORE
RAW PLA-SHELL PU-Ag NPs

IN VITRO AND IN SILICO

INHIBITION OF
Lect. Dr. Pınar GÜLLER Atatürk University GLUTATHIONE RELATED
ENZYMES BY SOME
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 INVESTIGATION OF THE
Hülya DURMUŞ
EFFECT OF SANDBLASTING
&
Manisa Celal Bayar University ON THE TRIBOLOGICAL
Fatih Nedim YORULMZ
BEHAVIOR OF INCONEL625
&
COATINGS IN DRY
Nilay ÇÖMEZ
ENVIRONMENT

COMPARISON OF THE
PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT
İbrahim Berk ÇAVUŞ
Bursa Technical University TYPES OF GLASS FIBER
REINFORCED PA6 AND PA66
COMPOSITES

ANTIOXIDANT AND
ANTIRADICAL PROPERTIES
Ahmet SAVCI Mus Alparslan University OF IŞGIN (R. RUBES)
EXTRACT GROWN IN MUŞ
PROVINCE

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 0900-1130
Session - 1, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Assist. Prof. Dr. Mitat AKKOÇ
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

HIGHLY EFFICIENT ORGANIC

WASTE-BASED CATALYST
FROM BANANA PEEL
TREATED WITH PHOSPHORIC
Duygu ELMA KARAKAŞ Siirt University
ACID FOR HYDROGEN
RELEASE FROM
METHANOLYSIS OF SODIUM
BOROHYDRIDE

Ali Alparslan ÇELİK

&
Cezmi ÖZDEMİR
MICROSTRUCTURAL
& Marmara University INVESTIGATIONS OF
Berna SALVAZLIOĞLU
HARDFACED ST37 STEEL BY
&
TIG WELDING
Neslişah KURNAZ
&
Yahya BOZKURT

SYNTHESIS AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF
NOVEL TWO-ARMED
Murat MISIR
Kırsehir Ahi Evran University TERTIARYBUTYLACRYLATE
MACROINITIATORS VIA
ATOM TRANSFER RADİCAL
POLYMERIZATION

DETERMINATION OF
Lect. Ayşe AKSOY HARMFUL SNPS OF THE
& MODIFYING TGFB1 AND CD14
Hitit University
Derya KÖRAHMETOĞLU GENES IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS
DISEASE BY IN SILICO
METHODS

PALLADIUM-CATALYZED IN-
SITU GENERATED SUZUKI
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mitat AKKOÇ Malatya Turgut Ozal University MIYAURA CROSS-COUPLING
REACTIONS IN GREEN
SOLVENTS

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Lect. Dr. Havva AYBEK
SECONDAR METABOLITES
&
Bingol University WITH MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nazlı Pınar
OF STREPTOMYCES SPECIES
ARSLAN

DETERMINATION OF THE
MOST POTENT PRECURSORS
Mustafa YAMAN Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University
OF ADVANCED GLYCATION
END PRODUCTS IN BAKLAVA

AKSU CREEK (ÇORUH RIVER)

Sadi AKSU
Eskisehir Osmangazi University FISH FAUNA AND SEASONAL
VARIATIONS

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1200-1430
Session - 2, Hall - 2
Head of Session: Assist. Prof. Dr. Süleyman ADAK
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

ROOT-LOCUS APPROACH
Lect. Dr. Mehmet ÇINAR Bitlis Eren University BASED PHASE LEAD-LAG
COMPENSATOR DESIGN

STRUCTURAL AND
Cihan KÜRKÇÜ Kırsehir Ahi Evran University
ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF
& &
TWO-DIMENSIONAL CaFCl
Selgin AL Izmir Democracy University
UNDER HIGH PRESSURE

HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF
Assist. Prof. Dr. Süleyman
Mardin Artuklu University ONE PHASE FULL WAVE
ADAK
UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Res. Assis. Cenk ANDİÇ Istanbul Technical University

2-TEST FOR DETECTING BAD
& &
DATA IN WLS STATE
Prof. Dr. Ali ÖZTÜRK Duzce University
ESTIMATION
& &
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salih TOSUN Duzce University

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ THE ROLE OF LANDSCAPE

& Bitlis Eren University LIGHTING FOR URBAN
Çiğdem CENGİZ BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ CONTRIBUTIONS OF CITY

Bitlis Eren University
& LIGHTING TO TOURISM
Çiğdem CENGİZ POTENTIAL

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1200-1430
Session - 2, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Prof. Dr. Ahmet TUTUŞ
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa
ÇİÇEKLER A STUDY ON THE
&
Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam EVALUATION OF DIAPER
Ayşe ÖZDEMİR Üniversitesi MILL RESIDUALS IN TISSUE
& PAPER PRODUCTION
Prof. Dr. Ahmet TUTUŞ

Betül YILDIRIM Nuh Naci Yazgan University A QUICK ARTIFICIAL BEE

& & COLONY ALGORITHM FOR P-
Latife GÖRKEMLİ AYKUT Erciyes University HUB MEDIAN PROBLEM

SALES FORECASTING OF
Sena BALKIŞLI
SHOCK ABSORBER BY USING
& Sakarya Üniversitesi
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
Berrin DENİZHAN
NETWORKS

Cebrail CUDRİ BIOMIMETIC BASED

& Gazi Üniversitesi AIRCRAFT LANDING SKIDS
Hüdayim BAŞAK ABSORPTION MECHANISM

PROBING THE PHYSICS OF

Hülya ESER SULU
THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM
& Yüzüncü Yıl University
IN SPIRAL GALAXIES FROM
Assist. Prof. Dr. Selçuk TOPAL
DIFFERENT ACTIVITY TYPES

DEBYE TEMPERATURE AND

Melek GÖKBULUT HEAT CAPATICY OF 5D
Tokat Gaziosmanpasa University
TRANSITION METAL
DIBORIDES MB2

THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT

TEMPERATURES ON FAILURE
Gurbet ÖRÇEN Dicle Üniversitesi
BEHAVIOR OF LAP JOINT
COMPOSITES

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1500-1730
Session - 3, Hall - 2
Head of Session: Asst. Prof. Murat Ergenokon SELÇUK
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

Pınar MEMİŞ DEMİRHAN VAN LAKE BASIN REGIONAL

& Kocaeli University FLOOD ANALYSIS AND
Prof. Dr. Mücahit OPAN MEASURES

DETERMINATION OF
Yusuf Doğan KARAMANOGLU
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey
& MEHMETBEY UNIVERSITY
University
Asst. Prof. Dr. Fuat BAŞÇİFTÇİ BUILDINGS BY UNMANNED
AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)

Asst. Prof. Murat Ergenokon SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS IN

SELÇUK LIQUEFIABLE SOIL
Yildiz Technical University
& CONTAINING DIFFERENT
Burak DEDEOĞLU SOIL PROFILES

RESEARCHING THE
Assist. Prof. Dr. İsmet ULUSU
PRODUCTIVITY OF HIGH
&
Erzincan Binali Yildirim University STRENGTH CONCRETE USING
Mohammad ALHASSN
ERZINCAN ELMA VILLAGE
ALHAMAD
CRUSHED AGGREGATE

INVESTIGATION OF THE
PROPERTIES OF FOAM
Murat GÖKÇE Amasya University
CONCRETE WITH DIFFERENT
DENSITIES

2D NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF
Gaye Ennur YÜCE
THE EFFECT OF PILE LENGTH
& Firat University
VARIATION ON PILED RAFT
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mesut GÖR
FOUNDATIONS

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1500-1730
Session - 3, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Dr. PL. Meenakshi
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

Emine KESKIN PREPARATION AND

& CHARACTERIZATION OF
Yıldız Technical University
Yavuz SALT PDMS/TiO2 NANOCOMPOSITE
& MEMBRANES FOR CO2
Onder YARGI SEPARATION

Nour Elhouda DJAA Relizane University

& &
MONOTONICITY FORMULEA
MOHAMED CHERIF Mascara University
AND F-STRESS ENERGY
& &
Kaddour ZEGGA Mascara University

SASTRA Deemed to be University HEAT TRANSFER IN A

D R V S R K Sastry
THERMALLY STRATIFIED
&
& MARANGONI CONVECTIVE
Sachin Shaw
Botswana International University NANOFLUID IN PRESENCE OF
ALIGNED MAGNETIC FIELD

SOLITARY SOLITON
SOLUTIONS TO THE
Ahmad Sharif
Gonbad Kavous University FRACTIONAL JAULENT–
MIODEK HIERARCHY
EQUATION WITH GRAPHICAL
ANALYSIS

A NEW CORRECTION MATRIX

Hossein Rahami University of Tehran FOR ANALYSIS OF FRAMES
WITH SEMI-RIGID AND HINGE
CONNECTIONS
Avinashilingam Institute for Home
J-CLOSED FUNCTIONS VIA J-
Dr. PL. Meenakshi Science and Higher Education for
CLOSED SETS IN
Women
TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

ON THE NUMBER OF
Dr. Mansour Hashemi
SOLUTIONS OF
& University of Guilan
COMMUTATOR EQUATION
Mina Pirzadeh
[xn,y]=g IN A CLASS OF FINITE
GROUPS

Vineet Kumar
SOLUTION OF
&
Delhi Technological University TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM
Anjana Gupta
UNDER INTERVAL VALUED
&
PTYHAGOREAN FUZZY SET
H.C. Taneja

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1800-2030
Session - 4, Hall - 2
Head of Session: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Rahioui
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

Meziane Hind Mohammed I University
SECURITY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed

Rahioui
LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS OF
&
Moulay Ismail University FRACTIONAL PARTIAL
Prof. Dr. El Hassan El Kinani
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
&
Prof. Dr. Abdelaziz Ouhadan

THE GENERALIZED
M.H. Hamdan FORCHHEIMER EQUATION
& University of New Brunswick
WITH MICROSTRUCTURE
M.S. Abu Zaytoon EFFECTS

A NOVEL APPROACH TO
Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli
Ahmet KAYA MODEL NON-LIFE
University
INSURANCE RISK

Thomas Rosy CERTAIN SUBCLASSES OF

& ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS WITH
[Link] Madras Christian College
RESPECT TO
& N-SYMMETRIC POINTS
S. Sunil Varma

ON A SUBCLASS OF
HARMONIC UNIVALENT
S. Sunil Varma MAPPINGS WHOSE ANALYTIC
& Madras Christian College
AND CO-ANALYTIC PARTS
Thomas Rosy SATISFY A DIFFERENTIAL
INEQUALITY

Dr. Olubunmi T. DIVERGENCE AND

OLORUNPOMI Nigeria Police Academy PERIODICITY OF
MERCHANDISE TRADE

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 18.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1800-2030
Session - 4, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Dr. Yogita M. Ahire
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi

& THE LONG TERM
Fariba Vahedi Iranian Fisheries Science Research HYDROCHEMICAL TRENDS IN
& Institute THE IRANIAN COAST OF THE
Asieh Makhlough CASPIAN SEA
&
Mohammad Kardar Rostami
Asieh Makhloukh
&
THE LONG TERM
Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi
Iranian Fisheries Science Research PHYTOPLANKTON STUDY IN
&
Institute THE IRANIAN COAST OF THE
Abolghasem Roohi
CASPIAN SEA
&
AbbasAli Aghaei Moghadam

THERMAL STRESSES IN
Dr. Yogita M. Ahire PVG’s College THICK RECTANGULAR PLATE
BY INTERNAL MOVING HEAT
SOURCES

CHALLENGES AND
Maryam Rasoolzadeh OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE
Islamic Azad University
DEVELOPMENT OF
COMPUTATIONAL
CATALYSIS

RECYCLING OF WASTE
Muhammad Sikandar COMSATs University Islamabad COOKING OIL INTO
MULTIFUNCTIONAL
ADDITIVES FOR LUBRICANTS

FABRICATION OF CN
WRAPPED BIMETALLIC
Muhammad Waseem Fazal COMSATs University Islamabad
METAL ORGANIC
FRAMEWORK FOR WATER
SPLITTING

MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION
Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN
Çukurova University MAKING (MCDM) METHODS
BARAK
USED IN COVID-19
RELATED STUDIES

ORDER ACCEPTANCE AND

Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN SCHEDULING STUDIES AND
Çukurova University
BARAK GREEN APPLICATIONS: A
REVIEW

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 0900-1130
Session - 1, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

INFLUENCE OF INFILL
Ali Can KAYA DENSITY ON THE
& Turkish-German University MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Ali KORUCU OF 3D PRINTED POLYLACTID
ACID PARTS

DEVELOPMENT OF
Perveen Kanwal
INDIGENOUS ADSORBENT
&
COMSATs University Islamabad MATERIALS FOR
Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal
PURIFICATION OF USED
COOKING OIL

USE OF PLANT BIOMASS TO

Kalsoom Fatima
REDUCE PEROXIDE VALUE
& COMSATS University Islamabad
AND FREE FATTY ACIDS OF
Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal
USED COOKING OIL

HEAT AND MASS FLOW IN

VARYING CLOSED LOOP
Waqar Ahmed University Technology Malaysia SINGLE TUBE GEOMETRIES
BY USING DIFFERENT
NANOFLUIDS

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
Tuğrul YUMAK Sinop University STORAGE PROPERTIES of g-
C3N4-BASED ELECTRODES

BENEFITS OF USING FUZZY

Marwa. A. Marzouk Matrouh University
LOGIC

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Zsófia Gál
&
András Gézsi
&
INVESTIGATION OF THE
Mónika Sándorné Vángor Semmelweis University
PROTEIN COMPOSITION OF
& &
EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES
Lilla Turiák Eötvös Loránd University
IN ASTHMA AND COPD
&
László Drahos
&
Csaba Szalai
Aafaf Beljadid
&
DEEP LEARNING FOR FABRIC
Adil Tannouche High School of technology
DEFECT DETECTION
&
Abdesamad Balouki

ASSESSING THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE GOOD GOVERNANCE
Ehsan Rasoulinezhad University of Tehran
INDICATORS AND ENERGY
TRANSITION IN THE RUSSIAN
FEDERATION

THE IMPORTANCE OF
KINDERGARTEN’S SPACE
PEDAGOGICAL
University AUTH - Aristotle REFORMATION IN
Klimanoglou Sofia
University of Thessaloniki COORDINATION WITH
COOPERATIVE METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES IN WATER
CYCLE ACTIVITIES

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 0900-1130
Session - 1, Hall - 4
Head of Session: Lect. Dr. Cemil OCAK
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

SCIENTIFICALLY SOLVE THE

FREQUENCY AND
Ashish Dhamanda Gurukula Kangri Haridwar
CORRESPONDİNG POWER
VARIATION PROBLEM

K. Thamizhmaran Annamalai University CLUSTER NETWORK

& & PROTOCOLS BASED ON
Dr. A. Charles GCE MOBILE AD HOC ROUTING- A
SURVEY

Mian Aizaz, Ahmed

& GRAPHENE BASED
Aiman Asad, Soomro University of Sindh TRANSPARENT HUMIDITY
& SENSOR
Ahsan Ali, Jatoi

Aiman Assad, Soomro

&
Mian Aizaz, Ahmed University of Sindh
PLC BASED AUTOMATION
& &
FOR WIRE STIRRUP BENDER
Virda Abbasi COMSATS University
&
Eeman Soomro

Lect. Dr. Cemil OCAK DESIGN AND APPLICATION

& Gazi University OF A NEW THREE LEVEL
Osman GÜRDAL BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Kalaiyarasi M
&
Aravind Kumar T
& Bannari Amman Institute SMART GLUCO DEVICE
Sarandeep A
&
Kishorekumar S

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 R. Karthikamani
&
Deepika.B
WHEELCHAIR
& Bannari Amman Institute
FALLASISTANCE
Hariram.R
&
Arjun.S

Pendyala V Muralidhar
NOVEL REVERSIBLE LOGIC
&
GATE BASED HALF ADDER
P. Sowjanya Aditya Institute
AND FULL ADDER CIRCUIT
&
DESIGNS
Manikanta

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1200-1430
Session - 2, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Professor S. N. Kazi
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

REVOLVING SPOOL VALVE

Dr. Sci Eugene Sviyazheninov Russian Academy
MULTIPLIER

NANOFLUIDS AND ITS

APPLICATION IN HEAT
Professor S. N. Kazi University of Malaya EXCHANGERS FOR
EFFECTIVE ENERGY
TRANSPORTATION

Afrin Jahan REATTACHMENT LENGTH

& AND HEAT TRANSFER
Zaira Zaman Chhowdhury CHARACTERISTICS OF
& COVALENTLY
S. N. Kazi University of Malaya FUNCTIONALIZED
& GRAPHENE NANOFLUID
Mohd Rafie Johan ENCOUNTERED IN A
& BACKWARD FACING STEP-A
L. Harish Kumar SUSTAINABLE AND
SIMPLISTIC APPROACH

LYAPUNOV EXPONENT
PARAMETER OF STIFFENED
Assistant Professor Dr. Louay S.
San Diego State University COMPOSITE LAMINATED
Yousuf
PLATE DUE TO CRITICAL
BUCKLING LOAD ANALYSIS

NONLINEAR DYNAMICS
Assistant Professor Dr. Louay S. SIMULATION OF A
San Diego State University
Yousuf CONCENTRIC COMPOSITE
MULTIFERROICS RING
NOVEL MATHEMATICAL
MODEL FOR HEAT
Pablo Restrepo-Barrientos
TREATMENT FURNACES:
&
APPLICATION TO FURNACES
Juan C. Maya Universidad Nacional de Colombia
FOR SURFACE TREATMENT
&
OF CRITICAL COMPONENTS
Maria E. Muñoz Amariles
OF HYDROELECTRIC AND
GAS PLANTS
IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY
Oluwo A. A. OF A PEANUT ROASTING
& University of Lagos MACHINE VIA SCREW-
Idowu D. T. BARREL CLEARANCE

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1200-1430
Session - 2, Hall - 4
Head of Session: Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad

Aslam
&
Adil Khan
&
Sadaf Noshin EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON
& HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
University of Lahore
Asif Nazir OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE
& SANDS IN PAKISTAN
[Link]
&
Khuram Riaz
&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad

Aslam
&
Adil Khan
&
EFFECT OF CARPET FIBER
Sadaf Noshin
REINFORCEMENT ON
&
University of Lahore UNCONFINED
Asif Nazir
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
&
CLAYEY SOIL
[Link]
&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad
&
Khuram Riaz

Khuram Riaz
&
Madeeha Iqbal
&
Sadaf Noshin SYNERGISTIC USE OF
& BENTONITE AND FLY ASH
Shabeer Hussain University of Lahore CLASS (F)
& ON THE COMPRESSIVE
Alireza Khoshkonesh STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
&
Muhammad Waseem Yaseen
&
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
Aslam

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Asst. Prof. Dr. Huseyin Cagan
İstanbul Esenyurt University COMPARISON OF AKDERE
KILINC
& FLOW MEASUREMENT
&
Kilis 7 Aralık University STATION DATA BASED DEEP-
Asst. Prof. Dr. Yunus OZTURK
& LEARNING MODELS IN
&
İstanbul Esenyurt University PREDICTION OF STREAM-
Prof. Dr. Sudi APAK
& FLOW FOR WATER
&
Hasan Kalyoncu University RESOURCES APPROACH
MSc Ebru TARIM

SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF
RC BEAMS WITH GFRP STRIPS
Ceyhun AKSOYLU Konya Technical University USING DIFFERENT WRAPPING
TECHNICS WITHOUT
ANCHORING APPLICATION

OPTIMIZATION OF
Kevin O. Odhiambo
RAINWATER HARVESTING
&
AND STORAGE SYSTEMS
Basil. T. Iro Ong’or Masinde Muliro University
DESIGN FOR SMALLHOLDER
&
IRRIGATION FARMERS IN
Edwin K. Kanda
SUB-SAHARA AFRICA

Dr. Emre TERCAN

General Directorate of Highways LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY
&
& MAPPING USING
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali
Giresun University GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
DERELİ
& SYSTEM AND SWARA IN
&
Ondokuz Mayıs University FATSA, TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Orhan DENGİZ

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESS
CONTROL AND MODELLING
Αthanasios Sotirios Dounavis University of Western Macedonia
OF AN ACETATE-FED
ANAEROBIC DIGESTER

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1500-1730
Session - 3, Hall - 3
Head of Session: Vladimir Saveljev
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman
Shadab Kalhoro
&
&
Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Anam Kalhoro TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM
Institute
& BY USING DIGITAL IMAGE
&
Junaid-ur-Rehman Abbasi PROCESSING
Mehran University
&
&
Shahbaz Ali
Mehran University

Guilherme Silva Teixeira DETERMINATION OF WIND

& Federal University of Mato Grosso LOADS FOR BUILDINGS
Marco Donisete de Campos WITH PARABOLOID ROOFS

Vladimir Saveljev
&
Jung-Young Son
MOIRÉ EFFECT IN CURVED
& Konyang University
DISPLAYS
Jeong Kim
&
Gwanghee Heo

Vladimir Saveljev
&
NON-CONTACT
Jung-Young Son
MEASUREMENT OF
& Konyang University
DISPLACEMENT USING THE
Hyoung Lee
MOIRÉ EFFECT
&
Gwanghee Heo

Rupesh Mahajan SKETCH BASED DATA

& [Link] institute of technology RETRIEVAL FROM COLOR
Minal Shahakar IMAGES

COMPARATIVE STUDY
Djihad DJAA BETWEEN APPROACHES
& Djillali Liabes University ANNOTATION
Djelloul BOUCHIHA OF WEB SERVICES

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Date: 19.09.2021
Ankara Local Time: 1500-1730
Session - 3, Hall - 4
Head of Session: Sahar Moktari
AUTHORS UNIVERSITY/INSTITUTION TOPIC TITLE

[Link]
&
M.A khan
&
EFFECT ON COMPRESSIVE
[Link]
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
&
USING WASTE WATER FOR
[Link] University of Lahore
MIXING AND CURING OF
&
CONCRETE
[Link]
&
[Link]
&
A. Ahmad

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
& ADDITIVES ON
Khuram Riaz COMPECTION
University of Lahore
& CHARACTEERISTICS AND
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
Aslam STRENGTH OF FINE SAND
&
Sadaf Noshin

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

&
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
Aslam
& EFFECT OF FLY ASH AND
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad BRICK POWDER ON
University of Lahore
& PHYSICAL
Sadaf Noshin PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOIL
&
Khuram Riaz
&
[Link]

Associate Professor Hamidreza

Kamalan EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANT
& INDICATORS OF GREEN
Sahar Moktari HOSPITAL FROM THE
Islamic Azad University
& PERSPECTIVE OF
Amir Abedin Maghanaki CONSTRUCTION
& MANAGEMENT
Hossein Eskandari

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Asif Nazir
STUDY OF PHYSICAL
&
PROPERTIES (WORKABILITY,
Faisal Amin
COMPRESSIVE, AND TENSILE
&
STRENGTH) OF
Usama Khan
University of Lahore GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE BY
&
USING ROCK DUST, FLY
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
ASH AND SLAG CURED AT
Aslam
AMBIENT AND ELEVATED
&
TEMPERATURES
Humaira Kanwal

FRESH AND HARDENED

PROPERTIES OF SELF-CURING
Asif Nazir University of Lahore CONCRETE AND ITS
COMPARISON WITH
CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

Hocine. Ayat CARBONATION DEPTH

& PREDICTION OF LIMESTONE
University Hassiba Benbouali of
Yasmina. Kellouche FILLER CONCRETE USING
Chlef
& ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
Mohamed. Ghrici NETWORKS

THEORETICAL AND
Ashraf MASKONI NUMERICAL STUDY OF
& INTERNAL STABILITY OF
Noureddine LATRACHE University of Western Brittany DENSE GRAVITY CURRENT
& BENEATH AMBIENT STATIC
Blaise NSOM WATER OVER A SINUSOIDAL
TOPOGRAPHIC BOTTOM

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 PHOTO GALLERY

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 CONTENTS
AUTHORS PRESENTATION TITLE NO

DECOLORIZATION
POTENTIAL OF CALCINATED
Fatih SAYIN CLAY FOR DIFFERENT 1-5
SYNTHETIC DYES

REMOVAL OF REACTIVE RED

45(RR45) DYESTUFF
Sema ÇELİK CONTAMINATED SOLUTIONS
USING MODIFIED 6
PYRCANTHA COCINEA
BIOMASS

CLASSIFICATION OF
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL
Musa TOKMAK DETERIORATIONS OBSERVED 7-21
IN KAYSERI STONE
MONUMENTS

THE PRODUCTION OF Ag NP-

Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ DOPED HOLLOW PLA-PU
& BLEND NANOFIBERS AND 22-33
Ayşe AYTAÇ EXAMINATION OF
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

PRODUCTION OF WOUND
DRESSING WITH
Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT
& FROM BICOMPONENT 34-45
Ayşe AYTAÇ NANOFIBERS WITH CORE
RAW PLA-SHELL PU-Ag NPs

IN VITRO AND IN SILICO

INHIBITION OF
Pınar GÜLLER GLUTATHIONE RELATED 46-47
ENZYMES BY SOME
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS

INVESTIGATION OF THE
Hülya DURMUŞ EFFECT OF SANDBLASTING
& ON THE TRIBOLOGICAL
Fatih Nedim YORULMZ BEHAVIOR OF INCONEL625 48-49
& COATINGS IN DRY
Nilay ÇÖMEZ ENVIRONMENT

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 COMPARISON OF THE
PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT
İbrahim Berk ÇAVUŞ
TYPES OF GLASS FIBER 50-51
REINFORCED PA6 AND PA66
COMPOSITES

ANTIOXIDANT AND
ANTIRADICAL PROPERTIES
Ahmet SAVCI OF IŞGIN (R. RUBES) 52-56
EXTRACT GROWN IN MUŞ
PROVINCE

HIGHLY EFFICIENT ORGANIC

WASTE-BASED CATALYST
FROM BANANA PEEL
TREATED WITH PHOSPHORIC
Duygu ELMA KARAKAŞ 57
ACID FOR HYDROGEN
RELEASE FROM
METHANOLYSIS OF SODIUM
BOROHYDRIDE

Ali Alparslan ÇELİK

&
Cezmi ÖZDEMİR
MICROSTRUCTURAL
&
INVESTIGATIONS OF
Berna SALVAZLIOĞLU 58-66
HARDFACED ST37 STEEL BY
&
TIG WELDING
Neslişah KURNAZ
&
Yahya BOZKURT

SYNTHESIS AND
CHARACTERIZATION OF
NOVEL TWO-ARMED
Murat MISIR
TERTIARYBUTYLACRYLATE 67-68
MACROINITIATORS VIA
ATOM TRANSFER RADİCAL
POLYMERIZATION

DETERMINATION OF
Ayşe AKSOY HARMFUL SNPS OF THE
& MODIFYING TGFB1 AND CD14
69-70
Derya KÖRAHMETOĞLU GENES IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS
DISEASE BY IN SILICO
METHODS

PALLADIUM-CATALYZED IN-
SITU GENERATED SUZUKI
Mitat AKKOÇ MIYAURA CROSS-COUPLING 71-78
REACTIONS IN GREEN
SOLVENTS

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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Havva AYBEK SECONDAR METABOLITES
& WITH MEDICAL IMPORTANCE 79-80
Nazlı Pınar ARSLAN OF STREPTOMYCES SPECIES

DETERMINATION OF THE
MOST POTENT PRECURSORS
Mustafa YAMAN 81-82
OF ADVANCED GLYCATION
END PRODUCTS IN BAKLAVA

AKSU CREEK (ÇORUH RIVER)

Sadi AKSU
FISH FAUNA AND SEASONAL 83-87
VARIATIONS

ROOT-LOCUS APPROACH
Mehmet ÇINAR 88-100
BASED PHASE LEAD-LAG
COMPENSATOR DESIGN

STRUCTURAL AND
Cihan KÜRKÇÜ
ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF
& 101-106
TWO-DIMENSIONAL CaFCl
Selgin AL
UNDER HIGH PRESSURE

HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF
Süleyman ADAK ONE PHASE FULL WAVE 107-119
UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Cenk ANDİÇ
2-TEST FOR DETECTING BAD
&
DATA IN WLS STATE
Ali ÖZTÜRK 120-128
ESTIMATION
&
Salih TOSUN

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ THE ROLE OF LANDSCAPE

& LIGHTING FOR URBAN 129-135
Çiğdem CENGİZ BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ CONTRIBUTIONS OF CITY

& LIGHTING TO TOURISM 136-142
Çiğdem CENGİZ POTENTIAL

Mustafa ÇİÇEKLER
& A STUDY ON THE
EVALUATION OF DIAPER
Ayşe ÖZDEMİR 143-150
MILL RESIDUALS IN TISSUE
&
PAPER PRODUCTION
Ahmet TUTUŞ

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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Betül YILDIRIM A QUICK ARTIFICIAL BEE
& COLONY ALGORITHM FOR P- 151-163
Latife GÖRKEMLİ AYKUT HUB MEDIAN PROBLEM

SALES FORECASTING OF
Sena BALKIŞLI
SHOCK ABSORBER BY USING
& 164-165
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
Berrin DENİZHAN
NETWORKS

Cebrail CUDRİ BIOMIMETIC BASED

& AIRCRAFT LANDING SKIDS 166-175
Hüdayim BAŞAK ABSORPTION MECHANISM

PROBING THE PHYSICS OF

Hülya ESER SULU
THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM
& 176
IN SPIRAL GALAXIES FROM
Selçuk TOPAL
DIFFERENT ACTIVITY TYPES

DEBYE TEMPERATURE AND

HEAT CAPATICY OF 5D
Melek GÖKBULUT 177-185
TRANSITION METAL
DIBORIDES MB2

THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT

TEMPERATURES ON FAILURE
Gurbet ÖRÇEN 186-196
BEHAVIOR OF LAP JOINT
COMPOSITES

Pınar MEMİŞ DEMİRHAN VAN LAKE BASIN REGIONAL

& FLOOD ANALYSIS AND 197-198
Mücahit OPAN MEASURES

DETERMINATION OF
Yusuf Doğan KARAMANOGLU
& MEHMETBEY UNIVERSITY 199-210
Fuat BAŞÇİFTÇİ BUILDINGS BY UNMANNED
AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)

SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS IN

Murat Ergenokon SELÇUK
LIQUEFIABLE SOIL
& 211-220
CONTAINING DIFFERENT
Burak DEDEOĞLU
SOIL PROFILES

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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 RESEARCHING THE
İsmet ULUSU
PRODUCTIVITY OF HIGH
&
STRENGTH CONCRETE USING 221-226
Mohammad ALHASSN
ERZINCAN ELMA VILLAGE
ALHAMAD
CRUSHED AGGREGATE

INVESTIGATION OF THE
PROPERTIES OF FOAM
Murat GÖKÇE 227-234
CONCRETE WITH DIFFERENT
DENSITIES

2D NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF
Gaye Ennur YÜCE
THE EFFECT OF PILE LENGTH
& 235-246
VARIATION ON PILED RAFT
Mesut GÖR
FOUNDATIONS

Emine KESKIN
PREPARATION AND
&
CHARACTERIZATION OF
Yavuz SALT 247
PDMS/TiO2 NANOCOMPOSITE
&
MEMBRANES FOR CO2
Onder YARGI
SEPARATION
Nour Elhouda DJAA
&
MONOTONICITY FORMULEA
MOHAMED CHERIF 248
AND F-STRESS ENERGY
&
Kaddour ZEGGA

HEAT TRANSFER IN A
D R V S R K Sastry
THERMALLY STRATIFIED
& 249-250
MARANGONI CONVECTIVE
Sachin Shaw
NANOFLUID IN PRESENCE OF
ALIGNED MAGNETIC FIELD

SOLITARY SOLITON
SOLUTIONS TO THE
Ahmad Sharif
FRACTIONAL JAULENT– 251-257
MIODEK HIERARCHY
EQUATION WITH GRAPHICAL
ANALYSIS

A NEW CORRECTION MATRIX

Hossein Rahami FOR ANALYSIS OF FRAMES 258-268
WITH SEMI-RIGID AND HINGE
CONNECTIONS

J-CLOSED FUNCTIONS VIA J-

PL. Meenakshi 269
CLOSED SETS IN
TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

ON THE NUMBER OF
Mansour Hashemi
SOLUTIONS OF
& 270-271
COMMUTATOR EQUATION
Mina Pirzadeh
[xn,y]=g IN A CLASS OF FINITE
GROUPS

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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Vineet Kumar
SOLUTION OF
&
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM
Anjana Gupta 272
UNDER INTERVAL VALUED
&
PTYHAGOREAN FUZZY SET
H.C. Taneja

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

Meziane Hind 273
SECURITY

Mohamed Rahioui
& LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS OF
El Hassan El Kinani FRACTIONAL PARTIAL 274
& DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Abdelaziz Ouhadan

THE GENERALIZED
M.H. Hamdan
FORCHHEIMER EQUATION
& 275-283
WITH MICROSTRUCTURE
M.S. Abu Zaytoon
EFFECTS

A NOVEL APPROACH TO
Ahmet KAYA MODEL NON-LIFE 284-285
INSURANCE RISK

Thomas Rosy
CERTAIN SUBCLASSES OF
&
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS WITH
[Link] 286-295
RESPECT TO
&
N-SYMMETRIC POINTS
S. Sunil Varma

ON A SUBCLASS OF
HARMONIC UNIVALENT
S. Sunil Varma
MAPPINGS WHOSE ANALYTIC
& 296-304
AND CO-ANALYTIC PARTS
Thomas Rosy
SATISFY A DIFFERENTIAL
INEQUALITY

DIVERGENCE AND
Olubunmi T. OLORUNPOMI
PERIODICITY OF 305-315
MERCHANDISE TRADE

Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi

&
THE LONG TERM
Fariba Vahedi
HYDROCHEMICAL TRENDS IN
& 316
THE IRANIAN COAST OF THE
Asieh Makhlough
CASPIAN SEA
&
Mohammad Kardar Rostami

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 Asieh Makhloukh
&
THE LONG TERM
Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi
PHYTOPLANKTON STUDY IN
&
THE IRANIAN COAST OF THE 317-318
Abolghasem Roohi
CASPIAN SEA
&
AbbasAli Aghaei Moghadam

THERMAL STRESSES IN
THICK RECTANGULAR PLATE
Yogita M. Ahire 319
BY INTERNAL MOVING HEAT
SOURCES

CHALLENGES AND
Maryam Rasoolzadeh OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE
320
DEVELOPMENT OF
COMPUTATIONAL
CATALYSIS

RECYCLING OF WASTE
Muhammad Sikandar COOKING OIL INTO 321
MULTIFUNCTIONAL
ADDITIVES FOR LUBRICANTS

FABRICATION OF CN
WRAPPED BIMETALLIC
Muhammad Waseem Fazal 322
METAL ORGANIC
FRAMEWORK FOR WATER
SPLITTING
MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION
Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN MAKING (MCDM) METHODS
323
BARAK USED IN COVID-19
RELATED STUDIES
ORDER ACCEPTANCE AND
Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN SCHEDULING STUDIES AND
324
BARAK GREEN APPLICATIONS: A
REVIEW

INFLUENCE OF INFILL
Ali Can KAYA DENSITY ON THE
& MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 325-331
Ali KORUCU OF 3D PRINTED POLYLACTID
ACID PARTS

DEVELOPMENT OF
Perveen Kanwal
INDIGENOUS ADSORBENT
&
MATERIALS FOR 332
Muhammad Javid Iqbal
PURIFICATION OF USED
COOKING OIL

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 USE OF PLANT BIOMASS TO
Kalsoom Fatima
REDUCE PEROXIDE VALUE
& 333
AND FREE FATTY ACIDS OF
Muhammad Javid Iqbal
USED COOKING OIL

HEAT AND MASS FLOW IN

VARYING CLOSED LOOP
Waqar Ahmed SINGLE TUBE GEOMETRIES 334
BY USING DIFFERENT
NANOFLUIDS

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
Tuğrul YUMAK STORAGE PROPERTIES of g- 335
C3N4-BASED ELECTRODES

BENEFITS OF USING FUZZY

Marwa. A. Marzouk 336
LOGIC

Zsófia Gál
&
András Gézsi
&
INVESTIGATION OF THE
Mónika Sándorné Vángor
PROTEIN COMPOSITION OF
& 337-338
EXTRACELLULAR VESICLES
Lilla Turiák
IN ASTHMA AND COPD
&
László Drahos
&
Csaba Szalai
Aafaf Beljadid
&
DEEP LEARNING FOR FABRIC
Adil Tannouche 339
DEFECT DETECTION
&
Abdesamad Balouki

ASSESSING THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE GOOD GOVERNANCE
Ehsan Rasoulinezhad 340-344
INDICATORS AND ENERGY
TRANSITION IN THE RUSSIAN
FEDERATION

THE IMPORTANCE OF
KINDERGARTEN’S SPACE
PEDAGOGICAL
REFORMATION IN
Klimanoglou Sofia 345-357
COORDINATION WITH
COOPERATIVE METHODS
AND TECHNIQUES IN WATER
CYCLE ACTIVITIES

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
[Link]/fenmuhendislik
 SCIENTIFICALLY SOLVE THE
FREQUENCY AND
Ashish Dhamanda 358
CORRESPONDİNG POWER
VARIATION PROBLEM

CLUSTER NETWORK
K. Thamizhmaran
PROTOCOLS BASED ON
& 359-364
MOBILE AD HOC ROUTING- A
Dr. A. Charles
SURVEY

Mian Aizaz, Ahmed

& GRAPHENE BASED
Aiman Asad, Soomro TRANSPARENT HUMIDITY 365
& SENSOR
Ahsan Ali, Jatoi
Aiman Assad, Soomro
&
Mian Aizaz, Ahmed
PLC BASED AUTOMATION
& 366
FOR WIRE STIRRUP BENDER
Virda Abbasi
&
Eeman Soomro

Cemil OCAK DESIGN AND APPLICATION

& OF A NEW THREE LEVEL 367-378
Osman GÜRDAL BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Kalaiyarasi M
&
Aravind Kumar T
& SMART GLUCO DEVICE 379
Sarandeep A
&
Kishorekumar S

R. Karthikamani
&
Deepika.B WHEELCHAIR
380
& FALLASISTANCE
Hariram.R
&
Arjun.S
Pendyala V Muralidhar
NOVEL REVERSIBLE LOGIC
&
GATE BASED HALF ADDER
P. Sowjanya 381
AND FULL ADDER CIRCUIT
&
DESIGNS
Manikanta

REVOLVING SPOOL VALVE

Sci Eugene Sviyazheninov 382
MULTIPLIER

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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 NANOFLUIDS AND ITS
APPLICATION IN HEAT
S. N. Kazi EXCHANGERS FOR 383
EFFECTIVE ENERGY
TRANSPORTATION

Afrin Jahan REATTACHMENT LENGTH

& AND HEAT TRANSFER
Zaira Zaman Chhowdhury CHARACTERISTICS OF
& COVALENTLY
S. N. Kazi FUNCTIONALIZED GRAPHENE 384
& NANOFLUID ENCOUNTERED
Mohd Rafie Johan IN A BACKWARD FACING
& STEP-A SUSTAINABLE AND
L. Harish Kumar SIMPLISTIC APPROACH

LYAPUNOV EXPONENT
PARAMETER OF STIFFENED
Louay S. Yousuf COMPOSITE LAMINATED 385
PLATE DUE TO CRITICAL
BUCKLING LOAD ANALYSIS

NONLINEAR DYNAMICS
SIMULATION OF A
Louay S. Yousuf 386
CONCENTRIC COMPOSITE
MULTIFERROICS RING

NOVEL MATHEMATICAL
MODEL FOR HEAT
Pablo Restrepo-Barrientos
TREATMENT FURNACES:
&
APPLICATION TO FURNACES
Juan C. Maya 387-395
FOR SURFACE TREATMENT
&
OF CRITICAL COMPONENTS
Maria E. Muñoz Amariles
OF HYDROELECTRIC AND
GAS PLANTS

IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY

Oluwo A. A.
OF A PEANUT ROASTING
& 396-408
MACHINE VIA SCREW-
Idowu D. T.
BARREL CLEARANCE

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
Aslam
&
Adil Khan
&
Sadaf Noshin EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON
& HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Asif Nazir 409-410
OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE
& SANDS IN PAKISTAN
[Link]
&
Khuram Riaz
&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad

Aslam
&
Adil Khan
&
EFFECT OF CARPET FIBER
Sadaf Noshin
REINFORCEMENT ON
&
UNCONFINED 411-412
Asif Nazir
& COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
CLAYEY SOIL
[Link]
&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad
&
Khuram Riaz

Khuram Riaz
&
Madeeha Iqbal
&
Sadaf Noshin SYNERGISTIC USE OF
& BENTONITE AND FLY ASH
Shabeer Hussain CLASS (F) 413
& ON THE COMPRESSIVE
Alireza Khoshkonesh STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
&
Muhammad Waseem Yaseen
&
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
Aslam

Huseyin Cagan KILINC COMPARISON OF AKDERE

& FLOW MEASUREMENT
Yunus OZTURK STATION DATA BASED DEEP-
& LEARNING MODELS IN 414-422
Sudi APAK PREDICTION OF STREAM-
& FLOW FOR WATER
Ebru TARIM RESOURCES APPROACH

ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES

September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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 SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF
RC BEAMS WITH GFRP STRIPS
Ceyhun AKSOYLU USING DIFFERENT WRAPPING 423-429
TECHNICS WITHOUT
ANCHORING APPLICATION

OPTIMIZATION OF
Kevin O. Odhiambo
RAINWATER HARVESTING
&
AND STORAGE SYSTEMS
Basil. T. Iro Ong’or 430
DESIGN FOR SMALLHOLDER
&
IRRIGATION FARMERS IN
Edwin K. Kanda
SUB-SAHARA AFRICA

Emre TERCAN LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY

& MAPPING USING
Mehmet Ali DERELİ GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 431-441
& SYSTEM AND SWARA IN
Orhan DENGİZ FATSA, TURKEY

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESS
CONTROL AND MODELLING
Αthanasios Sotirios Dounavis 442
OF AN ACETATE-FED
ANAEROBIC DIGESTER

Shadab Kalhoro
& TRAFFIC CONTROL
Anam Kalhoro
SYSTEM BY USING
& 443
Junaid-ur-Rehman Abbasi
DIGITAL IMAGE
& PROCESSING
Shahbaz Ali

Guilherme Silva Teixeira DETERMINATION OF WIND

& LOADS FOR BUILDINGS 444-459
Marco Donisete de Campos WITH PARABOLOID ROOFS

Vladimir Saveljev
&
Jung-Young Son
MOIRÉ EFFECT IN CURVED
& 460-463
DISPLAYS
Jeong Kim
&
Gwanghee Heo
Vladimir Saveljev
&
NON-CONTACT
Jung-Young Son
MEASUREMENT OF
& 464-467
DISPLACEMENT USING THE
Hyoung Lee
MOIRÉ EFFECT
&
Gwanghee Heo

Rupesh Mahajan SKETCH BASED DATA

& RETRIEVAL FROM COLOR 468
Minal Shahakar IMAGES

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September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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 COMPARATIVE STUDY
Djihad DJAA
BETWEEN APPROACHES
& 469
ANNOTATION
Djelloul BOUCHIHA
OF WEB SERVICES

[Link]
&
M.A khan
&
EFFECT ON COMPRESSIVE
[Link]
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
&
[Link] USING WASTE WATER FOR
470
MIXING AND CURING OF
&
CONCRETE
[Link]
&
[Link]
&
A. Ahmad

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

&
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
& ADDITIVES ON
Khuram Riaz COMPECTION
& 471
CHARACTEERISTICS AND
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
Aslam STRENGTH OF FINE SAND
&
Sadaf Noshin

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

&
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
Aslam
& EFFECT OF FLY ASH AND
Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad BRICK POWDER ON
& 472
PHYSICAL
Sadaf Noshin PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOIL
&
Khuram Riaz
&
[Link]

Associate Professor Hamidreza

Kamalan EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANT
& INDICATORS OF GREEN
Sahar Moktari HOSPITAL FROM THE
473
& PERSPECTIVE OF
Amir Abedin Maghanaki CONSTRUCTION
& MANAGEMENT
Hossein Eskandari

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September 18-19, 2021 / Mus, TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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 Asif Nazir
STUDY OF PHYSICAL
&
PROPERTIES (WORKABILITY,
Faisal Amin
COMPRESSIVE, AND TENSILE
&
STRENGTH) OF
Usama Khan
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE BY 474
&
USING ROCK DUST, FLY
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad
ASH AND SLAG CURED AT
Aslam
AMBIENT AND ELEVATED
&
TEMPERATURES
Humaira Kanwal

FRESH AND HARDENED

PROPERTIES OF SELF-CURING
Asif Nazir CONCRETE AND ITS 475
COMPARISON WITH
CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

Hocine. Ayat CARBONATION DEPTH

& PREDICTION OF LIMESTONE
Yasmina. Kellouche FILLER CONCRETE USING 476-483
& ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
Mohamed. Ghrici NETWORKS

THEORETICAL AND
Ashraf MASKONI NUMERICAL STUDY OF
& INTERNAL STABILITY OF
Noureddine LATRACHE DENSE GRAVITY CURRENT 484-485
& BENEATH AMBIENT STATIC
Blaise NSOM WATER OVER A SINUSOIDAL
TOPOGRAPHIC BOTTOM

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 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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DECOLORIZATION POTENTIAL OF CALCINED CLAY FOR DIFFERENT

SYNTHETIC DYES

Fatih SAYIN
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Department of Chemistry
ORCID: 0000-0001-7649-9694

ABSTRACT
Synthetic dyes are frequently used in various industries such as textile, paint, printing, plastic,
leather, and cosmetics. Therefore, these compounds can easily enter the aquatic systems via
the release of untreated industrial effluents. Contamination of water sources with synthetic
dyes is a serious environmental problem that endangers ecosystems and human health. Water
contamination from industrial operations necessitates the use of sustainable water treatment
solutions. Adsorption is a method for removing dyes from aqueous solutions that is based on
the interaction of adsorbents and pollutants. This method has several advantageous such as
low cost, ease of application, and greater sensitivity in aqueous solutions when compared to

The present study examined the calcined clay mineral at various temperatures (105-900 ℃) as
other methods.

an adsorbent with an assessment on its decolorization potential for basic (Methyl Violet, MV;
Methylene Blue, MB; and Basic Violet 10, BV10), acidic (Acid Yellow 17, AY17; and Acid
Orange 10, AO10) and reactive (Reactive Red 45, RR45; Reactive Yellow 2, RY2; and
Reactive Blue 49, RB49) dyes. Adsorption studies were conducted without adjusting the pH
for basic dyes, and by adjusting the pH to 2 for acidic and reactive dyes. It was observed that
calcined clay at 400-600 °C exhibited the most effective adsorption performance. Removal
performances of calcined clay for different dyes were in the order of basic > reactive > acidic

adsorbent) was found to be 89.9% for MB by calcined clay at 600 ℃. As conclusion, a low
dyes. The maximum decolorization yield (at 25 mg L initial dye concentration with 25 mg

cost, effective and promising adsorbent for effective treatment of basic dye containing waters
was reported.
Keywords: adsorption; calcined clay; dye; water treatment.

INTRODUCTION
Water pollution has been developed as a result of urbanization and risen in tandem with fierce
industrial growth and overpopulation. Organic and inorganic contaminants contribute to water
pollution and endanger the living system and the environment. Dyes and pigments are of
particular importance among these pollutants since they are widely used in sectors such as
printing, dyeing, leather, textile, paper, cosmetics, and food and beverage industries (Sharma
et al., 2012; Wazir et al., 2020). These pollutants pollute water supplies and are absorbed by
living creatures through the digestive system, skin, and lungs, causing a variety of significant
environmental and human health effects, including mutagenicity, allergenicity,
carcinogenicity, and visual pollution. They have also a negative impact on photosynthesis.
Furthermore, due to their synthetic origin and complex aromatic structure, they are typically
resistant to biodegradation (Akar et al., 2013; Fu and Viraraghavan, 2001; Sharma et al.,
2012).
There are several chemical, physicochemical, and biological treatment and purification
techniques for dye removal from aqueous medium with several advantages and disadvantages.
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Adsorption is one of the most extensively used methods with the advantages of simplicity,
efficiency, flexibility, and low-cost (El Alouani et al., 2021; Xiao et al., 2021). A number of
studies are currently being performed on the feasibility of utilizing natural geological
materials such as zeolite, perlite, limestone, and geopolymer, to remove dyes from various
aquatic media (El Alouani et al., 2021; Osagie et al., 2021; Xiao et al., 2021). Natural clays
have attracted a significant deal of research interest for pollution treatment due to their
widespread availability, the presence of various types of active sites on the surface, high
adsorption efficiency, porosity, and cation exchange capacity. They are easily modifiable by
calcination (thermal modification) or chemical activation to enhance their surface
characteristics and adsorption effectiveness (Chaari et al., 2021; España et al., 2019). The
thermal treatment of clay minerals has a substantial impact on the distribution of hydrated
species in its surface and crucial binding regions, influencing a variety of possible surface
processes, including adsorption (España et al., 2019).
In this study, decolorization potential of a calcined clay for basic, acidic, and reactive dyes
was investigated. A batch approach was used to investigate the adsorption of dyes onto the
calcined clay. The calcined natural clay exhibited high adsorption performance for the
removal of MV, MB, and BV10 dyes from water, making it an effective adsorbent for
cationic dyes from the aquatic medium.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The clay mineral used in the study was taken from the clay deposits of Mihalıççık in Eskişehir
province (Turkey). After being crushed and ground in a laboratory type ball-mill, the clay

calcined at nine different temperatures of 105, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, and 900 ℃.
mineral was passed through a sieve with a diameter of 150 microns. The clay mineral was

about 70 and 80 ℃.
It was cleaned with distilled water after the calcination process, and then filtered and dried at

The adsorption experiments were carried out by equilibrating a mixture comprising calcined
clay samples and 25 mg L dye (Methyl Violet, MV; Methylene Blue, MB; Basic Violet 10,
BV10; Acid Yellow 17, AY17; Acid Orange 10, AO10; Reactive Red 45, RR45; Reactive
Yellow 2, RY2; and Reactive Blue 49, RB49) solutions. Adsorption studies were conducted
without adjusting the pH for basic dyes and at pH 2 for acidic and reactive dyes. 25 mL of
each dye solution was transferred to 100 mL beakers after the pH was adjusted to the desired
values. 25 mg adsorbent was added to these dye solutions and mixed for 1 h in a multi-point
magnetic stirrer at 200 rpm. The adsorbent and liquid phases were separated by
centrifugation. Quantitative dye determinations in liquid phases were performed at the
maximum wavelengths of each dye (MV (λmax = 580 nm), MB (λmax = 663 nm), BV10 (λmax =
554 nm), AY17 (λmax = 400 nm), AO10 (λmax = 480 nm), RR45 (λmax = 520 nm), RY2 (λmax =
396 nm), RB49 (λmax = 586 nm)) using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Each adsorption
experiment was repeated three times, and the adsorption capacity (Eq. 1) and efficiency (Eq.
2) were calculated using the average of independent data sets.
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Co Ce
Adsorption efficiency (%) = x 100
Co (1)

Co Ce
Adsorption capacity (mg g) = xV (2)
m

where Co and Ce are the initial and equilibrium dye concentration (mg L−1), respectively. m is
the amount of the calcined clay (g), and V is the adsorbate volume (L).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.1. Cationic dye adsorption
The adsorption efficiencies and capacities of the calcined clays at various temperatures were
examined. The results are presented in Fig. 1. The adsorption performance of all dyes
increased as the calcination temperature increased and decreased after a certain temperature.
The calcined clay at 600 °C for MV and MB and at 400 °C for BV10 demonstrated the best
adsorption performance. The adsorption efficiencies of MV, MB, and BV10 were found to be
89.7%, 89.9% and 85.6%, respectively. The structural hydroxyl groups were typically
removed at temperatures ranging from 400 to 500 °C, accompanied by structural deformation.
At higher temperatures, the superior adsorption performance of the adsorbent was lost
probably due to sintering and dehydroxylation (Zhang et al., 2021).

Fig. 1. Effect of calcination temperature on MV (a), MB (b), and BV10 (c) adsorption.
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1.2. Anionic dye adsorption

The results of the anionic dye adsorption experiments at various calcination temperatures are
illustrated in Fig. 2. Temperature had the same effect on dye adsorption performance as it did
on cationic dyes. The calcined clays, on the other hand, exhibited extremely poor adsorption
efficiencies at all temperatures. As a result, it is reasonable to conclude that calcined clay is
inefficient at eliminating anionic dye pollution.

Fig. 2. Effect of calcination temperature on AY17 (a) and AO10 (b) adsorption.

1.3. Reactive dye adsorption

Fig. 3 depicts the effect of calcination temperatures on the reactive dye adsorption process:

Fig. 3. Effect of calcination temperature on RR45 (a), RY2 (b), and RB49 (c) adsorption.
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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The adsorption efficiency of the calcined clay at 500 °C is more than twice that of the clay
calcined at 105 °C for all three reactive dyes (Fig. 3). The maximum adsorption yields of
RR45, RY2, and RB49 were found as 36.2%, 39.3%, and 34.8%, respectively. Although these
results are lower than those reported for cationic dye removal, it is expected that higher results
can be obtained by optimizing the adsorption parameters such as pH, adsorbent amount, dye
concentration, and contact time.

CONCLUSIONS
The adsorption of various cationic, anionic, and reactive dyes with calcined clay at different
temperatures was investigated. The best decolorization was obtained using calcined clay at
600 °C for MB dye (89.9%). While no significant adsorption performance was detected for
anionic dyes, the maximum adsorption performance for reactive dyes was determined as
39.3%. The data presented in this study were obtained under specific experimental conditions.
However, process optimization is expected to be required to improve the adsorption efficiency
of the suggested calcined clay for dyes.

REFERENCES
Akar, T, Arslan, S, Akar, S T, 2013. Utilization of Thamnidium elegans fungal culture
in environmental cleanup: A reactive dye biosorption study. Ecol. Eng. 58:363-370.
Chaari, I, Medhioub, M, Jamoussi, F, Hamzaoui, A H, 2021. Acid-treated clay
materials (Southwestern Tunisia) for removing sodium leuco-vat dye : Characterization,
adsorption study and activation mechanism. Journal of Molecular Structure 1223:128944.
El Alouani, M, Saufi, H, Moutaoukil, G, Alehyen, S, Nematollahi, B, Belmaghraoui,
W, Taibi, M h, 2021. Application of geopolymers for treatment of water contaminated with
organic and inorganic pollutants: State-of-the-art review. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9:105095.
España, V A A, Sarkar, B, Biswas, B, Rusmin, R, Naidu, R, 2019. Environmental
applications of thermally modified and acid activated clay minerals: Current status of the art.
Environmental Technology & Innovation 13:383-397.
Fu, Y Z, Viraraghavan, T, 2001. Fungal decolorization of dye wastewaters: a review.
Bioresour. Technol. 79:251-262.
Osagie, C, Othmani, A, Ghosh, S, Malloum, A, Kashitarash Esfahani, Z, Ahmadi, S,
2021. Dyes adsorption from aqueous media through the nanotechnology: A review. Journal of
Materials Research and Technology 14:2195-2218.
Sharma, S K, Sanghi, R, Mudhoo, A, 2012. Chapter 1 Green Practices to Save Our
Precious “Water Resource”, in: Sharma S K, Sanghi R (Eds.), Advances in Water Treatment
and Pollution Prevention. Springer, pp. 1-36.
Wazir, M B, Daud, M, Ali, F, Al-Harthi, M A, 2020. Dendrimer assisted dye-removal:
A critical review of adsorption and catalytic degradation for wastewater treatment. J. Mol.
Liq. 315:113775.
Xiao, W, Jiang, X, Liu, X, Zhou, W, Garba, Z N, Lawan, I, Wang, L, Yuan, Z, 2021.
Adsorption of organic dyes from wastewater by metal-doped porous carbon materials. J.
Cleaner Prod. 284:124773.
Zhang, T, Wang, W, Zhao, Y, Bai, H, Wen, T, Kang, S, Song, G, Song, S, Komarneni,
S, 2021. Removal of heavy metals and dyes by clay-based adsorbents: From natural clays to
1D and 2D nano-composites. Chem. Eng. J. 420:127574.

5
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REMOVAL OF REACTIVE RED 45(RR45) DYESTUFF CONTAMINATED

SOLUTIONS USING MODIFIED PYRCANTHA COCINEA BIOMASS

Sema ÇELİK
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Letters, Eskisehir Osmangazi University
ORCID: 0000-0003-4284-823X

ABSTRACT
The using dyestuffs are increasingly become widespread in industrial areas. Dyestuff
containing wastewaters threat to environment and effect negatively to organisms’ life.
Although there are several conventional methods are used for treatment to this wastewaters, in
recent years biosorption constitutes an important alternative to these methods. Biosorption is
defined that removal to substances which are caused pollution from aquatic solutions by
biological materials. This method has advantages that to be cheaper, can be obtained high
yield using a small amounts of biomass, can be obtain of biomass easily, gradually increases
to interest in this method. In this study, biomass was prepared from Pyracantha coccinea (P.
coccinea) the berries of plant materials modified benzyltriethylammoniumchloride (BTAC)
which is cationic surfactant, biosorption conditions of Reactive Red 45(RR45) dyestuff were
investigated, using more less biomass than a high yield removal of dyes from aqueous
solutions is aimed. In this study, effect of modification on the biosorption capacity was
examined, optimum biosorption conditions were searched. With the modified biomass for
RR45 dye solutions optimum pH, biomass conditions, initial dye concentration were explored
and contact time was determined. pH effect at biosorption was studied in the range of 1.0-7.0
and optimum pH was determined pH 2.0. Amount of biomass effect to biosorption in the
range 0.4-4.0 g/L were examined and optimum biomass dosage was determined 3.2 g/L and
contact time determined 10 minutes. Maximum experimental biosorption capacity was
calculated 35.73 mg/g at 250 mg/L dye concentration. In optimum conditions removal of
RR45 dye solutions free biomass yield is 81.52% and modified biomass yield is 95.63% were
found. As a result, high biosorption performance was obtained using a small amount with the
modified P. coccinea biomass at removal RR45 dye contaminated solutions. Results might be
inexpensive and alternative biyosorbent of this biomass at removal reactive dyes from aquatic
solutions.
Keywords: Biosorption, Dye, Modification, Pyracantha coccinea, Reactive Red 45

6
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

KAYSERİ KALESİ ŞEHİR SURLARI, ZEYNEL ABİDİN TÜRBESİ VE MAHPERİ

HUNAT KÜMBETİNDE GÖZLEMLENEN FİZİKSEL, KİMYASAL VE BİYOLOJİK
BOZULMALARIN SINIFLANDIRILMASI

Dr. Musa Tokmak

Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Arkeometri
ORCID: 0000-0001-9206-9942

ÖZET
Uygarlık tarihi kronolojik bir sıra ile incelendiğinde, doğal taş kullanımının insanoğlunun
yaşamında, önemli yer tuttuğu göze çarpan bir gerçektir (Bradley, 1998). Doğal taş kullanımı
İ.Ö. 600 yıllarında binaların, anıtların yapımında, eski Yunanistan’da önce ahşap kolonların
yerine geçen sütunlarda kullanılmış, daha sonra (İ.Ö. 480) kiriş amaçlı kullanımları da giderek
yaygınlaşmıştır. Anadolu’da Türk-Selçuk-Osmanlı kültürü egemen olurken, doğal taş
Avrupa’dan farklı, fakat en az oradakiler kadar yoğun ve ustaca kullanıldığı gözlenmektedir
(Vardar, 1990).Kayseri il merkezinde bir çok tarihi taş anıt bulunmaktadır. Bu anıtlar şehir
merkezinde olmalarından dolayı hem insan kaynaklı hemde çevresel diğer faktörlerden dolayı
yıllar içerisinde çeşitli tahribatlara maruz kalmışlardır. Kayserinin coğrafi konumundan dolayı
ve karasal iklimde bulunmasından dolayı taş anıtların maruz kaldığı bozulmalar fiziksel,
kimyasal ve biyolojik bozulmalar olabilmektedir. İnsan kaynaklı faktörlerde taş anıtların yıllar
içerisinde bozulmasında hem direk hemde indirek olarak etki [Link] zaman insan
kaynaklı faktörler fiziksel,kimyasal veya biyolojik bozulmaların daha da hızlanmasına sebep
olabilmektedir. Bu çalışma amacılığı ile Kayseri şehir merkezinde çalışan anıtlar Kayseri
Kalesi Sur Duvarları, Zeynel Abidin Türbesi ve Mahperi Hunat Hatun Kümbeti’dir. Tüm bu
anıtlar konum olarak bir birlerine yakın yerlerdedir ve hemen hemen bozulma türleri aynıdır.
Şehir merkezinde olmalarından dolayı ve Kayseri il merkezinde olmalarından dolayı yoğun
olarak hava kirliliğinden ve araçların eksoz gazlarından çıkan korbondioksit tabanlı kimyasal
bozulmalardan yoğun olarak etkilenmişlerdir. Anıtlardan incelenmesi için parçalar
alınmamıştır. Sadece gözlemsel olarak incelemelerde bulunulmuştır. Daha detaylı labratuvar
çalışmaları detaylı analizler için gereklidir. Bu çalışmadan elde edilecek sonuçlar bu anıtlarda
ileride yapılabilecek restorasyon çalışmaları için bir ön çalışma veya ön rapor niteleiğinde
olacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kayseri’nın Anıtsal Yapıları, Bozulma Çeşitleri, Doğal ve Yapı Taşları,
Tahribatsız Muayene

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

DETERIORATIONS OBSERVED IN KAYSERI STONE MONUMENTS

ABSTRACT
When the history of civilization is examined in a chronological order, it is a striking fact that
the use of natural stone has an important place in the life of human beings (Bradley, 1998).
The natural stones were used in the construction of buildings and monuments in 600 BC,
firstly in columns that replaced wooden columns in ancient Greece, and later (480 BC) their
use for beams became increasingly common. While the Turkish-Seljuk-Ottoman culture is
dominant in Anatolia, it is observed that natural stone is used differently from Europe, but at
least as intensely and skilfully as the ones there (Vardar, 1990).

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There are many historical stone monuments in Kayseri city centre. Since these monuments are
in the city centre, they have been exposed to various destructions over the years due to both
human and environmental factors. Due to the geographical location of Kayseri and its
continental climate, the deterioration of stone monuments can be physical, chemical and
biological deterioration. Human-induced factors also affect the deterioration of stone
monuments over the years, both directly and indirectly. Sometimes, human-induced factors
can accelerate physical, chemical or biological deterioration. For the purpose of this study, the
monuments working in Kayseri city centre are the Kayseri Castle Walls, Zeynel Abidin Tomb
and Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault. All these monuments are located close to each other and the
types of deterioration are almost the same. Because they are in the city centre and in the city
centre of Kayseri, they have been heavily affected by air pollution and carbon dioxide-based
chemical deterioration from the exhaust gases of the vehicles. No fragments were taken from
the monuments for examination. Only observational studies were made. More detailed
laboratory studies are required for detailed analysis. The results to be obtained from this study
will be a preliminary study.
Keywords: Kayseri’s Historical Monuments, Deterioration types, Natural and building
stones, Non-destructive testing

Introduction
There are many monuments made of stone material in the city centre of Kayseri. The most
important of these stone monuments and the monuments that are the subject of this study are
the Kayseri castle city walls, Zeynel Abidin Tomb and Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault. The
historical castle of Kayseri City consists of two parts. The wide protection area formed by the
outer city walls and bastions, and the other is the part that we call the inner castle, which
stands like a major castle today and carries large assets from its historical body. Although
important parts of the historical outer castle of the city are standing today, many parts of it
were destroyed, but a few fortification walls remained. Citadel; The inner castle in Kayseri
City, according to the general order of its establishment, was located in the east-west
direction, to the northern edge of the outer city walls, to be connected to its surroundings with
its two sides. This installation style points to a truly classical order.
The other important historical stone monument is Zeynel Abidin [Link] is known that
Zeynel Abidin had a dervish lodge, mosque and fountain built around his tomb in the 15th
century. Zeynel Abidin, known as Imam Sultan in Kayseri, died in Kayseri in 1414 and a
modest mausoleum was built on his grave today. During the reign of Abdülhamit, the current
tomb was built on the site of Zeynel Abidin's grave in 1886.
The studied last monument was the Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault who was II. Alaeddin
Keykubad's wife,. It was built between 1237-1246 by Mahperi Hatun, the mother of
Keyhüsrev. Consisting of a mosque, madrasa, tomb and bath, this complex is one of the most
beautiful and most important examples of Seljuk works in Anatolia, both in general
appearance and in the way it was built. The sitting area is 2,203 square meters.
These monuments have been exposed to physical and chemical deterioration for years
because they are in the city centre and Kayseri city centre is in a continental climate. Due to
the burning of fossil fuels in Kayseri city centre for years and air pollution caused by urban
traffic, these monuments in Kayseri centre have been damaged for years. Sometimes, due to
the combination of this air pollution with rain, various pollutions and deteriorations have been
observed on the surfaces of the stone materials.

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Material and Method

Kayseri Castle City walls, Zeynel Abidin Tomb and Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault monuments
are located in the city centre of Kayseri, but are very close to each other. In this study, the
physical, chemical and biological deteriorations observed in the stone materials that make up
these artifacts were classified observationally without damaging the stone artifacts (Fitzner et
al, 1992).

Definition and Observation

The building stone can be degraded from chemical, physical, mechanical and biological
reasons (Caneva and Salvadori, 1988). The deterioration starting from the outer surface of the
stone to the inner surface may sometimes be on the outer surface from the inner surface.
Many factors such as the porosity structure of the stone, the relationship with some of the
porosity networks, the temperature of the environment and atmospheric pollution are
effective in stone deterioration (Croci,1998). In humid and hot weather, chemical degradation
is dominant and degradation is rapid. However, physical degradation is more effective in
cold-dry weather, and degradation rate in stones is slower (Fitzner, 1994). To describe the
deterioration that seen on the monuments, four main groups and subgroups were given below
as a list (Fitzner et al, 1995).

Group I: Material Loss:

This group, which constitutes the first group of the deterioration form, consists of the main
group of wear (W), relief/swelling (R), fracture (O) and subgroups of the groups in the type of
deterioration. Various forms of material loss can be observed in andesite and marble stones,
which are the building blocks of the Kayseri castle and other monuments around it (Zeynel
Abidin Tomb and Mahperi Hunat Hatun Cupola).
As shown in Figure 1 a and b, stone blocks also have material losses on their surfaces. The
wear type deterioration, which is in the form of crumbling and dispersion on stone surfaces,
sometimes occurs in the form of breaking into very large pieces. Erosion created by wind and
rain water has led to stone losses in different forms on the surfaces of the stones.

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Figure 1 a,b: Abrasion type deterioration observed in andesite stones (left and right images,
Zeynel Abidin Tomb and Mahperi Hunat Hatun Cupola)

Particularly natural causes in the form of fracture, which is one of the material losses in the
stones, and breaks during the construction of the structure are the main factors. The edges of
the ground and the surface of the stones in the Kayseri castle were broken due to one of the
main reasons mentioned above (Figure 2)

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Figure 2: Material loss in the form of fracture observed at the edges of the entrance gate of
Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault

Relief type deterioration, which is another form of material loss, can be seen in Figure 3
below. The type of relief used for regional and general morphological deterioration and
changes on stone surfaces is in the form of rounding, roughening, pitting and pitting on the
andesite surface in Kayseri castle.

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Figure 3: Rounding, roughening, pitting and pitting observed on andesite stone surfaces

Especially due to rain water, wind and people's frequent use of a surface, external factors can
cause fragments to break off on the stone surface, as well as cause a proportional loss of
material on the surface of the stone, and the shapes and writings on the stone surface
disappear over time. Such distortions are called “rounding (Rr)”. Material losses can be
clearly seen due to the rounding of the shapes on the andesite stair blocks in the Kayseri castle
(Figure 4 ).

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Figure 4: Deterioration in the type of rounding due to erosion on the face of the stone steps in
the Kayseri castle

As a result of the granular disintegration of the stones due to erosion wear, there are
"rounding" type deteriorations, especially on the edges and upper parts of the stones.
“Rounding” and “rounding”, which are similar to each other, are actually erosion-induced
deteriorations. In rounding, there is material loss on the corners and tops of the stones, while
in rounding, there is a loss of material due to abrasion on the surface. Figure 5a below shows
the rounding on the upper surface and edges of the fortification andesite stone block.
Alveolar disintegration was detected on the andesite stone surfaces with varying densities in
the form of bee honeycombs. Climate factors, winds affecting the surface of the stone and salt
crystallization affect this type of deterioration. In Figure 5 b, alveolar distortions are seen on
the andesite surface together with the contamination on the stone surface. The lack of a
sufficiently healthy drainage system caused water to flow to the surface. The pollutants in the
water have penetrated into the stones with the effect of the wind and a porous structure has
formed on the stone surface. At the same time, there is flowering on the surface and
accordingly crusting.

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Figure 5 a,b: Alvolar type deterioration and salt deposition observed on the andesite surface

The gaps (holes) or fractures that can be seen on the stone surfaces or between them can be of
various sizes. Holes opened on the stone surface for the purpose of mounting an element due
to structural reasons and not closed later on accelerate the deterioration of the stone surface
over time and ruptures may occur on the stone surface. As shown in Figure 6 a,b, cracks
opened due to structural reasons can be observed in the andesite and marble stone blocks on
the castle walls.

Figure 6 a,b: The gaps (holes) or fractures that can be seen on the stone surfaces or between
them can be of various sizes.

In the andesite stone block, the anthropogenic form, which is also a variation of the relief
deterioration, shows itself as lines on the stone. These spaces can be filled with water over
time and they can create areas where plants can grow. At the same time, cracks have occurred
on the stone block shown in Figure 7 due to the hole drilled during construction, and there is
contamination on the stone surface and inside the hole due to atmospheric reasons. and it
shows wear and tear over time.

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Figure 7: Material loss due to post-restoration

Fracture and fragmentation due to natural causes are present in andesite stone blocks in
Kayseri castle. For various reasons, a pressure occurs in the internal structure of the stone.
The pressure that occurs later creates cracks, and over time, cracks can cause material rupture
from the main mass. Rusting and expansion of the iron in the stone can explode the stone.
Apart from this, earthquakes can also cause ruptures on stone surfaces (Figure 8)

Figure 8: Fragmentation seen in andesite stone blocks

Group II: Color Change/Accumulation

This type of deterioration, which is considered as the second group of deterioration, color
change and accumulation of chemical substances, dust and different kinds of organic and
inorganic substances on stone surfaces, has subgroups in different [Link] change is a
deterioration on the surface as a result of the meeting of the main color of the stone with the
water of the rock minarets. In Figure 9, the color change on the andesite surface due to the
biological deterioration of the rock mineral is observed as green stratification.

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Figure 9: Color change observed on the andesite surface

It was observed that salts crystallized on the andesite stone surfaces and in the lower layers.
The dissolved salts are carried into the stone through micro cracks and remain in the stone as
a result of the water coming out again. Figure 10 shows the accumulation of molten salts on
the stone surface and in the substrate. Due to the unsuitable drainage system, rain and
wastewater flow from the castle wall to the stone surface, resulting in first moistening on the
stone surface, then pollution and then alveolar deterioration.
As a result of the accumulation of the substances brought by the waters and the salts formed
on the stone surface, both pollution and stratification have occurred. The light colored tanning
that changes the surface is clearly visible on the andesite block.

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Figure 10: Salt deposition observed on andesite stone surface and substrate

Kayseri Castle has been exposed to atmospheric pollution for years due to its location in the
middle of Kayseri city centre. In addition, contamination from surface and ground water-
borne particles may occur, especially during periods of heavy rainfall. Due to the unhealthy
drainage system in some parts of the Kayseri castle, surface waters flow to the surface of the
building stones and as a result, contamination is observed on the stone surface. In addition,
there may be bioaccumulations on the stone surface. (Figure 11).

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Figure 11: Contamination observed on the surface of the stone as a result of the penetration
of ground water into the andesite stone.

Group III: Granular Disintegration

Granular/physical dissolution (dusting, crumbling, sanding), scattering, thinning, crusting,
stratification and solubility of the rocks on the stone are the main subgroups. Granular
dissolution is caused by the breakage of small pieces from the [Link] 12 shows the
granular disintegration.

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Figure 12:Granular Disintegration (Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault)

Group IV: Cracks / Deformation

This kind of decomposition refers to distortions as a result of changes occurring in the
structure of the stone in its group. Cracks and deformations that occur in the stones are
characteristic of this group. Cracks are observed especially in Mahperi Hunat Hatun Vault’s
and Caste andesite blocks (Figure 12).

Figure 12:Small cracks can be seen on andesite blocks of caste and Mahperi Hunat Hatun
Vault

Results and Recommendations

Physical, chemical and biological deterioration causes decays in and on the stone surfaces and
they are expected for material losses and destruction of non-recyclable materials in the years.

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Kayseri is located in a continental climate, there are a lot of temperature differences between
day and night. The most obvious types of deterioration that appear in monuments are
physically-based decays. This article summarizes the types of deterioration observed in the
building stones of Kayseri Castle Walls, Zeynel Abidin Tomb and Mahperi Hunat Hatun
Vault, which are the symbolic monuments of Kayseri. In those studied monuments, the
physical degradation is faster than chemical degradation by separating the stone surface into
small pieces. The stones, the surface area of which increases with physical deterioration,
become smaller due to the effect of chemical deterioration, causing the separation to progress.
Salts are the main factor of chemical deterioration. Algae, fungus and algae, which are
biological accumulation, were caused by degrations. Table 1 shows the group of
deteriorations.

Group III: Group IV:

Monuments / Group I: Loss of Group II: Color
Granular Cracks /
Decay Types Materials Change / Accumulation
Disintegration Deformation
Accumulation of birds
Holes and gaps (by feces
human factors) Black pollution Micro and
Materials loss at the accumulation in the holes Macro cracks
Kayseri Castle
edges of the bottom liken, algae, fungus Sanding (Vertical and
Walls
Roundness on the colonization horizontal
stone surfaces Color change by positions)
(erosions) biological colonization
(liken, algae, moss)
Microcracks
Zeynel Abidin Materials loss at the (Vertical and
x x
Tomb edges of the bottom horizontal
positions)
Roundness on the Color change by
Mahperi Hunat
stone surfaces biological colonization x Microcracks
Hatun Vault
(erosions) (liken, algae, moss)

References
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Pieper (Ed.), The Deterioration and Conservation of Stone,112-182
Croci, G.,[Link] Conservation and Structural Restoration of Architectural Heritage,
Southampton, UK: Computational Mechanics Publications
Ergin, Ş., Çelik, A.B., Dal, M., 2019. Technical Characteristics of Kasimiye Madrasa
Building Stones and Analysis of Stone Decay Problems, Kerpic’19 – Earthen Heritage, New
Technology, Management, 7th International Conference, Köycegiz, Muğla Turkey, 05-07
September 2019, 285-294.
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Bozunma Sorunlarının İrdelenmesi ve Kimyasal Analizlerinin Karşılaştırılması, Mimarlık
Üzerine-1 Kitabı, 103-124, İksad Publishing House, Ankara.
Ergin, Ş., Dal, M.,Çelik, A.B., 2020a. Abdullatif Camii (Latifiye Camii) Taş
Bozunmalarının Tesbiti ve XRF Spektrometresi ile Kimyasal Analizi, Mimarlık Üzerine-1
Kitabı, 80-102, İksad Publishing House, Ankara.

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Fitzner, B., Heinrichs, K. & Kownatzi, R, 1992. Weathering Forms-Classification and

Mapping of weathering Forms, 7 the Int. Cong. On Deterioration and Conservation of Stone,
Proceedings, Lisbon 957-968.
Fitzner, B., Heinrichs, K. & Kownatzi, R, [Link] Forms-Classification and
Mapping, Verwitterungsforum-Klassifizierung und Kartierung Berlin, Ernst and Sohn, 44-88
Fitzner, B.,1994. Porosity Properties and Weathering Behaviour of Natural Stones-
Methodology and Examples, Proceedings of the C.U.M. 2nd Course Stone Material in
Monuments: Diagnosis and Conservation, Heraklion-Crete 24-30 May 993, C.U.M.
University School of Monument Conservation, 101-113
Foss, C., 1997. Late Antique and Byzantine Ankara, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol.31,
85-135, Washington
Khooshroo, S., Javadi, N., Yardımlı, S., Hattap, S., 2017. Deteriorations Detected in
İstanbul Süleymaniye Mosque Stone Surfaces, 9th. International Marble and Natural Stone
Congres and Exhibition of Turkey, 227-235, 13-15 Aralık –December 2017, Antalya-Turkey.
Küçükkaya, G., Dal, M., 2008. The Role of Paleontology in the Conservation of
Antique Building Stone Thrace and İstanbul, Extended Abstracts, IGCP-521- INQUA 0501
4th Plenary Meeting and Field Trip, 4-16 October 2008, Bucharest/ROMANIA –
Varna/BULGARIA, 89-90.
Öcal, A.D., Dal, M., 2012. Doğal Taşlardaki Bozunmalar, Mimarlık Vakfı İktisadi
İşletmesi, İstanbul.
Öcal, A.D., Dal, M., 2017. An archeometric approach for the conservation of
archaeological monuments: deterioration mapping: A comparative analysis of the
deterioration of the Karatepe-Aslantas orthostats of Turkey and the monoliths of the
Archeological Park of Infiernito de Colombia. Paper presented at the Workshop Objects of
Art: Archeometry- Conservation- Chemistry WC2017, Bogota, Colombia; May 31-June 2.
Tokmak, M., 2005. Documentation and Examination of Historic Building Materials
fort he purpose of Conservation: Case Study, Part of the Walls at the Citadel of Ankara, [Link].
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Tokmak, M., 2006. Ankara Kalesinin Bir Bölgesindeki Andezit Taşlarının Bozulma
Sorunları: Gençkapı Bölgesi, [Link] Sempozyumu Antalya: 105-109
-Tokmak, M., 2017, “Ankara Kalesi’nde Andezit ve Mermer Taşlarında Gözlemlenen
Bozulma Durumlarının Görsel Olarak Tespiti”,33. Uluslararası Kazı, Araştırma ve
Arkeometri Sempozyumu Kitabı, Bursa
Tokmak, M., 2017. Anıtlar ve Bozulma Problemleri: Ankara Kalesi, Julian Sütunu,
Augustus Tapınağı, Roma Hamamı, Gavur Kalesi, Midas Anıtı, Lap Lambert Publishing
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-Tokmak,M.,2005, “Ankara Andezitlerinin Bozulma Problemleri”,27. Uluslararası
Arkeoloji ve Arkeometri Sempozyum Kitabı, Antalya

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THE PRODUCTION OF Ag NP-DOPED HOLLOW PLA-PU BLEND NANOFIBERS

AND EXAMINATION OF ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ

Kocaeli University, Science Institute, Polymer Science and Technology Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-2682-2892

Ayşe AYTAÇ
Kocaeli University, Science Institute, Polymer Science and Technology Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-9566-7881

ABSTRACT
In this study, 1%, 3% and 5% silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) were added into the polylactic
acid (PLA) and polyurethane (PU) (50w:50w) blended polymer solution. Nanofibers were
obtained by feeding PLA/PU/Ag NP polymer mixture solution to the shell of fiber and pure
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) polymer solution to the core of fiber using the coaxial
electrospinning method. Then, PVP was removed from the structure and hollow PLA/PU/Ag
NP nanofibers were produced. The surface properties of the produced nanofibers were
visualized by SEM analysis; It was confirmed by the characteristic thermal results obtained by
DSC thermal analysis that the electrospun mats were hollowed out and that there was no
polymer structure other than PLA-PU. It was observed that the tensile stress decreased, but
the tensile strain (%) increased as the Ag NP ratio in the structure increased. The electrical
properties of the obtained nanofibers were examined in detail. It was noticed that the AC
electrical conductivity increased linearly with the Ag NP ratio. It has been determined that the
conductivity is high at low Ag NPs ratios also, as electrons gain greater mobility thanks to the
hollow structure. It was seen that AC electrical conductivity values increased with increasing
frequency. As the amount of Ag NPs in the structure increases, the value of the real dielectric
constant (ɛ′) decreases continuously with increasing frequency. The value of the imaginary
dielectric constant (ε″) increases with the applied frequency and as the amount of Ag NPs in
the structure increases. Thanks to produced flexible nanofibers a new semi-conductor
nanomaterial with the potential to be used as a strain and bending sensor and a biosensor
against bacteria has been produced.
Keywords: Hollow, Poly (lactic acid)/Polyurethane Nanofiber, Ag NPs, AC electrical
conductivity, sensor applications

Ag NP-KATKILI İÇİ BOŞ PLA-PU KARIŞIMI NANOLİFLERİN ÜRETİMİ VE

ELEKTRİKSEL ÖZELLİKLERİNİN İNCELENMESİ

ÖZET
Bu çalışmada, polilaktik asit (PLA) ve poliüretan (PU) (50w:50w) karışımlı polimer
çözeltisine %1, %3 ve %5 gümüş nanopartiküller (Ag NP'ler) eklenmiştir. Nanolifler,
PLA/PU/Ag NP polimer karışım çözeltisinin lifin kabuğuna ve saf polivinilpirolidon (PVP)
polimer çözeltisinin lifin çekirdeğine beslenmesiyle koaksiyel elektro eğirme yöntemi
kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. Daha sonra PVP yapıdan uzaklaştırılarak içi boş PLA/PU/Ag NP
nanolifleri üretilmiştir.

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Üretilen nanoliflerin yüzey özellikleri SEM analizi ile görselleştirildi; DSC ısıl analizi ile
elektro-eğrilmiş nanoliflerin içinin boş olduğu ve PLA-PU'dan başka bir polimer yapısının
bulunmadığı doğrulanmıştır. Yapıdaki Ag NP oranı arttıkça çekme dayanımı değerlerinin
(MPa) azaldığı, ancak çekme uzaması (%) değerlerinin arttığı görülmüştür. Elde edilen
nanoliflerin elektriksel özellikleri detaylı olarak incelenmiştir. AC elektrik iletkenliğinin Ag
NP oranı ile lineer olarak arttığı görülmüştür. Elektronlar içi boş yapı sayesinde daha fazla
hareketlilik kazandığından, düşük Ag NP oranlarında da iletkenliğin yüksek olduğu
belirlenmiştir. AC elektriksel iletkenlik değerlerinin artan frekansla arttığı görüldü. Yapıdaki
Ag NP miktarı arttıkça gerçek dielektrik sabitinin (ɛ') değeri artan frekansla sürekli olarak
azalır. Sanal dielektrik sabitinin (ε″) değeri uygulanan frekansla ve yapıdaki Ag NP miktarı
arttıkça artar. Üretilen esnek nanolifler sayesinde gerinim ve eğilme sensörü ve bakterilere
karşı biyosensör olarak kullanılabilecek potansiyele sahip yeni bir yarı iletken nanomalzeme
üretilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İçi boş, Poli (laktik asit) /Poliüretan Nanolif, Ag NP'ler, AC elektriksel
iletkenlik, sensör uygulamaları

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the electrospinning method has been frequently preferred for nanomaterial
production. Porous structure, large surface area, nanofiber surfaces that provide many
advantages are produced. On the other hand, it was possible to obtain fibers with different
properties by modifying the electrospinning method. With the co-axial nozzle heads that can
be used in the electrospinning method, superior hollow-section nanofiber surfaces can be
produced. Hollow section nanofibers show superior properties compared to solid nanofibers
due to their geometric properties (Li and et al, 2017).
Compared with the solid electrospun mats, the superiorities for the hollow electrospun mats
include an excellent surface field and high view rate that ensures more active places for ion
adsorption; high porosity and surface permeability which eases advanced kinetics vis-a-vis
intercalation or de-intercalation of active kinds, shrinks the diffusion lanes for ions and
electrons, and also raises the count of energy storage places (Jiang and et al, 2012; Lou and et
al 2008; Aravindan and et al, 2014; Wei and et al, 2013). At the same time, they show
superior electrical conductivity properties when produced by adding metal (Ag, Au, Ni, Cu
etc.) in structure (Shilpa and et al, 2019; Cao and et al 2019). The structure of hollow
nanofibers prevents Ag NPs aggregation (Dong and et al, 2011).
Electrical conductivity is the most significant condition that needs to be appraised for
implementation of metal-doped hollow nanofibers as interconnects/electrodes in
electrochemical devices, sensors and electronic circuits (Maitra and et al, 2012). The path of
the electrolyte in the hollow nanofiber is a straight path, not a curved one. For this reason,
electrons will travel shorter distances and stay in the fiber for a shorter time, thus conductivity
will be transferred (Bear and et al, 1972) and conductivity will increase.
Apart from our studies (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021), since PLA/PU blended nanofiber
studies are not available in the literature, some studies with hollow structures of separately
PLA and PU polymers are mentioned. In addition, there are not many studies similar to ours
on the electrical properties of hollow section nanofibers. For this reason, studies containing
information on the changes that can be seen in the mechanical and electrical properties of
hollow electrospun felts and other hollow surface materials are summarized following.

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Moriya and et al prepared Hollow PLA fiber using the phase separation method and
characterized it for the filtration material. The hollow PLA fiber as an ultrafiltration material
had high separation efficiency and water permeability. They suggested that hollow PLA fibers
may use for replacing the conventional hollow fiber materials obtained from petrochemistry-
based polymers (Moriya and et al, 2009). Najafi and et al studied the production and
characterization of raw and hollow yarn from polyurethane (PU) electrospun mat by the
electrospinning method. Hollow fiber was fabricated by feeding PVA fibers to the core and
then dissolving them in warm water. The obtained fibers as both the raw and hollow were of
elastomeric structure. Rising the number of twists in the raw fiber raised the specific strength
and reduced the elongation at break in hollow fiber while reducing the strength of raw fiber.
Hollow PU fibers have been found suitable for medical applications such as artificial vessels
and artificial tendons (Najafi and et al, 2016). Yadav and et al reported the production of
silver doped high conductive and stretchable hollow fiber. Polyurethane (PU) hollow fibers
with silver nanowires (AgNWs) were prepared using dry-jet-wet spinning process. The effect
of AgNWs concentration and hole liquid flow ratio on the conductivity and stretchability of
the hollow mats was examined. These mats indicated very high conductivity of about
1.52×104 S/cm at a very low concentration of AgNWs (about 0.46 wt%). Also, they displayed
good protection of conductivity even at 100% strain that maintained steady with the iterated
period. The produced fibers were proposed for diverse using areas like improving flexible
electronics where the materials are expected to undergo iterated deformations pending usage
(Yadav and et al, 2019).
Shilpa and et al observed that electrical conductivity of the hollow nanofibers has increased to
a higher value than solid nanofibers. The altering their morphology, structure, and porosity on
condition for modifying electrospinning conditions have significantly affected its electrical
properties (Shilpa and et al, 2019). Cao and et al, developed an easy and appropriate coaxial
electrospinning process to produce Ag/Co@CoO anchored within N-added porous hollow
carbon nanofibers (HCNFs) for implementation as a free-stopping cathode in Li-O2 (LOB)
batteries. Moreover, the hollow nanofibers ensure countless high-speed paths for the influence
of O2 and Li+ into the interior zone. The reactants may move into the inner core through not
only the two ends but also the pores throughout the outer shells of electrospun mats. Also, the
enter of Ag improves the catalytic efficiency through a positive interaction (Gao and et al,
2018; Kim and et al, 2017; Qaseem and et al, 2017). Especially, the enter of Ag may support
the Li2O2 to thrive and crystallize of the nano structures due to the synergetic interactions
between Ag single bond CoO interfaces (Cao and et al, 2019).
In this study, it was aimed to obtain hollow nanofibers from polymer solution with Ag NPs
added to PLA/PU (50:50 w/w) mixture. It was investigated how especially the mechanical
and electrical properties of these hollow PLA/PU/Ag NPs nanofibers, which are thoroughly
lightened, highly porous and surface area expanded, are affected.

2. RESEARCH AND RESULTS

2.1. Experimental Studies
Poly (lactic) acid (PLA) (4043D) from Nature Works; the aromatic polyether-based
thermoplastic polyurethane (PU) (Estane®GP52DTNAT055) from Lubrizol (Velox);
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) polymer from Alfa Aesar; dimethylformamide (DMF) and
chloroform (CF) solvents from Merck Company and the silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs –
35nm) from Nanografi were purchase.

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First of all, raw PLA and raw PU were weighed at 50% by weight. Afterwards, 1%, 3% and
5% Ag NPs were added according to the amount of solid matter. Then the solvent was added
so that the solution concentration was 10% in a beaker PU/PLA/AgNPs polymer blends were
dissolved in CF/DMF (8/2, v/v) solvent with stirring for 3h at room temperature, then it was
stirred 30 min with heating at 120°C. These blended solutions formed the shell part of the
fiber. For this reason, in the electrospinning process, the fiber was fed for the outer shell part.
In addition, the PVP polymer fed as the inner core was prepared by mixing for 3 hours at
60oC to form a 40% concentration solution in 100% DMF.
The obtained all solutions were taken to the co-axial electrospinning process without waiting.
The electrospinning process was carried out for both PLA/PU/AgNPs solutions and PVP
solution at a feed rate of 1.00 mL/h, at a distance of 15cm and by applying 23kV voltage.
Polymer solutions were sprayed simultaneously from the di-axial needle tip. The process was
continued for 2 hours. After the electrospinning process was finished, the produced nanofibers
were kept in distilled water at room temperature for 30 minutes. It was then left to dry at room
temperature for 24 hours. Thus, the PVP fiber in the core structure was dissolved and
removed from the structure. The remaining structure was obtained as hollow PLA/PU/Ag NPs
nanofibers. The codes of the produced all hollow nanofibers are given in Table 1.

Table 1. The codes of the produced all hollow nanofibers

Names AgNPs PLA-PU Concentration

(%) Blend Ratio (wt.%) (%)
HoPLAPU -
Ho1AgPLAPU 1
Ho3AgPLAPU 3
50 / 50 10
Ho5AgPLAPU 5

Solid (filled) and single-structure nanofibers were also produced from the prepared PVP
solution to be used in differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. Classic
electrospinning production conditions were kept the same as the co-axial electrospinning
production conditions.
The surface morphology and average fiber diameter of the hollow nanofibers were examined
by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (QUANTA 400F Field Emission). The differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis of hollow nanofibers was carried out in one stage step
with a temperature period of (-50)-300 °C and a heating ratio of 10 °C/min, and the high-
purity nitrogen gas was fed to the operation at a flow ratio of 30 mL/min pending
measurements. The mechanical test of hollow electrospun mats was carried out by Lloyd
Instruments LRX Plus according to ASTM D882 parameters.
Alternative current (AC) conductivity measurements of hollow nanofibers were tested with a
Sourcetronic (GmbH, Germany, Model ST2826A) LCR meter in the frequency (f) range of
100Hz to 1MHz at 24oC by using liquid nitrogen in a vacuum environment (10-3 Tor). The
hollow electrospun mats were compressed between two 13 mm diameter copper electrodes.
For AC conductivity calculation, capacitance (Cp) and dielectric loss factor (tanδ) of hollow
nanofibers were evaluated. Then, AC conductivity results were found with the following
equation (1):

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σ=
. . .
(1)

Where w is the angular frequency (2πf), d is the thickness of the hollow nanofiber, and A is
the field of the electrode. Moreover, ɛʹ (real dielectric constant) and ɛʹʹ (imaginary dielectric
constant) results were respectively found with the following equations (2 and 3):

ε' = πr ʹ =
.
.ɛ
(2)
ε'' = ɛʹ. tanδ (3)

2.2. Experimental Results

Both SEM surface views at 1000x magnification and the mean diameter values of hollow
electrospun mats were demonstrated in Figure 1. The fiber without beads but with a complex
fiber structure is HoPLAPU nanofiber. While the diameter thickness of the solid PLA/PU
(50:50 w/w) blend nanofiber was about 1584 nm (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021), it
became 518 nm by slenderizing about 3 times after emptying. So, the hollow fibers become
lighter and thinner. After adding Ag NP, an increase in fiber diameters and then a
proportional decrease was observed. With the addition of Ag NP, changes are observed in
both the surface appearance and fiber diameters. The Ag NP ratio increased, the irregularities
in the fiber and the formation of beaded structure gradually increased. The reason for these is
thought to be higher than the viscosity of pure PLA/PU (50:50 w/w) mixture when Ag NP is
added to the solutions. Because the density of silver is approximately 10 gr/cm3, while the
density of PLA and PU polymers is approximately 1 gr/cm3. In this case, the fibres have
thickened the addition of the initial ratio of Ag NPs. However, on the other hand, the
conductivity of the structure increased with the increase of Ag NPs. Since the conductivity of
the solution increases, the surface tension will decrease and since the force to overcome this
tension (the voltage applied in the electrospinning method) is kept constant, the polymer jet
will lengthen and start to splash because the conductivity will be high, and the amount of
applied voltage will be high. This will lead to the formation of beaded nanofiber structures. At
the same time, nanofibers that achieve sufficient solidification by reaching the collector plate
with the elongation of the jet will both become thinner and bead-free thin surfaces along the
fiber length will be formed. The thinnest nanofiber was obtained as Ho5AgPLAPU nanofiber
with 484 nm value. The fiber with the smoothest surface appearance among the produced
nanofibers is 1% Ag NP added nanofiber. This material has smooth and bead-free fibers. For
this reason, while the 1% Ag doped solution was thought to have optimum conductivity,
thicker fibers were formed compared to HoPLAPU nanofiber due to the increased solution
density.

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Figure 1. The surface micrographs and average diameters of hollow nanofibers (mag:1000x)

DSC analysis was carried out to determine both the thermal properties of hollow nanofibers
and to prove that their inner parts are completely empty thanks to the characteristic thermal
temperature values of the polymeric nanofibers. The DSC curves of thermal properties of
hollow nanofibers are given in Figure 2.
In our previous study, two different Tg values were observed for solid (filled) PLA/PU (50:50
w:w) blended nanofibers. The Tg value for the PU soft part is (-26 oC) and the Tg value for
the PLA polymer is 61oC (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021). A single Tg value of around
61oC was observed for HoPLAPU nanofiber. Likewise, a single Tg value of around 60 oC was
observed in all Ag NP-doped hollow nanofibers. This is explained by the partial compatibility
of PLA polymer with the polyester or polyether group that forms the soft part of the PU
polymer (Feng and Ye, 2011). Because the compatibility of polymer blends may be described
by the deviation of Tg values of components providing the mixture from the typical values of
constituents own and slipping into each other (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021). The Tm
value of the hard and loose segment has been not observed on the solid (filled) PLA/PU blend
nanofibers (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021). Likewise, a single Tm value of around 150°C
was observed in hollow PLA/PU nanofibers, as in solid PLA/PU blend nanofibers. On the
other hand, a wide Tm value was observed at 92oC, which is in the characteristic Tm value
range of raw PVP nanofiber (Akhgari and et al ,2016; Sethia and Squillante, 2004). This value
has been not observed in any hollow nanofiber.

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So that the fibers have been completely emptied. As a result, thanks to the findings of the
characteristic thermal properties of the polymers, the existence of hollow PLA/PU/Ag NP
nanofibers has been proven.

10
PVP
8
HoPLAPU
6 Ho1AgPLAPU
Ho3AgPLAPU
Heat Flow (mW/mg)

4 Ho5AgPLAPU
2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (oC)

Figure 2. The DSC curves of hollow nanofibers

The mechanical test results of hollow nanofibers are showed in Table 2. The tensile strength
of HoPLAPU nanofiber was almost 2 times higher than that of solid PLA/PU (50:50 w:w)
nanofiber. While the tensile strength of hollow PLA/PU (50:50 w:w) nanofibers increased, the
Elongation property remained almost the same with a slight increase (Najafi et al., 2016;
Shirolkar et al., 2021; Moattari et al., 2021). Mechanical properties are expected to increase in
the presence of Ag NP (Li and et al, 2019; Krishna and et al, 2021). In this study, the tensile
strength of hollow nanofibers decreases with the increase of Ag NP amount, while the
elongation behaviour increases. The decrease in tensile strength was attributed to the presence
of unwanted bead structures on the nanofiber seen in the SEM images. Due to the presence of
knotted, agglomerated and non-fibrous polymer drops (beads), those regions behaved like raw
PLA polymer (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021) and exhibited poor tensile strength. On the
contrary, flexibility is increased due to those regions and hollow structure. Because, in the
presence of polyurethane, the loose parts in the polymer bead structure can also exhibit
elongation behaviour in solid form. All Ag NP doped nanofibers showed higher elongation
values compared to HoPLAPU nanofiber. Ho1AgPLAPU nanofiber exhibited the highest
elastic behaviour (Yadav et al., 2019). At the same time, Ho1AgPLAPU nanofiber has the
highest tensile strength among Ag NP doped hollow nanofibers. It is attributed to the presence
of smooth beadless Ho1AgPLAPU nanofibers in the SEM images. The elongation values of
Ho3AgPLAPU and Ho5AgPLAPU nanofibers are close to each other. The beaded structures
in the surface images in the SEM images are also quite similar to each other. All hollow
nanofibers have mechanical properties higher than the elongation behaviour and tensile
strength of raw solid (filled) PLA nanofiber.

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Table 2. The mechanical test results of hollow nanofibers

Tensile Stress Tensile

Samples
(MPa) Strain (%)
HoPLAPU 7,20 41,65
Ho1AgPLAPU 1,41 79,51

Ho3AgPLAPU 0,73 57,27

Ho5AgPLAPU 0,60 60,13

The AC electrical conductivity measurement data of Ag NP doped hollow nanofibers were

given in Figure 3. The AC electrical conductivity values boosts with the rising frequency for
Ag NP doped hollow nanofibers. While the AC electrical conductivity of HoPLAPU
nanofiber was 1.46E10-12 S/m at 100 kHz, it increased to 1.06E10-8 S/m at 1 MHz (Huang and
et al, 2014; Triantis and et al, 2015). That state is associated with the polar interaction
behaviours between polymer chains with rising frequency. The conductivity value obtained
from the plots at 1 MHz was measured as 1.15E10-6 S/m for the Ho1AgPLAPU nanofiber,
1.31E10-6 S/m for the Ho3AgPLAPU nanofiber and 1.07E10-7 S/m for the Ho5AgPLAPU
nanofiber.
Since it is known that the conductivity will increase as the amount of Ag NP increases, the
expected effect is expected in the Ho5AgPLAPU nanofiber, where the highest conductivity is
expected. However, this hollow nanofiber has the lowest conductivity. The reason for this was
again attributed to the presence of beads in the SEM images. It is difficult for Ag NPs to
maintain conductivity by advancing through their bead structure. Because, in the structure, we
come across as barrier structures between Ag NP. Similarly, Ho3AgPLAPU hollow
nanofiber also contains beads, although not as densely beaded as the Ho5AgPLAPU
nanofiber. For this reason, although the amount of Ag in the structure of Ho3AgPLAPU
hollow nanofiber is higher than that of Ho1AgPLAPU nanofiber; 1MHz also has the
conductivity value it shows. The conductivity values of Ho1AgPLAPU and Ho3AgPLAPU
nanofibers at 1MHz are almost the same. According to other studies, although the amount of
1% Ag is quite low, it exhibits good conductivity. This is due to the fact that the nanofiber
core structure is hollow. Thanks to the hollow structure, the diffusion paths for electrons
narrow (Jiang and et al, 2012; Lou and et al 2008; Aravindan and et al, 2014; Wei and et al,
2013). In this way, the electrons follow a straight path that is not curved, and the Ag NPs do
not clump together (Dong and et al, 2011; Bear and et al, 1972). Thus, the electrons travel a
shorter distance and stay on the fiber surface for a shorter time and transfer the conductivity
faster. As a result, All Ag NP added hollow nanofibers have been produced as semi-
conductor (Fielding and et al, 2015) nanomaterials.

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10-6
AC Conductivity (S/m)

10-7

10-8

10-9

10-10

10-11
HoPLAPU
Ho1AgPLAPU
Ho3AgPLAPU
10-12
Ho5AgPLAPU

101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 3. Electrical conductivity (S/m) of hollow nanofibers

The effect of frequency on the real dielectric constant ( ɛ′ ) of the hollow nanofibers is seen in
Figure 4. The value of the real dielectric constant ( ɛ′ ) being normal dielectric behaviour
reduces incessantly with rising frequency. Nevertheless, as the of Ag NPs in nanofibers rises,
even though it is not linear, it raises. The reduction in the dielectric constant as the frequency
rising may be related to the interaction with each other in Ag NPs that unfollowable the
alternating electric area (Mahalakshmi and et al, 2008). The behaviour of the imaginary
dielectric constant ε″ with frequency was given in Figure 5. The imaginary dielectric constant
raises as tan δ and frequency increases. In addition, the increased values are owing to the
movement of the free charge transporter within the material (Demirezen and et al, 2016).

101
HoPLAPU
()

Ho1AgPLAPU
Ho3AgPLAPU
Ho5AgPLAPU
Real Dielectric Constant

100

10-1
101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 4. Real dielectric constant (ɛʹ) of hollow nanofibers

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()
HoPLAPU
Ho1AgPLAPU
0 Ho3AgPLAPU
10
Ho5AgPLAPU
Imaginary Dielectric Constant

10-1

10-2

10-3

-4
10
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 5. Imaginary dielectric constant (ɛ ̋ ) of hollow nanofibers

3. CONCLUSION
 In this study, for the first time, hollow section PLA/PU/Ag NPs nanofibers were produced
using coaxial electrospinning method. Beaded structures were formed on nanofiber surfaces
with increasing Ag NP amount.
 At the same time, the nanofiber diameter first increased, then decreased. According to the
DSC results, no polymer other than PLA-PU was found in the structure of the hollow
nanofibers.
 According to the mechanical analysis, as the amount of Ag NP in the structure of hollow
nanofibers increased, the tensile strength decreased, while the elongation values (%)
increased.
 All PLA/PU/Ag NP hollow nanofibers were obtained as semi-conductor material according
to AC conductivity measurements. The 1% and 3% Ag NP doped nanofibers showed the
highest conductivity. Thanks to the hollow cross-section of the nanofibers, conductivity is
provided with a small amount of Ag NP.
 The nanomaterial with the highest conductivity value obtained by using a small amount of
Ag NP and the nanomaterial showing the highest tensile strength and elongation are PLA/PU
nanofibers with 1% Ag NP doped (Ho1AgPLAPU).
 In this case, an environmentally friendly nanomaterials have been produced that can be
easily used in strain and bending sensors with high elasticity.
 At the same time, thanks to the antibacterial properties of Ag NPs, it is a potential candidate
for biosensor applications. In addition to all these, it is a nanomaterial that can also find will
be used in filtration applications thanks to its increased surface area and porosity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Scientific Research Projects Unit of Kocaeli University (KOUBAP) for
financial support under Project number FYL-2021-2425.

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R. Li, Z. Cheng, X. Yu, S. Wang, Z. Han, L. Kang, Mater. Lett. 254 (2019) 206-209.
R. M. Moattari, T. Mohammadi, S. Rajabzadeh, H. Dabiryan, H. Matsuyama, Journal
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S. Demirezen, A. Kaya, S.A. Yeriskin, M. Balbas, I. Uslu, Result. Phys. 6 (2016) 180-
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10.1177/15280837211029051
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T. Maitra, S. Sharma, A. Srivastava, Y.K. Cho, M. Madou, A. Sharma, , Carbon 50
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V. Aravindan, J. Gnanaraj, Y.S. Lee, S. Madhavi, Chem. Rev. 114 (2014) 11619–
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PRODUCTION OF WOUND DRESSING WITH ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT FROM

BICOMPONENT NANOFIBERS WITH CORE RAW PLA-SHELL PU-Ag NPs

Sema SAMATYA YILMAZ

Kocaeli University, Science Institute, Polymer Science and Technology Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-2682-2892

Ayşe AYTAÇ
Kocaeli University, Engineering Faculty, Chemical Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-9566-7881

ABSTRACT
In this study, core raw poly(lactic) acid (PLA) shell polyurethane (PU)-silver nanoparticle
(Ag NP) structured bicomponent nanofibers were produced by the di-axial electrospinning
method. In this way, the production of flexible, hydrophobic, biocompatible, non-toxic and
100% antibacterial effective wound dressings has been successfully achieved against
Escherichia coli (E. coli), staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.
aeruginosa) bacteria. Surface properties were examined by SEM analysis, and the presence of
smooth nanofibers was observed; It was noticed that the fiber diameter became thinner as the
Ag NPs ratio increased. It was observed that the toxic effect decreased with decreasing fiber
diameter. At the highest 10% Ag NP amount, the antibacterial effect reached 100%, and the
mouse fibroblast cell line (L929) viability increased at 90%. At the same time, the use of
PLA-PU structures together as a single structure has balanced the hardness and toughness; has
been increased the elasticity and tensile strength values of nanofibers. In addition, a
hydrophobic nanofiber surface was obtained. Thanks to this waterproof/water-resistant and
highly elastic antibacterial effective wound dressing, high human comfort will be provided. It
is thought that it will be a very useful wound dressing, especially in the case of injuries to the
limbs such as hands and arms, which are in frequent contact with water, in terms of using the
limbs without limitation of movement. Besides, it is foreseen that while wounds non-contact
with water were purified from the bacteria on them, wounds will heal in a shorter time thanks
to rapid cell growth.
Keywords: Antibacterial effective wound dressing, non-toxic, PLA/PU-Ag NPs bicomponent
nanofiber, core/shell structure

ÇEKİRDEK SAF PLA/KABUK PU-Ag NP BiKOMPONENT NANOLİFLERDEN

ANTİBAKTERİYEL ETKİLİ YARA ÖRTÜSÜ ÜRETİMİ

ÖZET
Bu çalışmada, çekirdekte saf poli(laktik) asit (PLA) ve kabukta poliüretan (PU)-gümüş
nanopartikül (Ag NP) olmak üzere iki bileşenli nanolifler iki eksenli elektro eğirme yöntemi
ile üretilmiştir. Bu sayede Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) ve
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) bakteri türlerine karşı esnek, hidrofobik,
biyouyumlu, toksik olmayan ve %100 antibakteriyel etkili yara örtülerinin üretimi başarıyla
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bikomponent nanoliflerin yüzey özellikleri SEM analizi ile incelenmiştir
ve pürüzsüz nanoliflerin varlığı gözlemlenmiştir.

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Aynı zamanda, nanolif yapısındaki Ag nanopartiküllerin oranının artışıyla lif çapının

inceldiği, lif çapı azaldıkça toksik etkinin azaldığı gözlemlenmiştir. En yüksek %10 Ag
nanopartikül katkılı nanolif yapısında antibakteriyel etki %100'e ulaşmıştır ve fare fibroblast
hücre hattı (L929) canlılığı %90'a yükselmiştir. Bunun yanında, PLA-PU yapılarının tek bir
yapı olarak bir arada kullanılması sertlik ve tokluğu dengelemiş; nanoliflerin elastikiyet ve
çekme mukavemeti değerlerini arttırmıştır. Ayrıca hidrofobik nanolif yüzeyleri elde
edilmiştir. Su geçirmez/suya dayanıklı ve yüksek elastikiyete sahip antibakteriyel etkili bu
yara örtüleri ile yüksek seviyede insan konforu sağlaması beklenmektedir. Özellikle su ile sık
temasta olan el ve kol gibi uzuvlarda meydana gelen yaralanmalarda uzuvların hareket
kısıtlaması olmadan kullanılması açısından oldukça faydalı bir yara örtüsü ve/veya doku
iskelesi olacağı düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca su ile temas etmeyen yaralar, bakterilerin
varlığından arınırken; hızlı hücre büyümesi sayesinde yaraların daha kısa sürede iyileşeceği
öngörülmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Antibakteriyel etkili yara örtüsü, toksik olmayan, PLA/PU-Ag NPs
bikomponent nanolif, çekirdek/kabuk yapı

1. INTRODUCTION
The produced core-shell bicomponent nanofibers via di-axial electrospinning are contain
useful properties of each of the components (Ji and et al, 2010). Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) is
among the most used polymers for biomedical implementations although it has brittle and
weak mechanical properties (Kulkarni and et al, 1966). Polyurethane (PU) has to properties of
biocompatibility, superior elasticity, and mechanical properties and is partially compatible
with blood (Janik and Marzec, 2015). The electrospun mats obtained from polyurethane (PU)
(Unnithan and et al, 2015) and poly(lactic) acid PLA (and et al, 2006) are convenient for
fabrication of the tissue scaffold because they have wound dressing features. Silver is a
material with strong antibacterial activity. It has been used for many years as a bacteria and
virus killer. It is suitable to produce wound dressings because it does not have a high toxic
effect and bacteria such as E. coli, S. aureus inhibit and decompose the respiratory system
(Lakshman and et al, 2010). Diameter reduction was observed in nanofibers produced with
increasing silver amount (Li and et al, 2019). The antibacterial activities against E. coli and S.
aureus were observed for PLA/Ag nanofibers on the investigation of Alippilakkottea et al. It
has been seen that the PLA/Ag electrospun mats are cytocompatibility with fibroblast cells
and supports cell growth (Alippilakkottea et al, 2017). Sun and et al, prepared the
antibacterial PLA porous nanofibers added silver ions. The antibacterial properties against E.
coli and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus of these nanofibers have been improved.
It has been determined that the PLA-Silver (Ag ions) porous nanofibers could be used as
potent antibacterial wound dressing in biomedical applications (Sun and et al,2016).
Lakshman and et al examined the water absorption, antibacterial and cytotoxicity properties
of the PU-Ag electrospun mat and compared it to that of traditional PU foam that is currently
used as wound dressing. They indicated that the PU-Ag electrospun mats may be used for
medical applications like wound dressing (Lakshman and et al, 2010). The silver
nanoparticles were added to the polyurethane-based matrix in the study by Zeytuncu and
Morcali. The photocured these Pu/AgNPs materials showed high antibacterial activity against
E. coli and S. aureus (Zeytuncu and Morcali, 2015). In the study of Hsu and et al, the diverse
low concentrations of silver nanoparticles were added to polyester-type waterborne
polyurethane (PU).

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The mouse subcutaneous implantation approved the better biocompatibility of the PU-Ag NP
nanocomposites. The nanocomposites displayed antibacterial effects against E. coli. These
prove for PU-Ag NP as a potential cardiovascular biomaterial (Hsu and et al,2010). Also, in
our previous study, PLA-PU blended nanofibers were produced, and their chemical and
physical characterization was investigated. It has been observed that PLA/PU blended
nanofibers produced by the electrospinning method have high hydrophobic features, high
elasticity, and high tensile strength (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021).
This study, it was aimed to produce raw PLA and PU-Ag NP nanofibers in a single structure
as two components by the di-axial electrospinning method and to use these nanofibers as
wound dressings. The production of wound dressings with improved mechanical properties,
high body comfort, not restricting the movements of the person, waterproof, having 100%
antibacterial activity and supporting fibroblast cell growth has been successfully achieved.

2. RESEARCH AND RESULTS

2.1. Experimental Studies
Poly (lactic) acid (PLA) (4043D) was purchased from Nature Works. The aromatic polyether-
based thermoplastic Polyurethane (PU) (Estane®GP52DTNAT055) was supplied by Lubrizol
(Velox). Dimethylformamide (DMF) and chloroform (CF) solvents were assured from Merck
Company. The silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs – 35nm) was ensured from Nanografi.
The 10 wt% raw PLA, the 10 wt% raw PU and the 10 wt% PU/Ag NP solutions were
dissolved in CF/DMF (8/2, v/v) solvent with magnetic stirring for 3h at 24oC. After 3 hours,
the 10 wt% raw PU and the 10 wt% PU/Ag NP solutions were stirred at 120oC for another 30
min. So, all solutions have been prepared for di-axial electrospinning method. The codes of
the produced bicomponent nanofibers are given in Table 1.
Di-axial electrospinning process conditions were defined as 1.00 mL/h feeding rate, 21 kV
applied voltage, 23 cm distance between. The di-axial needle had an inner diameter of 0.64
mm (22G) and the outer diameter of 1.6 mm (14G).

Table 1. The study codes of all bicomponent nanofibers

Conc
entrat
Names AgNPs Core Shell
ion
(wt%)
(wt%
)
cPLAsPU - Raw PLA Raw PU -
cPLAs2AgPU 2
cPLAs5AgPU 5 PU-Ag NP 10
Raw PLA
cPLAs10AgPU 10

The microscopic morphology and fiber diameter distribution of the bicomponent nanofibers
were investigated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (QUANTA 400F Field
Emission). The wettability properties of bicomponent nanofibers were tested by the Attension
Theta Lite at 24˚C with the static contact angle method. That test was applied 10 times to each
electrospun mat. The mechanical features of bicomponent electrospun mats were examined
with Lloyd Instruments LRX Plus according to ASTM D882 conditions.

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The in vitro antibacterial activity of bicomponent nanofibers was investigated with the agar
plate colony counting method. This test that is a quantitative method, was applied against
Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus ATCC 29213), and Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli ATCC
25922 and P. aeruginosa ATCC 27853). The antibacterial activity (%) of bicomponent
nanofibers calculated according to the following “Equation (1)”:

Antibacterial Activity (%) = (A-B)/A x 100 (1)

Where A is the average bacteria count of the untreated bicomponent electrospun mat control
pattern; B is the mean count of bacteria per hour with the least count of bacteria except the 0
hour.
The cytotoxicity of the bicomponent nanofibers was examined on mouse fibroblast cell line
(L929) by WST-1 assay with the direct contact method. Firstly, each side of the bicomponent
nanofibers was sterilized under UV light for 30 min. L929 cells have been cultured in high
glucose DMEM added with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1.4 % L-glutamine, 100 U/mL penicillin,
and 100 μg/mL of streptomycin. L929 cells were placed the bicomponent nanofibers in the
24-well plate. The processed plate was cultured at 37 oC and 5 % CO2. Then, 24 hours of
incubation, 50 μL of WST-1 solution (BioVision Incorporated, USA) was suffixed to each
well. The plate was continually incubated at 37oC for 2 h, then as shaking fully for 1 min,
measured of OD value at wavelength 450 nm using a microplate reader (Multiskan FC,
Thermo Scientific).
It was determined well plate without the electrospun nanofiber as a negative control, cells
with 1 % (v/v) Triton X-100 (Sigma) and 500 µg/ml Geneticin (Gibco) as a positive control,
and an equal volume of culture medium that contained WST-1/ECS solution in an empty well
as a blank. The process was repeated 3 times. Cell viability (%) was calculated owing to
following “Equation (2)":

(2)
Where Ab sample is the sample absorbance, Ab blank is the absorbance of blank, Ab control
is the absorbance of the negative control.

2.2. Experimental Results

SEM micrographs and average fiber diameter values of bicomponent nanofibers at 10000x
magnification are given in Figure 1. Those have a beadles, homogeneous and smooth surface.
Compared to the doped cPLAsPU bicomponent nanofiber, the diameter of the bicomponent
nanofibers increased with the addition of Ag NP. However, with the increase in the amount of
Ag NP in the structure, a regular decrease in diameter was observed (Li and et al, 2019). The
thinnest bicomponent nanofiber with the 1127 nm value was observed in the structure with
10% Ag NP amount. The reason why the bicomponent nanofibers are thick in the presence of
Ag NP; the density of silver (10.53 g/cm3) is quite elevated compared to PLA and PU
polymers with a density of approximately 1.0 g/cm3 and hence AgNPs bear to sediment and
agglomerate during the production of polymeric nanofibers (Fukushima and et al, 1978).
Except for cPLAsPU nanofiber, the dots, and protrusions on other bicomponent nanofibers
were evaluated as Ag NPs.

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Figure 1. SEM micrographs and average diameters of bicomponent nanofibers

The contact angle values of bicomponent nanofibers have given in Figure 2. In our previous
study, raw PLA and raw PU nanofibers showed hydrophobic properties at an angle of about
120° (Samatya Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021). To compose a contact angle larger than this value,
the surface should have a rough structure with a particular ratio (micro/nano). Thus, the free
surface energy of the surface decreases (Erbil and et al, 2003). As the amount of Ag NP added
to the structure increases, the surface contact angle increases. The cPLAsPU bicomponent
nanofiber showed a contact angle value of 120 degrees similarly because it combines raw
PLA and raw PU nanofibers in a single structure while preserving their personal properties,
and because it is an additive-free structure.
There is an Ag NPs size of about 35 nm in the structure of bicomponent materials excluding
cPLAsPU. The presence of Ag nanoparticles in the outer shell of the bicomponent nanofiber
structure has been created an invisible nano-sized roughness. Thus, Ag NP-added
bicomponent nanofibers exhibited hydrophobic features with an angle of approximately 130°.
The protrusions observed in the shell of bicomponent nanofiber are confirmed by SEM
analysis images. The hydrophobic nature of the produced bicomponent nanofibers will
provide an advantage to the person during use. These dressings will be waterproof, especially
when used on extremities that are likely to meet water, such as hands and arms. At the same
time, thanks to the porous structure of the nanofibers, wound healing will be provided in a
short time by taking air.

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Figure 2. The contact angle values of bicomponent nanofibers

The mechanical analysis results of bicomponent nanofibers have shown in Table 2. The
cPLAsPU bicomponent electrospun mat with values of 1.37 MPa and 46.26% has displayed
strength and elongation properties between raw PU and raw PLA electrospun mats (Samatya
Yilmaz and Aytac, 2021). As Ag NPs amount increased in bicomponent nanofibers, the
strength and elongation properties improved linearly (Li and et al, 2019). The cPLAs10AgPU
bicomponent nanofiber has had the highest tensile strength and elasticity with values of 2.53
MPa and 66.84%. Thus, bicomponent nanofibers have had mechanical properties that will
create human comfort for wound dressing use. When used on any part of the body skin, it will
provide freedom of movement for humans.

Table 2. The mechanical test results of bicomponent nanofibers

Tensile
Tensile
Stress
Samples Strain (%)
(MPa)
cPLAsPU 1,37 46,26
cPLAs2AgPU 1,98 47,32
cPLAs5AgPU 2,36 56,70
cPLAs10AgPU 2,53 66,84

Antibacterial effective wound dressing was successfully produced against E. coli, P.

aeruginosa and S. aureus. The Ag NPs not including drug agents have been extremely
effective in all bacterial species according to antibacterial activity (%) results. The E. coli
view on agar for bicomponent nanofibers was given in Figure 3. Also, the bacteria count of E.
coli and antibacterial activity (%) for bicomponent nanofibers was given in Table 3.
During 0h, 6h, 12h and 24h, the numerous E. coli reproductive on the cPLAsPU bicomponent
electrospun mat was an effect expected. Because this non-doped bicomponent electrospun
mat has been used as control nanofiber surface. The Ag NPs display antibacterial properties
by reacting with the cell barriers of and plasma structures of bacteria. When 2% Ag NPs were
used, E. coli bacteria were completely destroyed at the end of the 12th hour. In 5% and 10%
Ag NPs added bicomponent nanofibers, E. coli were completely destroyed at the end of the
6th hour. The 100% antibacterial effect was achieved in a shorter time as the amount of Ag
NPs in the fiber structure increased. This antibacterial effect remained effective until the end
of the 12th hour.

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For all bicomponent fibers, it was observed that silvers lost their effect and increased again at
the end of the 24th hour (Nguyen and et al, 2011). For this reason, it is considered appropriate
for E. coli bacteria to be changed at the end of every 12 hours when used as a wound dressing.

Figure 3. The E. coli view on agar for bicomponent nanofibers

Table 3. The bacteria count of E. coli and antibacterial activity

Antibacterial
Names 0 hour 6 hour 12 hour 24 hour
Activity (%)
3 4 5
cPLAsPU 73 10 10 ̴ 10 -
For 6h
cPLAs2AgPU 300 ̴ 100 0 101
100
For 6h and 12h
cPLAs5AgPU 200 0 0 83
100
For 6h and 12h
cPLAs10AgPU 60 0 0 26
100

The P. aeruginosa view on agar for bicomponent electrospun mats was shown in Figure 4.
Also, bacteria count of P. aeruginosa and antibacterial activity (%) for bicomponent
electrospun mats were shown in Table 4.
During 0h, 6h, 12h and 24h, the countless P. aeruginosa proliferation on the cPLAsPU
bicomponent nanofiber was expected. For, this AgNPs-free bicomponent nanofiber has been
used as control electrospun mat for P. aeruginosa. When 2% and 5% Ag NPs were used
[Link] were completely destroyed at the end of the 12th hour. This antibacterial activity
has continued until the end of the 24th hour. In 10% Ag NPs doped bicomponent electrospun
mats, P. aeruginosa was fully killed at the end of the 6th hour. The 100% antibacterial effect
has been obtained in a shorter time as the percentage of Ag NPs in bicomponent electrospun
mats raised. The cPLAs10AgPU nanofiber, like other bicomponent nanofibers, preserved its
100% antibacterial effect for 24 hours. For P. aeruginosa, it is considered appropriate to
change them at the end of every 24 hours when used as a wound dressing.

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Figure 4. The P. aeruginosa view on agar for bicomponent nanofibers

Table 4. The bacteria counts of P. aeruginosa and antibacterial activity (%) for bicomponent
nanofibers
Antibacterial
Names 0 hour 6 hour 12 hour 24 hour
Activity (%)
cPLAsPU 40 ̴ 2x103 ̴ 104 ̴ 105 -
For 12h and 24h
cPLAs2AgPU ̴ 300 4 0 0
100
For 12h and 24h
cPLAs5AgPU ̴ 150 2 0 0
100
For 6h, 12h and 24h
cPLAs10AgPU ̴ 100 0 0 0
100

The S. aureus view on agar for bicomponent nonwoven webs was given in Figure 5. Also, the
bacteria count of S. aureus and antibacterial activity (%) for bicomponent nonwoven webs
was presented in Table 5. During 0h, 6h, 12h and 24h, the countless S. aureus proliferation on
the cPLAsPU bicomponent nanofiber was expected. Because this AgNPs-free bicomponent
nanofiber has been used as control electrospun mat for S. aureus. However, bacterial growth
could not be stopped in the cPLAs2AgPU nanofiber in 24 hours even. The amount of silver in
the structure was not sufficient to reduce or completely destroy S. aureus bacteria. A
continuous increase for S. aureus in this nanofiber was observed from the 0th hour. Unlike the
results of other bacterial species, a remarkable increased in the number and reproductive
velocity of S. aureus was determined over time. Due to the thick cell wall that Gram-positive
S. aureus has by nature, Ag NPs may be difficult to penetrate to inner structure of bacteria and
to exhibit preventive behaviour bacterial reproductive [mak4-23]. 5% and 10% Ag NPs doped
nanofibers showed 100% antibacterial effect for S. aureus at the end of the 12th hour.
Bacterial growth was seen in the cPLAs5AgPU nanofiber at the end of the 24th hour.

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However, the cPLAs10AgPU nanofiber retained its 100% antibacterial activity until the end
of 1 day. For S. aureus bacteria, it is appropriate to replace the cPLAs5AgPU bicomponent
nanofiber at the end of the 12th hour and the cPLAs10AgPU bicomponent nanofiber at the
end of the 24th hour when used as a wound dressing.
The cPLAs5AgPU and the cPLAs10AgPU bicomponent nanofibers, which show 100%
antibacterial effect as a single structure for 3 bacterial species, can be used as wound
dressings.

Figure 5. The S. aureus view on agar for bicomponent nanofibers

Table 5. The bacteria counts of S. aureus and antibacterial activity (%) for bicomponent
nanofibers
Antibacterial
Names 0 hour 6 hour 12 hour 24 hour
Activity (%)
4 5 6
cPLAsPU 39 ̴ 10 ̴ 10 ̴ 10 -
cPLAs2AgPU 34 31 ̴ 500 ̴ 104 -
cPLAs5AgPU 32 23 0 15 For 12h 100
For 12h and 24h
cPLAs10AgPU 26 18 0 0
100

In this study, antibacterial test results give information about the usability of bicomponent
nanofibers as a wound dressing; cytotoxicity testing definitively states their usability as a
wound dressing or tissue scaffold. The most important test that defines the usability of a
material as a wound dressing is the cytotoxicity test. The cell viability (%) graphs of
bicomponent nanofibers are given in Figure 6. coPLAshPU bicomponent electrospun mat was
used as the negative control. Since PLA and PU polymers are biocompatible, a highly toxic
effect has been not expected. Also, cPLAsPU nanofiber has been observed to support cell
growth with 94,84% value. The reason for the termination for 24 hours of cytotoxicity test is
that the antibacterial effectivity is consumed at the end of the 12th and 24th hours.
The toxic effect of the positive control used for the test was determined to be 55.15% end of
the 24th hour. The produced bicomponent electrospun mats were accepted as non-toxic
surfaces, on the condition that the cell viability (%) was this value and above.

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However, unless the positive control cell viability is above 70%, the fabricated materials for
medical applications like tissue scaffold and wound dressing are indicated to be non-toxic
(Alippilakkottea and et al,2017).
Therefore, the nanofiber of the cPLAs2AgPU bicomponent is border line with a value of 69%
for wound dressing use. If considered to be a tolerable amount, it can be used as a dressing for
E. coli and P. aeruginosa. However, it would be much more appropriate to use 5% and 10%
Ag NP-doped bicomponent nanofibers as a wound dressing, with an increased cell growth of
79,90% and 90,28%, respectively. In fact, dressing and scaffold nanomaterials that can be
used as a single structure for three bacterial species are cPLAs5AgPU and cPLAs10AgPU
bicomponent nanofibers. While providing 100% antibacterial effect, they also support cell
growth. Decreased fiber diameters were found to be effective in cell growth (Movahedi and et
al, 2020). It was concluded that cPLAs5AgPU is the most suitable nanofiber for wound
dressing when it is considered as a structure that contributes to cell growth and 100%
antibacterial effect in three bacterial species with low Ag NP amount.

Cell Viability (%)

100 94,84
90,28
79,90
80 69,00

60

40

20

0
cPLAsPU cPLAs2AgPU cPLAs5AgPU cPLAs10AgPU
Figure 6. The cell viability (%) graphs of bicomponent nanofibers

3. CONCLUSION
 In this study, raw PLA and PU-Ag NP nanofibers were first time produced with di-axial
electrospinning method in a single structure as two components.
 The surfaces of produced bicomponent nanofibers were observed to be smooth and flat. As
the amount of Ag increased, the diameter became thinner.
 The decreased nanofiber diameter promoted cell growth.
 Significant improvements in mechanical properties were observed with increasing Ag
content.
 With the increase of Ag content, the hydrophobic surface properties improved.
 5% Ag NPs doped nanofiber showed 100% antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli
(E. coli), staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa)
bacteria.
 At the end of 24 hours, approximately 80% cell growth was observed in the nanofiber doped
with 5% Ag NPs.

43
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

 Nanofiber with 5% Ag NPs can be used safely as an antibacterial effectivity wound dressing
and tissue scaffold that is beneficial to health, comfortable, easy to use, and can be changed
easily.

REFERENCES
A.R. Unnithan, A.R.K. Sasikala, P. Murugesan, M. Gurusamy, D. Wu, C.H. Park, C.S.
Kim, Electrospun polyurethane-dextran nanofiber mats loaded with Estradiol for post-
menopausal wound dressing, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 77 (2015) 1-8.
[Link]
B. Sun, B. Duan, X. Yuan, Preparation of Core/Shell PVP/PLA Ultrafine fibers by
coaxial electrospinning. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 102 (2006) 39–45.
[Link]
B. Zeytuncu, M.H. Morcali, Fabrication and Characterization of Antibacterial
Polyurethane Acrylate-based Materials, Mat. Res. 18 (2015) 867-872.
[Link]
H. Janik, M. Marzec, A review: fabrication of porous polyurethane scaffolds, Mater.
Sci. Eng: C. 48 (2015) 586–591. [Link]
H.Y. Erbil, A.L. Demirel, Y. Avci, O. Mert, Transformation of a simple plastic into a
superhydrophobic surface, Science. 299 (2003) 1377-1380. DOI: 10.1126/science.1078365
J. Fukushima, K. Yasuda, H. Teratani, S. Nishizaki, Settling behavior of fillers in
thermosetting epoxy casting resins during cure, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 22 (1978) 1701-1714.
[Link]
J. Li, W. J. Peng, Z. J. Fu, X.H. Tang, H. Wu, S. Guo, M. Wang, Achieving high
electrical conductivity and excellent electromagnetic interference shielding in poly(lactic
acid)/silver nanocomposites by constructing large-area silver nanoplates in polymer matrix,
Composites 171 (2019) 204-213. [Link]
L.R. Lakshman, K. Shalumon, S.V. Nair, R. Jayakumar, S. Nair, Preparation of silver
nanoparticles incorporated electrospun polyurethane nano-fibrous mat for wound dressing, J.
Macromol. Sci. Part A: Pure Appl. Chem. 47 (2010) 1012–1018.
[Link]
M. Movahedi, A. Asefnejad, M. Rafienia, M.T. Khorasani, Potential of novel
electrospun core-shell structured polyurethane/starch (hyaluronic acid) nanofibers for skin
tissue engineering: In vitro and in vivo evaluation, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 146, 627-637
(2020). [Link]
R. Li, Z. Cheng, X. Yu, S. Wang, Z. Han, L. Kang, Preparation of antibacterial
PCL/PVP-AgNP Janus nanofibers by uniaxial electrospinning, Mater. Lett. 254 (2019) 206-
209. [Link]
R.K. Kulkarni, K.C. Pani, C. Neuman, F. Leonard, Polylactic acid for surgical
implants. Arch. Surg. 93 (1966) 839-843. [Link]
01330050143023
S. Alippilakkottea, S. Kumar, L. Sreejith, Fabrication of PLA/Ag nanofibers by green
synthesis method using Momordica charantia fruit extract for wound dressing applications,
Collo. Surf. A: Phys. Eng. Asp. 529 (2017) 771-782.
[Link]

44
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

S. Hsu, H.J. Tseng, Lin Y.C., The biocompatibility and antibacterial properties of
waterborne polyurethane-silver nanocomposites, Biomaterials. 31 (2010) 6796-6808.
[Link]
S. Samatya Yilmaz, A. Aytac, Poly(lactic acid)/polyurethane blend electrospun fibers:
structural, thermal, mechanical, and surface properties, Iranian Polym. J. (2021).
[Link]
T.T.T. Nguyen, O.H. Chung, J.S. Park, Coaxial electrospun poly (lactic acid)/chitosan
(core/shell) composite nanofibers and their antibacterial activity. Carbohydr. Polym. 86
(2011) 1799–1806. [Link]
W. Ji, F. Yang, J.J.J.P. Beucken, Z. Bian, M. Fan, Z. Chen, J.A. Jansen, Fibrous
scaffolds loaded with protein prepared by blend or coaxial electrospinning, Acta Biomater. 6
(2010) 4199-4207. [Link]
Z. Sun, C Fan, X. Tang, J. Zhao, Y. Song, Z. Shao, L. Xu, Characterization, and
antibacterial properties of porous fibers containing silver ions, Appl. Surf. Sci. 387 (2016)
828-838. [Link]

45
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

GLUTATYON İLİŞKLİ ENZİMLERİN BAZI FENOLİK MADDELERLE IN VITRO

VE IN SILICO İNHİBİSYONU

Pınar GÜLLER
Atatürk Üniversitesi, Fen Fakültesi, Kimya Bölümü, Biyokimya Anabilim Dalı
Atatürk University, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Department of
Biochemistry
ORCID: 0000-0001-8482-7889

ÖZET
Glutatyon S-transferazlar (GSTs) ve Glutatyon redüktaz (GR) aktivitelerinin kanser
hücresinde arttığı ve çoklu ilaç direncine (MDR) sebep olarak kanserin ilerlemesine katkıda
bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Glutatyon redüktaz okside glutatyon (GSSG) ile indirgenmiş
nikotinamid adenin dinükleotid fosfat (NADPH) arasında elektron transferini katalize eder1.
Bu reaksiyon sonucu oluşan redükte glutatyon (GSH) GSTs katalizliğinde çeşitli
ksenobiyotiklerin elektrofilik merkezine saldırarak detoksifiye eder2. Böylece bu iki enzim
kanser hücrelerinde ya anti-kanser ilacının detoksifikasyonu ya da mitojenle aktive olan
protein kinaz (MAPK) yolunun inhibisyonu yoluyla MDR’ye katkıda bulunur. Kanser
hücrelerinde antikanser ilaçların artan GST ve GR ekspresyonu ile detoksifikasyonu bu
ilaçların etkinliğini azaltır3. Bu nedenle kanser tedavilerinde GST ve GR inhibisyonu önemli
bir yaklaşımdır.
Bu çalışmada GR insan eritrositlerinden 2',5'-ADP Sepharose 4B afinite kromatografisi
yöntemiyle 16,912 EÜ/mg protein spesifik aktiviteyle GST ise Glutatyon Agaroz afinite
kromatografisi yöntemiyle 4.88 EÜ/mg protein spesifik aktiviteyle izole edilmiştir.
Enzimlerin izolasyonundan sonra vanilin, epicatekin ve katekinin aktiviteler üzerine
inhibisyon etkisi incelenmiştir. Her üç madde de GST’yi inhibe etmezken, vanilin ve
epicatekinin GR’yi sırasıyla 86.25 µM ve 345 µM IC50 değerleriyle inhibe ettiği
belirlenmiştir. İnhibisyon mekanizmasının aydınlatılması ise AutoDock programı kullanılarak
moleküler yerleştirme çalışmaları ile gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Glutatyon, vanilin, epicatekin, katekin, inhibisyon, moleküler
yerleştirme

1
Jones D.P., 2002. Redox potential of GSH/GSSG couple: Assay and biological significance. Protein Sensors
and Reactive Oxygen Species, Pt B, Thiol Enzymes and Proteins, 348: p. 93-112.
2
Hayes JD, Pulford DJ, 1995. The glutathione S-transferase supergene family: regulation of GST and the
contribution of the isoenzymes to cancer chemoprotection and drug resistance. Critical Reviews in Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology, 30: 445-600.
3
Mansoori B., Mohammadi A., Davudian S., Shirjang S., Baradaran B., 2017. The Different Mechanisms of
Cancer Drug Resistance: A Brief Review. Adv Pharm Bull, 7(3), 339-348.

46
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

IN VITRO AND IN SILICO INHIBITION OF GLUTATHIONE RELATED

ENZYMES BY SOME PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS

ABSTRACT
It has been determined that Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and Glutathione reductase
(GR) activities increase in cancer cells and contribute to the progression of cancer by causing
multidrug resistance (MDR). Glutathione reductase catalyses electron transfer between
oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADPH). The reduced glutathione (GSH) formed as a result of this reaction detoxifies
various xenobiotics by attacking the electrophilic centre in the catalysis of GSTs. Thus, these
two enzymes contribute to MDR in cancer cells either through detoxification of the anti-
cancer drug or inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway.
Detoxification of anticancer drugs with increased GST and GR expression in cancer cells
reduces the effectiveness of these drugs. Therefore, GST and GR inhibition is an important
approach in cancer treatments.
In this study, from human erythrocytes, GR was isolated by using 2',5'-ADP Sepharose 4B
affinity chromatography method with 16,912 EU/mg protein specific activity, and GST was
isolated by using Glutathione Agarose affinity chromatography method with 4.88 EU/mg
protein specific activity. After the isolation of the enzymes, the inhibition effects of vanillin,
epicatechin, and catechin on the activities were investigated. While all three substances did
not inhibit GST, vanillin and epicatechin were found to inhibit GR with IC50 values of 86.25
µM and 345 µM, respectively. The elucidation of the inhibition mechanism was carried out
by molecular docking studies using the AutoDock program.
Keywords: Glutathione, vanillin, epicatechin, catechin, inhibition, molecular docking

47
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

INCONEL625 KAPLAMALARININ KURU ORTAMDAKİ TRİBOLOJİK

DAVRANIŞLARINA KUMLAMA İŞLEMİNİN ETKİSİNİN İNCELENMESİ

Hülya DURMUŞ
Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Metalurji ve Malzeme Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-7270-562X

Fatih Nedim YORULMAZ

Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Metalurji ve Malzeme Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-1726-9965,

Nilay ÇÖMEZ
Manisa Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Metalurji ve Malzeme Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-6432-6582.

ÖZET
Süper alaşımlar mühendislik uygulamalarında önemli bir yere sahiptir. Bu alaşımlar arasında
yer alan nikel esaslı olarak oluşturulan en uygun alaşımlardan biri Inconel625 süper
alaşımıdır. Inconel625, nikel-krom matrisi içerisinde katı bir molibden ve niyobyum çözeltisi
ile güçlendirilmiş nikel esaslı bir süper alaşımdır. Kaynak yöntemleriyle yapılacak olan
işlemlere uygun olan Inconel625 süper alaşımı tel şeklinde TIG kaynağı ile kaplama
malzemesi olarak kullanılmaktadır. Yüksek sıcaklıklarda bile yüksek mukavemetini
koruyabilmektedir ve sürünme direncini kaybetmemektedir. Inconel625, aşınma direncinin
sulu ortamlara uygun olması ve korozyon direnci sayesinde deniz yapılarında
kullanılmaktadır. Bunun yanında uzay ve havacılık, petrokimyasal, termal uygulamalarda da
kullanılmaktadır. Bu özelliklere ek olarak kuru ortamdaki aşınma koşullarında Inconel625
süper alaşımıyla ilgili çok fazla çalışma mevcut değildir. Bundan dolayı aşınma kuru ortama
taşındığında Inconel625 kaplanmış parçalarda ek yüzey işlemine ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Bu
çalışmada amaç, kaplamalara 10 dak ve 20 dak kumlama işlemleri uygulanarak sertlik ve
aşınma direncini artmaktadır. Uygun sürede deformasyon işleminin uygulanması farklı
akımlarla oluşturulan kaplamaların yüzey sertlik değerlerini arttırmaktadır. Uzun süredeki
kumlama pekleşmeyi arttırıp malzeme kayıplarına neden olacağı için ön denemeler ile en
uygun kumlama süresi tespit edilmiştir. Nikel esaslı süper alaşımlarda sertlik, mukavemet ve
sürünme kopma ömrü gibi mekanik özelliklerini iyileştirmede önemli bir role sahiptir, ayrıca
sertliğin artması aşınma direncinin artmasına yardımcı olmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada, TIG kaynağı ile farklı akımlarda (140A, 160A ve 180A) St37 çeliğinden
numuneler üzerine kaplama yapılan Inconel625 süper alaşımının kaplama yapıldıktan sonra
iki farklı sürede kumlama işlemlerine tabi tutulmuşlardır. Daha sonra mikroyapı, sertlik ve
kuru ortamdaki aşınma davranışları incelenmiştir. En yüksek malzeme kayıpları kumlama
işlemi görmemiş numunelerde elde edilirken, en düşük malzeme kaybı 140 A ile Inconel625
kaplanmış ve daha sonra 10 dak kumlama işlemi görmüş numunede elde edilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Inconel625, Kaplama, TIG Kaynağı, Aşınma, Sertlik, Kumlama

48
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF SANDBLASTING ON THE

TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF INCONEL625 COATINGS IN DRY
ENVIRONMENT

ABSTRACT
Superalloys have an important place in engineering applications. Among these alloys, one of
the most suitable nickel-based alloys is Inconel625 superalloy. Inconel625 is a nickel-based
superalloy reinforced with a solid solution of molybdenum and niobium in a nickel-chromium
matrix. Inconel625 super alloy in the form of wire, which is suitable for the processes to be
performed by welding methods, is used as a coating material by TIG welding. It can maintain
its high strength even at high temperatures and does not lose its creep resistance. Inconel625
is used in marine structures due to its wear resistance suitable for aqueous environments and
corrosion resistance. In addition, it is also used in aerospace, petrochemical, thermal
applications. But there are not these properties on Inconel625 superalloy in dry wear
conditions at many studies. Therefore, the Inconel625 coated parts require additional surface
treatment for dry friction strength. In this study, the aim is to increase the hardness and wear
resistance of the coatings by applying 10 min and 20 min sandblasting processes at dry
conditions. The hardness of the coated samples with different currents increases with applying
the deformation process in an appropriate time. Since long-term blasting will increase
hardening but cause material losses, the most appropriate blasting time has been determined
with preliminary trials. It has an important role in improving the mechanical properties such
as hardness, strength and creep rupture life in nickel-based superalloys, and increasing the
hardness helps to increase the wear resistance.
In this study, Samples from St37 steel coated with Inconel625 super alloy at different currents
(140A, 160A and 180A) by TIG welding, were sandblasted in two different times. Then,
microstructure, hardness and wear behavior of samples in dry environment were investigated.
While the highest material losses were obtained in the un-sandblasted samples, the lowest
material loss was obtained in the sample that sandblasted for 10 minutes to Inconel625 coated
with 140 A current.
Keywords: Inconel625, Coating, TIG Welding, Wear, Hardness, Sandblasting

49
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

FARKLI TİPTE CAM ELYAF TAKVİYELİ PA6 VE PA66 KOMPOZİTLERİNİN

ÖZELLİKLERİNİN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI

İbrahim Berk ÇAVUŞ

Bursa Technical University, Institute of Science and Technology of Polymer Material
Engineering, Epsan Plastik, Research, and Development Center, Research and Innovation
Engineer
ORCID: 0000-0001-8834-3101

ÖZET
Mühendislik plastiklerinden olan poliamidler sanayide birçok farklı alanda
kullanılmaktadırlar. Genel olarak, monomerinin içerdiği karbon atomu sayısına göre
isimlendirilmektedirler. En çok bilinen ve kullanılan poliamid türleri kaprolaktamın halka
açılma polimerizasyonu ile elde edilen poliamid 6 (PA6) ve hekzametilen diamin ile adipik
asitin polimerizasyonu ile oluşan poliamid 66 (PA66)’dır.[1,2] Poliamidlerin genel olarak
kimyasallara karşı direnci, mekanik özellikleri, aşınma mukavemeti yüksektir ve proses
kolaylığı gibi üstünlükleri vardır. [1] Bu özellikleri sayesinde otomotiv ve beyaz eşya gibi
önemli sektörlerde sıklıkla tercih edilen plastikler arasındadırlar. Buna ek olarak doğal, cam
ve karbon elyaf ile de güçlendirilerek daha yüksek mekanik özellik gerektiren yerlerde de
kullanılmaktadırlar.[1] Zamanla kompozit sektörünün değişen gereksinimlerine bağlı olarak
farklı boyut ve kaplamalara sahip yeni nesil elyaf çeşitleri elyaf sektöründe yerini almaktadır.
Diğer elyaflara kıyasla yüksek çekme mukavemeti, düşük fiyatı ve kolay işlenebilirliği cam
elyafı (CE) en çok tercih edilen sentetik elyaf haline getirmektedir. Bu çalışmada, hem kesikli
cam elyaf (KCE) hem de yüksek modül özelliğine sahip yeni nesil cam elyaf (YNCE)
kullanılarak PA6 ve PA66 kompozitleri üretilmiştir. KCE 4,5 mm uzunluğa ve 100 µm çapa
sahipken, YNCE 3 mm uzunluğa sahiptir. CE takviyeli PA6 ve PA66 üretiminde çift vidalı
ekstrüder ve enjeksiyon makinesi kullanılmıştır. Lifler ve polimer, ekstrüderde eriyikten
karıştırma yöntemi ile karıştırılarak pelet haline getirilmiş ve enjeksiyon kalıplama yöntemi
ile test plakaları şeklinde kalıplanmıştır. Kompozitlerin karakterizasyonu için yoğunluk,
darbe, çekme ve eğilme testleri yapılmıştır. Yapılan testler sonucunda farklı yükleme
oranlarında KCE ve YNCE takviyeli PA6 ile PA66 kompozitlerin modül değerlerinde
yaklaşık olarak %20-25, mukavemet değerlerinde %10-12, darbe değerlerinde ise %5-8
oranında artış gerçekleşmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: PA 6, PA 66, kesikli cam elyaf, yeni nesil cam elyaf, ekstrüzyon

50
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLASS FIBER

REINFORCED PA6 AND PA66 COMPOSITES

ABSTRACT
Polyamides, which are known as one of the engineering plastics, are used in many different
areas in industry. In general, they are named according to the number of carbon atoms in their
structure of monomer. The most known and used types of polyamides are polyamide 6 (PA6)
obtained by ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam and polyamide 66 (PA66)
synthesized by polymerization of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid. 12 Polyamides
generally have advantages such as chemical resistance, mechanical properties, wear-
resistance, and ease of processing.[1] Thanks to these properties, it is among the plastics that
are frequently preferred in important sectors such as automotive and white goods. In addition,
they are also used in places that require higher mechanical properties by being reinforced with
natural, glass and carbon fiber.[1] Depending on the changing needs of the composite industry
over time, new generation fiber types with different sizes and coatings are taking their place
in the fiber industry. Compared to other fibers, its high tensile strength, low price, and easy
processability make glass fiber the most preferred synthetic fiber. In this study, PA6 and
PA66 composites were produced using both staple glass fiber (SGF) and high modulus new
generation glass fiber (NGGF). SGF has a length of 4.5 mm and a diameter of 100 µm, while
NGGF has a length of 3 mm. Twin-screw extruder and injection machine are used in the
production of GF reinforced PA6 and PA66. The fibers and polymer were mixed into pellets
in the extruder by the melt mixing method and molded into test plates by injection molding.
Density, impact, tensile and flexural tests were performed for the characterization of the
composites. As a result of the tests, the modulus values of PA6 and PA66 composites
reinforced with SGF and NGGF at different loading rates increased by approximately 20-
25%, their strength values by 10-12%, and impact values by 5-8%.
Keywords: PA6, PA 66, chopped glass fiber, new generation glass fiber, extrusion

1
Polymer Properties Database. “POLYAMIDES”. Erişim: 20.08.2021
[Link]
2
Omnexus. “Polyamide (PA) or Nylon: Complete Guide (PA6, PA66, PA11, PA12…)”. Erişim: 23.08.2021
[Link]

51
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTIRADICAL PROPERTIES OF IŞGIN (R.

RUBES) EXTRACT GROWN IN MUŞ PROVINCE
Ahmet SAVCI
Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Muş Alparslan
University
ORCID: 0000-0002-9609-785X

ABSTRACT
Studies on the biological activities of plants consumed as food are highly preferred by
researchers. In this study, the antioxidant and antiradical properties of the R. rubes plant,
popularly known as "Işgın" or "highland banana", were investigated. For this purpose, Işgın
plant was collected from Korkut district of Muş and then stored at -86oC. The plants that were
shredded with the mixer were then transferred to the Soxhlet device and the water extract was
prepared. The water extract was prepared at a concentration of 1 mg/ml and stored as a stock.
Ferric ion reduction assay (FRAP), cupric ion reduction method (CUPRAC), DPPH and
ABTS radical scavenging methods were used for the biological activities of the extract. The
results were compared with those of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), and ascorbic acid (AA). When the test results were evaluated, it was
determined that the extract generally showed anti-oxidant activity and scavenged ABTS and
DPPH radicals strongly. It is thought that the results obtained will make important
contributions to the literature and will shed light on future studies.
Keywords: Antioxidant, antiradical, Işgın, R. rubes

1. INTRODUCTION
Molecules with unpaired electrons in their last orbitals are called free radicals. These
molecules are highly reactive and cause various diseases such as cardiovascular diseases,
neurodegenerative diseases, kidney diseases, cancer by attacking organs and tissues in the
organism. Therefore, the elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by antioxidants is very
important. Endogenous antioxidants in the body are very important in body defense. In
addition, dietary exogenous antioxidants also help prevent oxidative stress. Many vegetables
and fruits are preferred as natural antioxidants thanks to the bioactive components found in
their ingredients [1-3].
The Rheum ribes species belonging to the Polygonaceae family is the only Rheum species
growing in the eastern region of Turkey [4]. This species, which is known as "highland
banana" among the people, also has names such as "uçkun, uçgun, ışgın". The fresh stems and
roots of this plant are consumed as food by people [5]. In traditional medicine, it is used in the
treatment of measles, smallpox, rheumatic diseases, as well as in the treatment of stomach and
diabetes diseases [4]. This species, which attracts the attention of researchers thanks to its
bioactive components, has been reported in studies to have antioxidant, antimicrobial,
antiviral and anticarcinogenic effects [6]. There are studies from different provinces of the
east part of Turkey about the antioxidant effect of this species. However, no study was found
on the biological activities of this species, which grows in the Muş region. Therefore, in this
study, the antioxidant properties of [Link] species collected in Korkut district of Muş were
investigated using different methods. According to the results, it was determined that this
species has significant antioxidant and antiradical activities.

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2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Preparation of samples
R. rubes was collected in Muş-Korkut (Altitude: 1380 m) and stored at 86oC in the Central
Research Laboratory of Muş Alparslan University. The plant was cut into small pieces with
the help of a mixer. R. rubes and distilled water (1:5) were placed in the Soxhlet device. Then,
pure water was removed in the evaporator and water extract was obtained. R. rubes was
dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at 1mg / ml and stock samples were prepared for
antioxidant methods. Likewise, the antioxidant standards (BHA, BHT and AA were dissolved
in DMSO at 1mg / ml and prepared as stock for comparison.

2.2. Antioxidant Assays

2.2.1. 1,1-Diphenyl 2-Picryl Hydrazil (DPPH.) Free Radical Scavenging Activity
The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the extracts and standards was done to our previous
study [7]. After the samples at different concentrations (25, 50 and 100 µg/mL) were placed
in the test tubes, their total volume was made up to 600 µL with ethanol. 200 µL of 1 mM
DPPH radical solution was added to them. After incubation for 30 minutes at room
temperature and in the dark, absorbances at 517 nm were recorded against the ethanol blank.

2.2.2. 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS.+) Radical Scavenging

Activity
ABTS radical scavenging activities of the samples were performed according to a slight
modification of Re method [8]. First, solutions of 2.45 mM K2S2O8 and 7 mM ABTS were
mixed in a 1:1 ratio. It was incubated overnight at room temperature and in the dark. After
incubation, the absorbance of the solution was taken at 734 nm and diluted with ethanol until
an absorbance of 1.660±0.02 was reached. After adding samples at different concentrations to
the test tubes, they were filled to 200 μL with ethanol. After adding 800 µL of ABTS radical
solution, it was left to incubate for approximately two hours. The absorbance of the samples
was recorded at 734 nm.

2.2.3. Cu2+ reducing power according to the CUPRAC method

The cupric ion (Cu2+) reducing capacities of the extracts and standards were determined
according to the method suggested by Apak et al. [9]. Samples at different concentrations (25,
50 and 100 µg/mL) were added to the test tubes and they were filled to 1 mL with distilled
water. 250 µL of CuCl2 solution, 250 µL of 7.5x10-3 M neocuprine solution and 1 mL of
CH3COONH4 buffer solution were transferred. After a half hour incubation, absorbances were
recorded at 450 nm.

2.2.4. Fe3+ reducing power according to the FRAP method

Total reduction power performed according to the previous study [10]. Samples at different
concentrations (25, 50 and 100 µg/mL) were added to the test tubes and they were filled to 1
mL with distilled water. Then, 500 µL of 0.2 M phosphate buffer (pH: 6.6) and potassium
ferricyanide [K3Fe(CN)6] was added to each tube, and the mixture was incubated at 50oC for
20 minutes. Then, 500 µL of TCA was added to the reaction mixture. 500 µL of the upper
phase of the solution was taken and 500 µL of distilled water and 100 µL of FeCl3 were
added, and the absorbances were recorded at 700 nm.

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this study, the antioxidant properties of R. ribes extract were investigated using different
methods. According to the results of the study, it was seen that the extract had strong
antiradical effect. According to the DPPH results, it was observed that the activity of the plant
increased due to the increase in concentration (Figure 1A). The DPPH radical scavenging
activity percentages of the extract and standard antioxidants at 100 µg/ml were listed as
follows: AA (90.8%) > R. ribes (89.2%) > BHA (76.7%) > BHT (58.3%). At low
concentrations (25 and 50 µg/ml), R. ribes showed lower activity than the standards, while at
higher concentrations it showed better activity than BHA and BHT. ABTS results were found
to be similar to DPPH results (Figure 1B). ABTS radical scavenging activities of the samples
at 100 µg/ml were listed as follows: AA (91.5%) > BHA (90.3%) > BHT (82.2%) > R. ribes
(78.5%). When the reducing capacities of the extracts and standards were examined, it was
seen that the standard antioxidants were stronger reducing agents. However, it can be said that
R. ribes water extract significantly reduces Fe+3 and Cu+2 ions. In addition, according to the
results of FRAP and CUPRAC methods, the samples showed better activity depending on the
increase in concentration (Figure 1C and 1D).

Figure 1. Antioxidant and antiradical activity results of R. rubes and BHA, BHT, AA at different concentrations.

There are important studies on the biological activity of R. ribes. Geçibesler et al. investigated
DPPH activity and Fe+3 reducing capacity of R. ribes L. species grown in Bingöl. According
to the results of the study, they reported that the plant has good antiradical and antioxidant
effects depending on the increase in concentration [4].

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In another study, antioxidant activities of R. ribes species grown in Bitlis were investigated by
DPPH, FRAP, CUPRAC and total antioxidant methods. As a result of the study, it was
reported that the extracts generally have stronger antioxidant activities than the standard
antioxidants (BHA, BHT and α-tocopherol) [5]. In addition, several studies have been
reported showing that R. ribes strain has significant antioxidant effects [11-13].

4. CONCLUSION
In this study, some antioxidant properties of R. ribes water extract were determined using
different methods. The results were compared with the results of BHA, BHT and AA
antioxidants. According to the results of the experiment, it was observed that the activities of
the extracts and standard antioxidants increased with the increase in concentration. It was
determined that the extract had very strong antiradical activity and showed activity higher or
close to the standards. In addition, it was determined that the extract significantly reduced iron
and copper ions. No study was found on the biological activities of the R. ribes plant, which
was grown in the Muş region before. For this reason, it is thought that the results obtained will
make important contributions to the literature. In addition, it is planned to carry out new
studies on different biological activities of this plant.

REFERENCES
1. Savcı A., Koçpınar E. F., Budak H., Çiftci M., Şişecioğlu M., 2020, The Effects of
Amoxicillin, Cefazolin, and Gentamicin Antibiotics on the Antioxidant System in Mouse
Heart Tissues, Protein & Peptide Letters, 27, 614-622.
[Link] B., Yi R. N., Cao L. F., Li S. B., Tan R. R., Chen M., Li X. X., Wang C., Li Y.
F., Kurihara H., He R. R., 2015, Comparing antioxidant capacity of purine alkaloids: a new,
efficient trio for screening and discovering potential antioxidants in vitro and in vivo. Food
Chemistry, 1;176:411-9.
[Link] H., Gülçin İ., Bursal E., Gören A. C., Alwasel S. H., Köksal E., 2017,
Antioxidant activity and phenolic compounds of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.)
determined by HPLC-MS/MS, Food Measure, 11:556–566.
[Link] I., Disli F., Bayindir S., Toprak M., Tüfekçi A., Sahin Yaglioglu A., Altun
M., Kocak A., Demirtas I., Adem S., 2020, The isolation of secondary metabolites from
Rheum ribes L. and the synthesis of new semi-synthetic anthraquinones: Isolation, synthesis
and biological activity, Food Chemistry, 342, 128378.
5. Öztürk M., Aydoğmuş Öztürk F., Duru M., Topcu G., 2007, Antioxidant activity of
stem and root extracts of Rhubarb (Rheum ribes): An edible medicinal plant, Food Chemistry,
103. 623-630. 10.1016/[Link].2006.09.005.
6.İncili G. K., Aydemir M. E., Akgol M., Kaya B., Kanmaz H., Öksüztepe, G.,
Hayaloğlu A. A., 2021, Effect of Rheum ribes L. juice on the survival of Listeria
monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium and chemical
quality on vacuum packaged raw beef., Lwt-Food Science And Technology, vol.150, 112016.
7. Savcı A., Koçpınar E.F., Alan Y., Kurşat M., 2020, Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and
DNA protection activities of some Tanacetum species and phenolic richness in their ethanolic
extracts, International Food Research Journal, 27(1): 160 –170.
8. Re R. V. E., 1999, Antioxidant activity applying an improved ABTS radical
decolorization assay, Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 29 (9-10), 1231-1237.

55
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

9. Apak R. G., 2006, The cupric ionreducing antioxidant capaciyt and polyphenolic
content of some herbal teas, Internstionsl Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 57, 292-304.
10. Koçpınar E.F., Kurşat M., Savcı A., Alan Y., 2020, Some biological properties of
ethanol extract prepared from the aerial parts of Scutellaria albida L. subsp. condensata
(Rech.f.) J.R. Edm., Bitlis Eren University Journal Of Science And Technology, 10(2) (2020)
43–48.
11. Alaadin M. A., Al-Khateeb E. H., Jäger A. K., 2007, Antibacterial Activity of the
Iraqi Rheum ribes Root, Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(9), 688–690.
12. Amiri N., Shafaghat A., Salimi F., 2015, Screening of the Essential Oil, Hexane
Extract, Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Antimicrobial Acitivity of the
Flower Rheum ribes L. from Iran, Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 18(5), 1108–1115.
13. Engin M. S., Kalkan S., Çay S., Güder A., Otağ M. R., Gür G., Kablan A., 2018,
DPPH Radical Scavenging, Phenolic and Antimicrobial Activity of Momordica charantia and
Rheum ribes. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, 9(4),
447–458.

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HIGHLY EFFICIENT ORGANIC WASTE-BASED CATALYST FROM BANANA

PEEL TREATED WITH PHOSPHORIC ACID FOR HYDROGEN RELEASE FROM
METHANOLYSIS OF SODIUM BOROHYDRIDE

Duygu ELMA KARAKAŞ

Siirt University, Science and Technology Application and Research Center (SİÜBTAM)
ORCID: 0000-0003-2582-9993

ABSTRACT
In the present work, banana peel waste was used as an efficient, cost effective and metal-free
catalyst for the methanolysis reaction of sodium borohydride. Optimum conditions were
determined by performing experiments at different types of acids (H3PO4, HCl, H2SO4),
different acid concentrations (in the range of 10-50 % H3PO4), different burning temperatures
(in the range of 300-700 oC) and different burning times (in the range of 30-60 min), with
banana peel one of the organic wastes used for the first time for hydrogen generation from the
methanolysis reaction of sodium borohydride. The most active catalyst was found as a result
of optimum studies as follows: the acid ratio was obtained by burning for 40 min at 600 oC
containing 40 % H3PO4. In general, experiments were carried out by measuring the amount of
hydrogen released by degradation in a 10 mL methanol solution involving wt 2.5 % NaBH4 at
30 °C in the presence of a 100 mg catalyst. The performance of the prepared catalyst was
tested for use in hydrogen generation in the methanolysis reaction of sodium borohydride. In
these experiments, the performance of banana peel catalyst was tested at different
temperatures. As a result of performance experiments, the maximum hydrogen generation rate
(HGR) obtained from the methanolysis reaction of sodium borohydride at 30 °C was found as
40416 mLmin-1gcat-1.
Keywords: Organic waste, Sodium Borohydride, Methanolysis, Catalyst, Phosphoric acid

Acknowledgment: Financial support from Siirt University Research Fund (Project number:
2021-SIULAB-16) is gratefully acknowledged.

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TIG KAYNAĞI İLE YÜZEYİ SERTLEŞTİRİLEN ST37 ÇELİĞİNİN MİKROYAPI

İNCELEMELERİ

Ali Alparslan ÇELİK

Marmara University, Faculty of Technology, Departmant of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-8603-5938

Cezmi ÖZDEMİR
Marmara University, Faculty of Technology, Departmant of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-8524-1350

Berna SALVAZLIOĞLU
Marmara University, Faculty of Technology, Departmant of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0003-2767-9378

Neslişah KURNAZ
Marmara University, Faculty of Technology, Departmant of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0001-8459-5117

Yahya BOZKURT
Marmara University, Faculty of Technology, Departmant of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0003-1816-5922

ÖZET
Bu çalışmada, ER308LSi elektrotu kullanılarak TIG kaynak yöntemi ile St37 düşük karbonlu
çeliğinin üzerine farklı amper değerleri kullanılarak sert kaplama işlemi yapılmıştır. Bu
kaplama sırasında iki malzeme yüzeyi de ergime sıcaklığının üzerine çıkartılmış ve bu şekilde
kaplanmıştır. Sert yüzey kaplaması aşınma, darbe, erozyon, sürtünme ve kavitasyon gibi
etkiler nedeniyle oluşan malzeme kaybını veya aşınmayı azaltmak amacıyla bir alt tabakaya
bir kaplama tabakası veya biriktirmenin uygulandığı işlemdir. Sert yüzey kaplaması, ağır
aşınma koşullarına maruz kalan malzeme yüzeylerinin, makine elemanlarının performansını
iyileştirmenin, kullanım ömrünü uzatmanın en kullanışlı ve ekonomik yollarından biridir. Bu
sebeple sert yüzey kaplamaları sanayide geniş bir kullanım alanına sahip olmaktadır ve
sıklıkla tercih edilmektedir.
Sert kaplama işlemi sırasında kullanılmakta olan TIG kaynak parametrelerinden kaynak
amperinin değişimi ile numunelerin yapısında meydana gelen morfolojik değişimlerin
oluştuğu görülmüştür. Kaplama yapılmış numunelerin yüzeylerinden gerçekleştirilmiş olan
XRF analizi ile kompozit olarak kaplamaların %7,53- 9,22 oranında Cr ve %3,93- 4,67
oranında Ni elementlerini içerdiği görülmüştür. Numunelerde değişen amper değerleri ile
ferrit, ostenit ve martenzit yapılarının mevcut olduğu optik mikroskop, SEM ve EDS
incelemeleri sonucu belirlenmiştir.

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EDS incelemeleri sonucu kaplama tabakasında bölgesel olarak % 20-25 oranında Cr

elementinin varlığı görülmüştür. Ayrıca, numunelerin Vickers sertlik değerleri kompozit
olarak yaklaşık kaplama tabakası ve matris tabakalarında sırası ile 500 HV0.01 ve 200 HV0.01
olarak belirlenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: TIG kaynağı, Sert Kaplama, Yüzey Sertleştirme, ER308LSi

MICROSTRUCTURAL INVESTIGATIONS OF HARDFACED ST37 STEEL BY TIG

WELDING

ABSTRACT
In this study, hardfacing process was performed on St37 low carbon steel with TIG welding
method using ER308LSi electrode by using different amperage values. Hardfacing is the
process by which a coating layer or deposition is applied to a substrate to reduce material loss
or wear due to effects such as abrasion, impact, erosion, friction and cavitation. Hardfacing is
one of the most useful and economical ways to improve the performance of material surfaces
and machine elements exposed to heavy wear conditions, and to extend their service life. For
this reason, hard surface coatings have a wide usage area in industry and are frequently
preferred.
It was observed that morphological changes occurred in the structure of the samples with the
change of welding amperage, which is one of the TIG welding parameters used during the
hard coating process. With the XRF analysis carried out on the surfaces of the coated samples,
it was observed that the composite coatings contained 7.53-9.22% Cr and 3.93-4.67% Ni
elements. It was determined that optical microscope, SEM and EDS examinations varying
amperage values and ferrite, austenite, martensite structures were present in the samples. As a
result of EDS examinations, the presence of 20-25% Cr element in the coating layer was
observed locally. In addition, the Vickers hardness values of the samples were approximately
500 HV0.01 and 200 HV0.01 in the coating layer and matrix layer, respectively.
Keywords: TIG welding, Ha

I. GİRİŞ
St37 çeliği genel yapı malzemelerinde kullanılan, sıcak üretim sonucu oluşan çeliğin
tekrardan işleme alınarak soğuk çekme işlemi uygulanması sonucu oluşturulan bir
malzemedir [1]. St37 çeliği %0,17 C ve %0,3 Mn ve Si ana alaşım elementlerini içermektedir
ve mikroyapısı ferrit taneleri arasına serpiştirilmiş az miktarda perlitten oluşmaktadır. Ferrit
tanelerinin boyutu 10 mikron civarındadır [2]. St37 çelikleri inşaat ve sanayi sektöründe, kutu
profil, çubuk yapımı, depolama tanklarında, gemi yapımında, denizde yapılan
dalgakıranlarda, konteyner imalatında, mobilya ve çelik eşyalarda kullanılır. Bu çelikler ucuz
ve kolay şekillendirilebilirler. Sertleşme yetenekleri iyi değildir. Sertleştirme işlemlerinden
sonra parçalarda çatlama, çarpılma ve iç gerilmeler görülebilir. St37 çeliğinin derin çekme
özelliğinin tokluk ve süneklik istenen uygulamalara uygun olması daha çok tercih edilmesini
sağlamaktadır [3].
Kaynak kaplaması, korozyon ve aşınma oranını azaltmak için bir temel malzeme üzerine kalın
bir korozyon veya aşınmaya dirençli malzeme tabakası bırakma işlemidir [4]. Kaplama zorlu
koşullar altında mühendislik bileşenlerinin hizmet ömrünü uzatmak için kullanılır.

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Kaynak kaplama teknolojisi birçok araştırmacı tarafından incelenmekte ve şu anda kimya,

petrokimya, gübre, gıda işleme endüstrileri, nükleer ve buhar santralleri gibi çeşitli
endüstrilerde uygulanmaktadır.
Uygulamaların çoğunda korozyon direncini sağlamak için kaplama kullanılmaktadır. Düşük
karbonlu veya düşük alaşımlı çelik bileşenlerinde korozyon oranını azaltmak için genellikle
paslanmaz çelik biriktirilir. Paslanmaz çelik kaplama, korozyona ve aşınmaya karşı direnç
sağlamaktadır. Yapısal mukavemete katkıda bulunur ve işlenebilirliği iyileştirir.
Tungsten Inert Gaz (TIG) kaynağı, kaynak için gerekli ısının, tükenmeyen bir elektrod ile iş
parçası arasında oluşan ark sayesinde ortaya çıktığı bir ark kaynak yöntemidir [5]. Kaynak
bölgesine hiç ilave metal verilmeden sadece kaynak edilecek ana metal veya metaller
eritilerek yapılabildiği gibi, erimeyen tungsten elektrod ile oluşturulan ark bölgesine ayrıca
ilave metal tel beslenerek de kaynak metali oluşturulur [6].
TIG kaynak yöntemi, her çeşit alüminyum konstrüksiyonları, dövme magnezyum parçaların
kaynakları, paslanmaz çelikler, dezokside edilmiş bakır ve alaşımları, sert dolgu kaynakları,
özel işler (transformatör sacları, çinko kaplı saclar vb.) ve St37 çelik saclar için
uygulanabilmektedir. TIG kaynağında düşük ısı girdisiyle kaynak yapılması ince sacların
kaynağında tercih edilmesini sağlamıştır. TIG kaynak ile yüzey kaplama günümüzde sıklıkla
tercih edilen ve kullanılan bir uygulamadır. TIG kaynak yönteminin daha çok tercih
edilmesinde yöntemin uygulanabilirliğinin kolaylığı ve ucuz olması söylenebilir [7]. TIG
kaynak ile yüzey kaplama işlemi, lazer, plazma ve elektron ışın kaynağı gibi yöntemlerle
karşılaştırıldığında daha derin bir ergime noktası sunar. Ayrıca diğer proseslere göre
kaplamanın kalınlığını, kimyasal bileşimini ve özelliklerini kontrol etme imkânı da
sunmaktadır [8].
İhsan Kırık ve arkadaşları St52 çeliğini TIG kaynak yöntemi ile WC takviyeli tozla kaplama
çalışması yapmışlardır. Bu çalışma sonucunda bütün numunelerin kaplama bölgesinde mikro
boşluklar olduğunu gözlemlemişlerdir. Ancak herhangi bir çatlak veya büyük ebatlı hasar
gözlememişlerdir. Ayrıca kaplama bölgelerinin sertliklerinin esas malzemenin sertliğinin 3
katı civarında olduğu sonucuna ulaşmışlardır [8]. Jasbir Singh ve arkadaşları, TIG kaynak
işlemini kullanarak AISI-304 paslanmaz çelik yüzey üzerine aşınmaya karşı oldukça
dayanıklı nano yapılı WC-10Co-4Cr kaplama uygulamışlardır. Farklı işleme koşullarında
geliştirilen WC-10Co-4Cr hammadde tozu ve kaplamaları FE-SEM, EDS ve XRD analizi
kullanılarak karakterize etmişlerdir. Kaplamaların mikrosertlik ve kırılma tokluk değerleri
Vickers sertlik test cihazı kullanılarak değerlendirilmiştir. Aşınma testi, SiC aşındırıcı sayaç
yüzeyine karşı disk üzerinde pimli tribometre kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir [9]. Soner
Buytoz ve arkadaşları çalışmalarında AISI 4340 çeliğin yüzeyinde eritilmiş tungsten karbür
tozları TIG yöntemi kullanarak uygulamışlardır. Mikroyapı incelemeleri yapılmış, yüzey
modifiye tabakalarında WC, W2C fazları ile birlikte ötektik ve dendrit katılaşması
gözlenmiştir. Üretilen katmanda sertlik değerleri 950 ile 1200 HV arasında değişmiştir. 1.209
mm/sn üretim hızı, 0.5 g/sn toz besleme hızı ve 13.9 kJ/cm ısı girdisi ile işlemi yapılan
numunede minimum kütle kaybı gözlenmiştir [10]. Bodala Raja Sekhar ve arkadaşları, TiC
tozunun AISI 1020 yumuşak çelik substrat üzerinde yerleştirilmesi ile TIG kaynağı ile
kaplama yapmışlardır. TiC parçacıkları ile çelik matris arasında geliştirilmiş bağlanmaya
sahip sert ve aşınmaya dirençli bir kompozit kaplama elde etmişlerdir. Kaynak akımının
etkisi, kaplanmış altlık malzemesinin mikro sertliği ve aşınma özellikleri üzerinde analiz
edilmiştir.

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TIG kaplama işlemi sırasında kaynak akımıyla kontrol edilen ısı girdisine bağlı olarak, TiC'
ün çelik matris üzerinde seyreltilmesi ve sonuç olarak TiC kaplamanın sertlik ve aşınma
özellikleri değiştiği görülmüştür [11].
Bu çalışmada, St37 altlığı üzerine 308L Si paslanmaz çeliği farklı amperler kullanılarak TIG
kaynak yöntemiyle kaplama yapılmıştır. Elde edilen numunelerin mikroyapı ve sertlik
özellikleri detaylı olarak incelenmiştir.

II. MATERYAL VE YÖNTEM

Kaplama çalışmasında kullanılan düşük karbonlu çelik olan St37 altlığı 70x70x6 mm
boyutlarında kesildikten sonra yüzeyi oksitlerden arındırılarak kaplamaya hazır hale
getirilmiştir. St37 altlığının kimyasal kompozisyonu Tablo 1.’de verilmiştir.

Tablo 1. St37 altlığının kimyasal kompozisyonu

C Cr Ni Si Mn Fe
0,15 - - 0,073 0,6 Kalan

ER308LSi paslanmaz çeliği TIG kaynak yöntemi ile altlık üzerine ergitilerek sert kaplama
oluşturulmuştur. ER308LSi paslanmaz çeliğinin kimyasal kompozisyonu Tablo 2’de
verilmiştir.

Tablo 2. ER308LSi paslanmaz çeliğinin kimyasal kompozisyonu

C N M M P ve
C Si Fe
r i n o S
2 1 0,8 1, 0,1 <0,0 Kala
<0,03
0 0 5 7 5 35 n

Kaynak yapılırken altlığın çarpılmasını engellemek için altlık, hazırlanan fikstüre bağlanmış
ve ön tavlama işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sert kaplama farklı amperlerde yapıldıktan sonra
numuneler oda sıcaklığında soğutulmuştur. TIG kaynağına ait parametreler Tablo 3’de
verilmiştir.

Tablo 3. TIG kaynağına ait parametreler

Parametre Değer
Akım (A) 100-125-150-175
Gaz debisi (lt/dk) 9
Gaz karışımı %100 Ar

Elde edilen numuneler metalografik numune hazırlama işlemlerinden geçtikten sonra

mikroyapı incelemeleri optik mikroskop ve SEM kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Ayrıca kaplanan numunelerin matristen yüzeye doğru sıra sertlik ölçümleri alınarak sertlik
değişimleri gözlenmiştir. Sıra sertlikler 10 g yük altında üç set halinde matristen yüzeye doğru
0.5 mm aralıklarla olmak üzere 10 adet alınmış ve ortalama sertlik verileri elde edilmiştir.

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III. BULGULAR VE TARTIŞMA

3.1 XRF İncelemesi
Çalışmada kaplama işlemi yapıldıktan sonra elde edilen kaplama numunelerine XRF
incelemesi yapılarak numunelerin elemental yüzdeleri elde edilmiştir (Tablo 4).

Tablo 4. Kaplama numunelerinin XRF analizi

Fe Cr Ni Mn
St37 98 0 0 0,6
100A 86,20 7,75 4,05 1,30
125A 83,92 9,22 4,85 1,30
150A 86,72 7,53 3,93 1,17
175A 84,35 8,86 4,67 1,39

Elde edilen XRF analizine göre TIG kaynağı ile %19,9 Cr %10,5 Ni bileşiminde olan
kaplama elektrodunun altlık tabakasında %7,53-9,22 Cr ve %3,93-4,85 Ni aralığında altlık
üzerinde başarı ile kaplama oluşturduğu gözlemlenmektedir. Kaplama işlemi sırasında
ergiyen Cr ve Ni elementlerinin havaya karıştığı ve koruyucu gaz tabakasının yeterli
gelmediği sonuçları Cr ve Ni oranına bakılarak tahmin edilmektedir. S. Gençalp İrizalp ve
arkadaşlarının yaptığı çalışmada da kaplama elektrodunun kimyasal bileşimi ile kaplama
tabakasının kimyasal bileşiminin farklı olduğu görülmüştür [12].

3.2 Mikroyapı İncelemeleri

Kaplama numunelerinin makroyapı incelemeleri sonucu kaplama işleminin makro ölçüde bir
hata olmadan gerçekleştirildiği görülmektedir (Şekil 1).

Şekil 1. 100A ile kaplama işlemi gerçekleştirilen kaplama numunesi

Metalografik hazırlama işlemlerinden sonra numunelerin optik mikroskop incelemeleri

gerçekleştirilmiştir. İnceleme sonuçları Şekil 2’de gösterilmiştir.

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a)

Şekil 2. 100 A (a), 125 A (b), 150 A (c), 175 A (d) ile gerçekleştirilmiş kaplama işlemlerine
ait 100x büyütmedeki mikroyapı incelemeleri

Şekil 2’ deki mikroyapı incelemesinden görüldüğü üzere mikroyapılar geçiş bölgesi (GB),
altlık bölgesi (AB) ve kaplama bölgesi (KB) olarak üç bölgeden oluştuğu açıkça
görülmektedir [13]. Altlık kısmının taneleri kaplama sınırında sıcaklığa bağlı olarak
büyümüştür. 175 A ile üretilen numunede ısı girdisinin artması ile beraber ferrit yapısının
çeşitlendiği görülmektedir. Şekil 2’de kırmızı daire içindeki bölge asiküler ferrit yapısının
bulunduğu bölgeyi işaret ederken W ile gösterilen yapı Widmanstten ferrit yapısıdır [14].
Düşük ısı girdisi değerlerinde ferrit yapısının daha ince taneli olduğu belirtilmiştir [15]. Tüm
numunelerde bir geçiş bandının varlığı görülmektedir. Tanelerin yönlenmesi farklılık
göstermektedir. Bunun nedeni ise ısı girdisi ile beraber katılaşma süresince katılaşma yönüne
bağlı olarak taneler kolay olan yolu tercih ederek (bazı bölgelerde aynı yönde, bazı bölgelerde
farklı yönlerde) büyüdükleri görülmektedir [15]. Diğer bir neden ise ferritik olan altlığın
üzerine ostenitik olan kaplamanın oluşturulmasıdır. Kristal yapılarının farklı olması ile
beraber ferritik yapı kalıp duvarı gibi davranarak ostenitik olan paslanmaz çeliğin aynı yönde
taneleşmesini engellemiştir. Kaplama tabakasının mikroyapısı ferrit+ostenit olduğu
gözlemlenmiştir.

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Ferrit-ostenit faz geçişleri için yeterli soğuma süresi gerçekleşmediğinden dolayı kalıntı ferrit
ve ostenitik bölgeler genel olarak kaplama tabakasını oluşturmaktadır [13].
Yapılan SEM incelemeleri sonucu optik incelemelere benzer şekilde yapıda altlık, geçiş
bölgesi ve kaplama bölgesi açıkça görülmektedir (Şekil 3). Kaplama bölgesinden yapılan
EDS analizleri sonucu kaplama bölgesinde %20-25 arasında Cr elementi içeren bölgelerin
varlığı görülmüştür. EDS analizleri Şekil 4 ve Tablo 5’de gösterilmiştir.

Şekil 3. 100 A ile kaplama işlemi gerçekleştirilen kaplama numunesinin SEM görüntüleri

Şekil 4. Kaplama Bölgesi EDS analizi

Tablo 5. Kaplama bölgesinden elde edilen EDS analizi oranları.

Element EDS EDS EDS
Ağırlık % Spot 1 Spot 2 Spot 3
CK 11.13 12.48 10.6
Fe L 61.35 55.83 62.79
Ni L 2.42 2.16 3.54
Cr K 25.1 20.64 23.07

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3.3 Sertlik Ölçümleri

Şekil 5’te 100, 125, 150, 175 Amper kullanılarak TIG kaynağı ile üretilmiş kaplama
numunelerinin sertlik değerlerinin birbirine yakın olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Matristen
kaplamaya doğru yapılan ölçümlerde matris fazının ortalama 200 HV0.01 sertliğine sahip
olduğu görülmektedir. Yapılan sıralı sertliklerde matristen yaklaşık 4000 µm sonra sertliğin
birden yaklaşık 500 HV0.01 değerine çıktığı ve bu noktadan sonra kaplama tabakasına geçildiği
gözlemlenmiştir. E. Kocaman ve arkadaşlarının yaptığı çalışmada da Cr içerikli elektrot ile
sert kaplama yapılmış ve sertlik değerinin arttığı belirtilmiştir [16].

Şekil 5. 100, 125, 150, 175 Amper kullanılarak TIG kaynağı ile üretilmiş kaplama
numunelerinin HV0.01 sertlik ölçümleri.

IV. SONUÇLAR
1. 100, 125, 150, 175 Amper değerleri kullanılarak TIG kaynağı ile St37 düşük karbonlu çelik
üzerine 308LSi elektrotu ergitilerek sert kaplama işlemi başarı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir.
2. Altlık, geçiş bandı ve kaplama bölgesi açık olarak görülmektedir. Taneler katılaşma
süresince bölgesel olarak farklı yönlere doğru yönlenmişlerdir. Amper değerinin değişmesi ile
morfolojik olarak değişimlerin ortaya çıktığı görülmüştür.
3. Ferrit-ostenit dönüşümleri için yeterli soğuma zamanı gerçekleşmediğinden kaplamada
ferrit+ostenit yapı oluşmuştur. Altlık bölgesi ferritik yapıdadır.
4. Kaplama tabakalarının sertlik değerleri değişen amper değerleri ile belirgin şekilde
değişmemiştir. Kaplama ve matris tabakalarının kompozit sertlikleri sırası ile yaklaşık 500
HV0.01, 200 HV0.01’dir. Yaklaşık olarak kaplama tabakasının matris tabakasının sertliğini
yaklaşık 2,5 kat arttırdığı görülmektedir.

KAYNAKLAR
[1] Taşkaya, S., St37 Çeliğinin Ansys Programında Basınca Bağlı Olarak Mekanik
Gerilmelerin İncelenmesi, Article in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, December 2017.
[2] İnce, U., Toksoy, M., Güden, M., İzmir-Balçova Jeotermal Doğrudan Isıtma
Sisteminde Kullanılan St-37 Karbon Çelik Malzemesinin Değişik Akışkan Hızlarındaki
Korozyon Davranışı ve Mekanik Özelliklerindeki Değişimler, Tesisat Mühendisliği Dergisi,
Sayı 83,2004.

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[3] Cebeci, R. (2021). St-37 ve St-52 Sac Malzemelerin Lazerle Kesilmesinde İşleme
Parametrelerinin Kesim Kalitesine Etkisinin İncelenmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Karabük
Üniversitesi, Türkiye, S. 83
[4] Turhan, H., Çolak, N.Y., TIG Yöntemi İle Ostenitik Paslanmaz Çelik Yüzeyine
Kaplanan Stellite 6+FeMo Tabakasının Mikroyapı ve Sertlik Özellikleri Üzerine Etkisinin
İncelenmesi, BEÜ Fen Bilimleri Dergisi Cilt (Sayı), 22-31,2018.
[5] Kumar, K., Kumar, C.S., Masanta, M., Pradhan, S., A Review On TIG Welding
Technology Variants And Its Effect On Weld Geometry, Materials Today: Proceedings, 29
July 2021.
[6] Komaç Erhan, Askaynak Teknik Eğitim El Kitabı, Sayfa 47, 2009.
[7] Apay, S., Gülenç, B., AISI 1018 Çelik Yüzeyine GTA Yöntemiyle Stellite 6
Kaplamanın Mekanik Özelliklere Etkisi, İleri Teknoloji Bilimleri Dergisi Cilt 2, Sayı 2, 62-
76, 2013.
[8] Kırık, İ., Balalan, Z., Andan, Y., Yaz, M., St52 Çeliğinin TIG Kaynak Yöntemi İle
WC Takviyeli Tozla Kaplanması, International Journal of Innovative Engineering
Applications 3, 1(2019), 16-20.
[9] Singh, J., Thakur, L., Angra, S., An Investigation On The Parameter Optimization
And Abrasive Wear Behaviour Of Nanostructured WC-10Co-4Cr TIG Weld Cladding,
Surface & Coating Technology 386 (2020) 125474.
[10] Buytoz, S., Ulutan, M., Yildirim, M.M, Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of TIG
Weldingclad WC Composite Coatings, Applied Surface Science 252 (2005) 1313-1323.
[11] Sekhar, B.R., Nayak, R.K., Rout, S.R., Masanta, M., Wear Characteristic Of TiC
Coated AISI 1020 Mild Steel Fabricated By TIG Cladding Method, Materials Today:
Proceedings 26 (2020) 3288-3291.
[12] İrizalp, S.G., Saklakoğu, N., İldaş, G., Demiroki S., 1.2714 Çeliği Üzerine Sert
Dolgu Kaynağı İle Kaplanmış Fe-Cr-V Esaslı Alaşımın Malzeme Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi,
Ç.Ü. Müh. Mim. Fak. Dergisi, 33 (1), Mart 2018.
[13] John C. Lippold (2014). Welding Metallurgy and Weldability. (Wiley) p.44.
[14] Kou Sindo (2003) Welding Metallurgy Second Edition (Wiley) p.233.
[15] Saklakoğlu, N., İrizalp, S.G., İldaş, G., Demirok, S., Fe Esaslı Sert Kaplama
Alaşımının Mikroyapı ve Aşınma Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi, CBÜ Fen Bil. Dergi., Cilt 12,
Sayı 3, 517-523 s.
[16] Kocaman, E., Kılınç B, Şen U, Şen Ş Effect of chromium content on Fe(18-
x)CrxB2(X=3,4,5) hardfacing electrode on microstructure, abrasion and corrosion behavior,
Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture of Gazi University 36:1 (2021) 177-
190.

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1SYNTHESIS
AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NOVEL TWO-ARMED
TERTIARYBUTYLACRYLATE MACROINITIATORS VIA ATOM TRANSFER
RADICAL POLYMERIZATION

Murat MISIR
Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of
Chemical Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0001-8701-6176

ABSTRACT
Macromonomeric initiators act as a macromonomer, macroinitiator or macrocrosslinker and
have attracted substantial interest to be able synthesized crosslinked or branched block
copolymers [1-2]. In order to improve the existing properties of polymeric materials and to
increase their application areas; the studies on the synthesis of macromolecules with complex
and controlled architecture, controllable molecular weight, molecular weight distribution and
synthesis of functional polymers with defined end groups have been increasing in recent
years. In these studies, it is generally aimed to prepare monomer and copolymers using
different initiator, monomer and polymerization methods. Among these methods,
controlled/living in radical polymerization is a very simple and effective method for the
synthesis of well-defined complex macromolecular structures. Atom transfer radical
polymerization (ATRP) is used to polymerize different monomers initiated by an alkyl halide
and catalyzed by the complex formed by a suitable ligand with the transition metal compound
in the low oxidation step. In addition, ATRP is one of the most successful controlled radical
polymerization (CRP) methods and this method provides preparation of a wide spectrum of
polymers with control over molecular weight and with relatively narrow molecular weight
distribution (Mw/Mn<1.5) [3].
In this work, a series of poly (t-butyl acrylate) s (PtBA) macroinitiators were synthesized via
ATRP of t-butyl acrylate initiated by a novel bromopropionate ended initiator with mercapto
moiety, using CuBr/PMDETA as catalyst system. The synthesized novel initiator (2) and
macro monomeric PtBA polymers were characterized by FTIR, 1H-NMR, spectral data and
GPC techniques.
Keywords: Poly (t-butyl acrylate), ATRP, Macroinitiator

This study was supported by BAP unite, Kırşehir Ahi Evran University with project number of MMF.A4.19.002
References
[1] J. L. Hedrick, M. Tröllsas, C. J. Hawker, B. Atthoff, H. Claesson, A. Heise, R. D. Miller, D. Mecerreyes,
R. Jerome, Ph. Dubois, Macromolecules, 31, 8691, (1998).
[2] M. Mısır, T. Ozturk, M. Emirik, S.S. Yılmaz, J. Polym Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem., 48, 2896, (2010).
[3] J. K. Oh, F. Perineau, B. Charleux, K. Matyjaszewski, J. Polym Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem., 47, 1771,
(2009).

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Scheme 1. Synthesis of initiator (2) and PtBA macroinitiator (3)

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KİSTİK FİBROZİS HASTALIĞINDA MODİFİYE EDİCİ TGFB1 VE CD14

GENLERİNİN ZARARLI SNP’LERİNİN IN SILICO YÖNTEMLER İLE
BELİRLENMESİ

Öğr. Gör. Ayşe AKSOY

Hitit Üniversitesi Sungurlu Meslek Yüksek Okulu, Tıbbi Hizmetler ve Teknikler Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-0452-8534

Derya KÖRAHMETOĞLU
Hitit Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Moleküler Biyoloji ve Genetik Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-6651-4501

ÖZET
Giriş: Kistik Fibrozis (KF), Kistik Fibrozis Transmembran Regulator (KFTR) proteinini
kodlayan gendeki mutasyonlardan kaynaklanan otozomal resesif geçiş gösteren tek gen
hastalığıdır ve bu hastalığın etyopatogenezinde rol oynayan en önemli modifiye edici gen
TGFB1’dır, diğer önemli modifiye edici gen ise CD14’tür.
Amaç: Bu çalışmanın amacı, Kistik Fibrozis hastalığında modifiye edici genler olan TGFB1
ve CD14 genlerindeki yanlış anlamlı (missense) tek nükleotid polimorfizmlerinin (SNP)
proteinin yapısı ve stabilizasyonu üzerindeki olası zararlı etkilerinin in silico yöntemler
kullanılarak belirlenmesidir.
Yöntem: GeneMANIA veri tabanı kullanılarak gen-gen ilişkileri belirlendi. Zararlı SNP’lerin
tahmin edilmesi için PolyPhen-2 ve SIFT yazılım araçları, protein stabilizasyonu
değişimlerinin tespit edilmesi için I-Mutant 2.0 yazılımı, yabanıl ve mutant tip proteinlerin üç
boyutlu modellemeleri için Project HOPE yazılım aracı kullanılmıştır.
Bulgular: Gen-gen etkileşim sonuçlarına göre, TGFB1 geninin 20 gen ile ilişkisi
incelendiğinde, bu genler arasında toplam 246 bağlantı olduğu ve CD14 geni incelendiğinde
ise 401 bağlantı tespit edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada TGFB1 genindeki rs104894719, rs104894720,
rs104894721, rs111033611, rs200164212, rs200482214, rs201055697, rs281865484,
rs13447341, rs146182311, rs146875339, rs199516461, rs199849225, rs199882566,
rs199946261, rs200527282, rs200763912, rs201405597, rs201700967, rs201635147,
rs201951718 ve CD14 geninde rs2228049, rs147037491, rs200449617, rs367639783,
rs201545309, rs369079134, rs367895572, rs373361139, rs373038511, rs371426578,
rs376865889, rs376705908, rs375798957 polimorfizmlerinin protein yapısına ve stabilitesine
zararlı etkileri olduğu gösterilmiştir.
Sonuç: Zararlı olduğu tespit edilen SNP’ler genotipleme çalışmalarının en önemli basamağı
olan SNP seçiminde ve deney tasarımında kullanılabileceğinden dolayı elde ettiğimiz
sonuçların Kistik Fibrozis hastalığı ile ilgili gelecekte yapılacak olan hem deneysel hem de in
silico çalışmalara katkı sağlayacağını umut ediyoruz.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kistik Fibrozis, TGFB1, CD14, Tek Nükleotid Polimorfizmi

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DETERMINATION OF HARMFUL SNPS OF THE MODIFYING TGFB1 AND CD14

GENES IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS DISEASE BY IN SILICO METHODS

ABSTRACT
Introduction: Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a single gene disease with autosomal recessive
inheritance caused by mutations in the gene encoding the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane
Regulator (KFTR) protein. The most important modifier gene that plays a role in the
etiopathogenesis of Cystic Fibrosis disease is TGFB1, and the other important modifier gene
is CD14.
Aim: The aim of this study is to determine the possible harmful effects of missense single
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TGFB1 and CD14 genes, which are modifying genes in
Cystic Fibrosis disease, on the structure and stabilization of the protein using in silico
methods.
Method: Gene-gene relationships were determined using the GeneMANIA database.
PolyPhen-2 and SIFT software tools were used to predict harmful SNPs, I-Mutant 2.0
software to detect protein stabilization changes, and Project HOPE software tool for three-
dimensional modeling of wild and mutant type proteins.
Results: According to the gene-gene interaction results, when the relationship of the TGFB1
gene with 20 genes was examined, there were a total of 246 links between these genes, and
when the CD14 gene was examined, 401 links were found. In this study, it was shown that
rs104894719, rs104894720, rs104894721, rs111033611, rs200164212, rs200482214,
rs201055697, rs281865484, rs13447341, rs146182311, rs146875339, rs199516461,
rs199849225, rs199882566, rs199946261, rs200527282, rs200763912, rs201405597,
rs201700967, rs201635147, rs201951718 polymorphisms in TGFB1 gene and rs2228049,
rs147037491, rs200449617, rs367639783, rs201545309, rs369079134, rs367895572,
rs373361139, rs373038511, rs371426578, rs376865889, rs376705908, rs375798957
polymorphisms in CD14 gene have deleterious effects on protein structure and stability.
Conclusion: We hope that our results will contribute to both experimental and in silico
studies on Cystic Fibrosis disease, since SNPs found to be harmful can be used in SNP
selection and experimental design, which is the most important step of genotyping studies.
Keywords: Cystic fibrosis, TGFB1, CD14, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism.

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PALLADIUM-CATALYZED IN-SITU GENERATED SUZUKI MIYAURA CROSS-

COUPLING REACTIONS IN GREEN SOLVENTS

Mitat AKKOÇ
Temel Bilimler: Kimya (Anorganik Kimya)
Malatya Turgut Özal University, Hekimhan Vocational College, Department of Property
Protection and Security
ORCID: 0000-0001-8641-8958

ABSTRACT
Progress in organometallic chemistry began with the synthesis of the first stable carbene.
Carbenes form complexes with most of the transition metals. When we look at the literature,
Ag, Au, Cu, Co, Fe, Ir, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh complexes are seen intensely. These complexes offer
the opportunity to be used as catalysts in different organic reactions. The ability to design
substituents on nitrogen atoms of NHCs provides many advantages in terms of catalysis. It
provides the opportunity to control the steric property of these substituents as well as
changing the electronic structure. This design can also contribute positively to the solubility
of catalytic systems. When we compare NHC ligands with phosphines, we see that they have
significant advantages. NHCs can stay in the reaction environment for a long time without
decomposing because they bond more strongly with metals. Palladium has an important place
in organic reactions. Because of the Nobel Prize awarded by Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi
and Akira Suzuki in 2010, we better understand the importance of C-C coupling reactions.
The substances formed by the C-C coupling reaction play a key role in the pharmaceutical and
agricultural industry. It has many other advantages such as mild reaction conditions, stability
in water, non-toxicity, ability to react with all boronic acids, use of natural solvents such as
water, realization in one step, easy separation of the products formed at the end of the
reaction, environmentally friendly, practical and inexpensive to prepare. Thanks to these
advantages, it is widely used in both industry and academia. Suzuki-Miyaura reactions are
formed by the cross coupling of aryl halides and aryl boronic acids in the presence of a base
and catalyst. In this study, we investigated the catalytic activities of benzimidazolium salts,
which we synthesized, in Suzuki-Miyaura reactions using environmental solvents under mild
conditions.
Keywords: Catalyst, NHC, Suzuki-Miyaura, Palladium

ÖZET
İlk kararlı karbenin sentezi ile organometalik kimya alanında karbenlerin ilerleyişi başlamış
oldu. Karbenler iç geçiş elementlerinin çoğu ile kompleks oluşturmaktadır. Literatüre
baktığımızda Ag, Au, Cu, Co, Fe, Ir, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh kompleksleri yoğun olarak karşımıza
çıkmaktadır. Bu kompleksler farklı organik reaksiyonlarda katalizör olarak kullanılabilme
imkanı sunmaktadır. NHC’lerin azot atomlarındaki sübstütientlerin tasarlanabilmesi kataliz
açısından birçok avantaj sağlar. Bu sübstütientlerin elektronik yapıyı değiştirmesi ile beraber
sterik özelliğini de kontrol edebilme olanağı sağlar. Bu tasarım katalitik sistemin
çözünürlüğüne de olumlu katkılar sunabilmektedir. NHC ligantlarını fosfinler ile
karşılaştırdığımızda önemli artılarının olduğunu görüyoruz. NHC’ler metaller ile daha
kuvvetli bağ yaptığı için tepkime ortamında uzun süre bozunmadan kalabilmektedir.

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Palladyum organik reaksiyonlarda önemli bir yere sahiptir. 2010 yılında Richard F. Heck, Ei-
ichi Negishi ve Akira Suzuki tarafından alınan nobel ödülünden dolayı, C-C eşleşme
reaksiyonlarının önemini daha iyi anlıyoruz. C-C eşleşme reaksiyonu ile ortaya çıkan ürünler
ilaç ve zirai endüstride kilit rol oynamaktadır. Ilımlı reaksiyon koşulları, sudaki karalılığı,
toksik olmamaları, bütün boronik asitler ile reaksiyon verebilmeleri, su gibi doğal çözgenlerin
kullanılabilmesi, tek basamakta gerçekleşmesi, tepkime sonunda oluşan ürünlerin kolay
ayrılabilmesi, çevre dostu, hazırlaması pratik ve ucuz olması gibi daha birçok avantajı vardır.
Bu avantajlar sayesinde hem endüstride hem de akademide yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır.
Suzuki-Miyaura tepkimeleri aril halojenürler ile aril boronik asitlerin baz ve katalizör
varlığında çapraz eşleşmesi ile oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada sentezlemiş olduğumuz
benzimidazolyum tuzlarımızın ılımlı şartlarda çevreci çözgenler kullanılarak Suzuki-Miyaura
tepkimelerindeki katalitik aktivitelerini inceledik.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Katalizör, NHC, Suzuki-Miyaura, Palladyum

1. GİRİŞ
İlk kararlı karbenin sentezi ile organometalik kimya alanında karbenlerin ilerleyişi başlamış
oldu [1]. Karbenler iç geçiş elementlerinin çoğu ile kompleks oluşturmaktadır. Literatüre
baktığımızda Ag, Au, Cu, Co, Fe, Ir, Pd, Pt, Ru, Rh kompleksleri yoğun olarak karşımıza
çıkmaktadır [2-7]. Bu kompleksler farklı organik reaksiyonlarda katalizör olarak
kullanılabilme imkanı sunmaktadır. Son yirmi yıla baktığımızda biyoaktif olarak da
farmosötik kimyada etkili bir şekilde kullanıldığını görmekteyiz. NHC’lerin azot
atomlarındaki sübstütientlerin tasarlanabilmesi kataliz açısından birçok avantaj sağlar. Bu
sübstütientlerin hem elektronik yapıyı değiştirebilmesi hem de sterik özelliği kontrol edebilme
olanağı sağlar. Örneğin; suda çözünen bir NHC komplesi tasarlamak istediğimizde yapıya
suda çözünebilen sübtütientler ekleyerek bunu avantaja çevirebiliriz. NHC’ler metaller ile
daha kuvvetli bağ yaptığı için tepkime ortamında uzun süre bozunmadan kalabilmektedir. Bu
yönüyle NHC ligantlarını fosfinler ile karşılaştırdığımızda daha üstün olduğunu görüyoruz
[8].
Palladyum (NHC) kompleksleri Suzuki eşleşmesi, Heck reaksiyonları, Kumada eşleşmesi,
Negishi çapraz eşleşmesi, Sonogashira çapraz eşleşmesi, Stille çapraz eşleşmesi, Hiyama
eşleşmesi ve Buchwald-Hartwig aminasyonu gibi katalitik tepkimelerde üstün başarı
gösterirler [9]. 2010 yılında Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi ve Akira Suzuki C-C eşleşme
reaksiyonları alanında nobel ödülü aldılar [10]. C-C eşleşme reaksiyonu ile ortaya çıkan
ürünler ilaç ve zirai endüstride kilit rol oynamaktadır. Ilımlı reaksiyon koşulları, sudaki
karalılığı, toksik olmamaları, bütün boronik asitler ile reaksiyon verebilmeleri, su gibi doğal
çözgenlerin kullanılabilmesi, tek basamakta gerçekleşmesi, tepkime sonunda oluşan ürünlerin
kolay ayrılabilmesi, çevre dostu, hazırlaması pratik ve ucuz olması gibi daha birçok avantajı
vardır. Bu avantajlar sayesinde hem endüstride hem de akademide yaygın olarak
kullanılmaktadır [11-12].

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R1-R2
R2-X
Pd0
Redüktif Oksidatif
Eliminasyon Katılım

Suzuki
R2-PdII-R1 Reaksiyon R2-PdII-X
Mekanizması

Na Y NaOtBu
t
BuO B OtBu
Y
Transmetalasyon R2-PdII-OtBu
NaX

R1 Na Y
NaOtBu
B R1 B OtBu
Y
Y Y

Şekil 1. Suzuki Miyaura reaksiyon mekanizması

Katalitik tepkimelerde reaksiyon mekanizması bilinmesi katalizörün geliştirilmesi için öneme

sahiptir (Şekil 1). Suzuki reaksiyonlarında palladyum çevrimi 0 ve II oksidasyon durumunda
gerçekleşir. Pd (0) oksidasyon durumunda katalitik çevrime başlayan palladyuma aril
halojenürün oksidatif katılımı ile Pd(II) oksidasyon durumuna geçer ve ortamdaki baz ile
metatez gerçekleşir. Bir sonraki basamakta organoborun yapıya transmetalasyonla dahil
olması ile organopalladyum kompleksi oluşur. Çevrimin son basamağında Pd(0)’a
indirgenerek redüktif eliminasyon ile biariller oluşarak katalitik çevrim tamamlanmış olur.
Katalitik çevrime baktığımızda ligantların katalizörün etkinliğine doğrudan katkıları
bulunmaktadır. Ligantlar sayesinde seçiciliği ayarlayabiliriz. Ayrıca ligantlar metalin değişik
oksidasyon basamaklarında metaller ile iyi etkileşime girmesi de önem arz etmektedir.
Suzuki-Miyaura tepkimeleri aril halojenürler ile aril boronik asitlerin baz ve katalizör
varlığında çapraz eşleşmesi ile oluşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada sentezlemiş olduğumuz iki farklı
benzimidazolyum türevi ligandımızın ılımlı şartlarda çevreci çözgenler kullanılarak Suzuki-
Miyaura tepkimelerindeki katalitik aktivitelerini inceledik.

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2. ARAŞTIRMA VE BULGULAR
2.1. Deneysel Çalışmalar
2.2. Yöntem
Sentezlenen bileşikler havanın nemi ve oksijenine karşı hassas olmalarından bütün deneyler
inert atmosferde yapılmıştır. Tepkimede kullanılan cam malzemeler kullanılmadan önce
vakum altında ısıtılarak içerisindeki hava ve nem uzaklaştırılıp inert gaz ile doldurularak inert
atmosfer oluşturulmuş ve reaktifler kullanılmadan önce literatürde verilen yöntemler esas
alınarak kurutulup inert ortamda saflaştırıldıktan sonra kullanılmıştır [13].
Tepkimede kullanılan reaktiflerin bir kısmı laboratuarımızda sentezlenirken bir kısmı da ticari
olarak satın alındı. Ticari olarak satın alınan reaktifler ve çözücüler: Benzimidazol, benzil
klorür, bromometilsiklohekzil, metil iyodür, bromobenzen, bromotoluen, bromoanisol,
brombenzaldehit, bromasetofenon, fenilboronik asit, K2CO3, Pd(OAc)2 NaH, N,N-
dimetilformamit dimetilasetal, toluen, heksan, tetrahidrofuran (THF), dimetilformamit
(DMF), diklormetan, dietil eter, izopropil alkol, Aldrich ve Merck firmalarından temin
edilmiştir.
NMR spekturumları Bruker Ultra Shield 300 MHz NMR’ında alındı. Tüm katalitik
reaksiyonlar, Shimadzu GC2010 Plus sisteminde yorumlandı.

2.3. Sentez Yöntemi

2.3.1. 1-Siklohekzilmetilbenzimidazol Sentez Yöntemi
Hava ve nemi vakumda ısıtılarak alınan Schlenk’e yağı hekzan ile yıkanıp alınmış sodyum
hidrür (0.23 g, 10 mmol) konuldu. Üzerine THF (15 mL) eklendi. Oda sıcaklığında
karıştırılan çözeltiye benzimidazol (1.18 g, 10 mmol) yavaşça eklendi ve gaz çıkışı gözlendi.
Benzimidazol tamamen bittikten sonra yarım saat oda sıcaklığında karıştırıldı ve üzerine
siklohekzilmetil bromür (1.94 g, 11 mmol) eklendi. Bir gece oda sıcaklığında karıştırıldıktan
sonra üç saat su banyosu sıcaklığında refluks edildi. THF vakumda çekildi, diklormetan (15
mL) eklendi ve filtreden süzüldü. Ürün diklormetan/dietil eterde kristallendirildi. Verim: %93
(1.80 g).

2.3.2. Benzimidazolyum Tuzlarının Sentezi

Şekil 2. Benzimidazolyum tuz sentezi

2.3.3. 1-Siklohekzilmetil-3-benzilbenzimidazolyum klorür sentezi, 1a;

1a Bileşiği 1-siklohekzilmetilbenzimidazol (2.15 g, 10 mmol) bileşiği bir shclenk içerisinde
10 mL DMF iyice çözüldükten sonra üzerine yavaşça benzil klorür (1.39 g, 11 mmol) eklendi.
Oda sıcaklığında bir saat karıştırıldıktan sonra 80 0C’de 12 saat ısıtıldı. Oda ısısına ulaştıktan
sonra reaksiyonumuzun üzerine eter eklenerek katı kısım çöktürüldü.

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Elde edilen katı kısım etanol/eter karılımında kristallenmeye bırakıldı. Elde edilen katı eterde
yıkandıktan sonra vakumda kurutuldu. Verim: %93 (3.17 g). 1H NMR (δ, CDCl3): 0.82 ve
2.30 (m, 11H, CH2C6H11), 3.46 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 2H, CH2C6H11), 5.93 (s, 2H, CH2C6H5), 7.28 ve
7.71 (m, 9H, C6H4 ve CH2C6H5), 11.58 (s, 1H, NCHN). 13C{H}NMR (δ, CDCl3): 37.8, 30.4,
25.7, 25.3, 51.4, 53.5, 113.3, 113.9, 127.1, 127,2, 128.3, 129.2, 129.4, 131.8, 132.8 ve 143.1
ppm.

2.3.4. 1-Siklohekzilmetil-3-metilbenzimidazolyum iyodür sentezi, 1c;

1b Bileşiği 1-siklohekzilmetilbenzimidazol (2.15 g, 10 mmol) ile metil iyodür (1.56 g, 11
mmol) etkileştirilerek 1a bileşine benzer şekilde sentezlendi. Verim: %88 (2.85 g). 1H NMR
(δ, CDCl3): 1.08 ve 2.51 (m, 11H, CH2C6H11), 4.32 (s, 3H, CH3), 3.43 (d, J=3.6 Hz, 2H,
CH2C6H11), 7.63 ve 7.79 (m, 4H, C6H4), 11.19 (s, 1H, NCHN). 13C{H}NMR (δ, CDCl3):
34.6, 33.9, 33.6, 30.4, 25.7, 25.3, 37.9, 53.4, 113.0, 113.1, 126.7, 127.0, 127.3, 131.5, 132.0
ve 142.2 ppm.

2.4. Suzuki-Miyaura Reaksiyonu Genel Prosedürleri

Pd (OAc)2 (%1 mmol), 1,3-benzimidazolyum tuzları, 1a ve 1b (%3 mmol), aril bromür (1.0
mmol), fenilboronik asit (1.5 mmol), K2CO3 (1.5 mmol) izopropil alkol (2 mL) ve saf su
(1mL) argon altında küçük bir Schlenk tüpüne eklendi ve karışım oda sıcaklığında karıştırıldı.
Reaksiyon sonunda karışım etilasetat su ile faz oluşturularak biariller etilasetat ile ortamdan
alındı. MgSO4 ile kurutulduktan sonra flash silikajel kromotografisi ile saflaştırıldıktan sonra
GC sonuçları ile hesaplamalar yapıldı [14].

2.5. Deneysel Sonuçlar

OH O O
Pd(OAC)2, LHX
B + Br C C
CH3 Çözgen, Baz CH3
OH

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Tablo 1. Palladyum katalizli in situ Sizuki-Miyaura çapraz eşleşme reaksiyonu optimizasyon

çalışmaları
No % Katalizör Baz Çözgen Zaman % Verim
1 0.5 K2CO3 i-PrOH/H2O 5 45
2 1.0 K2CO3 i-PrOH/H2O 5 100
3 1.5 K2CO3 i-PrOH/H2O 5 100
4 1.0 Na2CO3 i-PrOH/H2O 5 68
t
5 1.0 K OBu i-PrOH/H2O 5 84
6 1.0 KOH i-PrOH/H2O 5 77
7 1.0 K2CO3 H2O 5 10
8 1.0 K2CO3 i-PrOH 5 10
9 1.0 K2CO3 EtOH 5 10
10 1.0 K2CO3 Dioksan 5 2
11 1.0 K2CO3 DMF 5 2
12 1.0 K2CO3 Dioksan/H2O 5 62
13 1.0 K2CO3 EtOH/H2O 5 85
14 1.0 K2CO3 DMF/H2O 5 78
Sadece
15 K2CO3 i-PrOH/H2O 5 30
Pd(OAc)2

%1 mmol Pd(OAc), %3 LHX, 1mmol brom asetofenon, 1.5 mmol arilboronik asit, 3ml
çözgen (2mL H2O, 1mL i-PrOH), ve verimler GC sonuçlarına göre oluşturulmuştur.

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Tablo 2. Palladyum katalizli in situ Sizuki-Miyaura çapraz eşleşme reaksiyonu kataliz

sonuçları
Boronik
No LHX Halojenür Ürün Zaman Verim
Asit
1 a 82
30 dk
2 b 77
3 a 75
30 dk
4 b 71
5 a 73
30 dk
6 b 65
7 a 63
30 dk
8 b 57
9 a 98
5 dk
10 b 96
11 a 100
5 dk
12 b 100
13 a 98
5 dk
14 b 95

%1 mmol Pd(OAc), %3 LHX, 1mmol brom asetofenon, 1.5 mmol arilboronik asit, 3ml
çözgen (2mL H2O, 1mL i-PrOH), ve verimler GC sonuçlarına göre oluşturulmuştur.

3. SONUÇ
Başarıyla sentezlemiş olduğumuz benzimidazolyum tuzlarını (1a ve1b) uygun spektroskopik
yöntemler kullanarak yapısını aydınlatıldı. 7 farklı substuratta fenilboronik asitin Suzuki-
Miyaura tepkimelerindeki katalitik aktiviteleri incelendiğinde başarılı sonuçlar vermiştir.
Katalitik tepkimeler izopropil alkol su karışımında gerçekleştiği için 1a tuzumuzun daha
avantajlı olduğunuda görüyoruz. 2-Siyanobenzen bromür substuratı her ne kadar elektron
çekici yapısı olsa da ortamda sterik engelinden dolayı diğer substuratların gerisinde kalmıştır.
4-Siyanobenzen bromür substuratı ise sterik engeli olmayıp aynı zamanda elektron çekici
özelliğiyle reaksiyonda üstün başarı göstermiştir. Çevre dostu çözgenler kullanarak bu
organik reaksiyonların gerçekleştirilmesi yeşil kimya açısından üstün önem arz etmektedir.
Bir sonraki basamakta bu benzimidazolyum tuzlarının metal kompleksleri sentezlenecek ve
diğer C-C eşleşme reaksiyonlarında aktiviteleri incelenecektir.

KAYNAKÇA
[1] Arduengo AJ, Harlow RL, Kline M. A stable crystalline carbene. J. Am. Chem.
Soc. 1991; 113: 361-363.
[2] Akkoc M, Bugday N, Altın S, Yasar S. Magnetite@MCM-41 nanoparticles as
support material for Pd-N-heterocyclic carbene complex: A magnetically separable catalyst
for Suzuki-Miyaura reaction. Appl Organomet Chem. 2021; 35: e6233.
[3] Akkoc M, Gurbuz N, Cetinkaya E, Ozdemir I. Palladium N-Heterocyclic
CarbeneCatalysts for Synthesis of Diaryl Ethers. Synlett 2008; 12: 1781-1784.

77
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[4] Karaca EO, Akkoc M, Yasar S, Ozdemir I. Pd-N-Heterocyclic carbene catalysed

Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions in aqueous medium. Arkivoc 2018; 5: 230-239.
[5] Yasar S, Akkoc M, Ozdemir N, Ozdemir I. Synthesis and catalytic activity of ionic
palladium N-heterocyclic carbenecomplexes. Turkısh Journal Of Chemıstry 2019; 43: 1622-
1633.
[6] Akkoç M, Buğday N, Altın S, Kiraz N, Yaşar S. Ozdemir I. N-heterocyclic
carbene Pd(II) complex supported on Fe3O4@SiO2: Highly active, reusable and magnetically
separable catalyst for Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions in aqueous media.
Journal of Organometallic Chemistry 2021; 943: 121823.
[7] Bhattacharyyaa B, Kalitab AJ, Guhab AK, Gogoia N. Phosphonate functionalized
N-heterocyclic carbene Pd(II) complexes as efficient catalysts for Suzuki-Miyaura cross
coupling reaction. Journal of Organometallic Chemistry 2021;953: 122067.
[8] Hopkinson MN, Richter C, Schedler M, Glorius F. An overview of N-heterocyclic
carbenes. Nature 2014; 510: 485.
[9] Gurbuz N, Karaca EO, Ozdemir I, Cetinkaya B. Cross coupling reactions catalyzed
by (NHC)Pd(II) complexes. Turkish Journal of Chemistry 2015; 39:1115-1157.
[10] [Link], The Nobel 2010, Nobel Media AB, 2013,
[Link] prizes/chemistry/laurea-tes/2010/ accessed 16 April 2014
[11] Miyaura N. Metal-catalyzed Cross-coupling Reactions; de Mejeire, A; Dieterich,
F., Eds., Wiley: Weinheim, Germany, 2008, pp. 41-123.
[12] Beller M, Bolm C. Transition Metals for Organic Synthesis: Building Blocks and
Fine Chemicals; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2004
[13] Perin DD, Armerago WWF., Perrin DR. Purification of laboratory chemicals,
Pergamon Pres Ltd, Sec. Ed. 1980.
[14] Akkoç M, Buğday N, Altın S, Özdemir I, Yaşar S. Highly Active Fe3O4@ SBA-
15@ NHC-Pd Catalyst for Suzuki–Miyaura Cross-Coupling Reaction. Catalysis Letters,
2021; 1-18.

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STREPTOMYCESLER’ İN TIBBİ ÖNEME SAHİP SEKONDER METABOLİTLERİ

Öğr. Gör. Dr. Havva AYBEK

Bingöl Üniversitesi, Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksekokulu
ORCID: 0000-0002-5084-8945

Dr. Öğr. Ü. Nazlı Pınar ARSLAN

Bingöl Üniversitesi, Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksekokulu
ORCID: 0000-0002-3951-4418

ÖZET
Sekonder metabolitler bakteriler, bitkiler ve mantarların sekonder metabolizmalarının bir
ürünü olarak üretilen doğal ürünlerdir. Günümüzde, bu doğal ürünler çeşitli hastalıkların
tedavisindegeniş bir şekilde kullanılmaktadır (Pan et al., 2019).
Çok sayıda bakterinin sekonder metabolit ürettiği bilinsede tıbbi amaçlar için kullanılan
sekonder metabolitlerin çoğunluğu Streptomyces türlerinden elde edilmektedir. Örneğin,
Streptomyces’ler tarafından aureomisin, daptomisin, klavulanik asit, sefamisin, nistatin,
streptomisin, kanamisin, thienamisin, pristinamisin, kloramfenikol, neomisin, nikomisin,
eritromisin, spiramisin, streptogramin, etamisin, sansanmisin ve bafilomisin gibi çok sayıda
antibiyotik özelliğinde sekonder metabolitin sentezlendiği ve bu metabolitlerin bakteri,virüs,
mantar yada parazit kaynaklı enfeksiyonlara karşı ilaç olarak kullanılabileceği belirtilmektedir
(Solecka et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 2014; Pan et al., 2019). Streptomyces’lerden elde edilen
actinomisin D, azinomisin, bleomisin, gilvokardin, daunomisin, doxorubisin, lidamisin,
sirolimus (rapamisin), mitomisin C, pentostatin, chartreusin, epirubisin, idarubisin,
geldanamisin, plikamisin, lemonomisin, monensin, telomestatin, salinomisin ve rubromisin’
in ise antikanser aktiviteye sahip olduğu rapor edilmiştir (Gupta et al., 2014; Mohan et al.,
2021). S. toxytricini bakterisinden elde edilen lipstatin’ in pankreatik lipaz inhibitörü olarak
çalıştığı ve bu yüzden anti-obesite ve anti-diyabetiközellik taşıdığı belirtilmiştir.
Streptomyces’ ler tarafından üretilenleupeptin, antipain ve chymostatin gibi sekonder
metabolitlerin emphysema, arthritis, kanser ve AIDS gibi hastalıkların tedavisinde
kullanılabilecekleri açıklanmıştır (Gupta et al., 2014). Streptomyces’lerden izole
edilenstrepsesquitriol ve salinamidlerin anti-inflamatuar aktiviteye sahip olduğu, takrolimus,
skrolimus, siklosporin A ve sirolimus’un organ nakillerinde (bağışıklık sistemini
baskıladıkları için), fizostigmin ve tumescenamide A’ nın ise Alzheimer hastalarının
tedavisinde kullanılabileceği belirtilmiştir (Solecka et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2019).
Anahtar Kelimeler: Streptomycesler, sekonder metabolit, biyolojik aktivite

79
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

SECONDAR METABOLITES WITH MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF

STREPTOMYCES SPECIES

ABSTRACT
Secondary metabolites are natural products of secondary metabolism of bacteria, plants and
fungi. Today, these natural products are widely used in the treatment of various diseases (Pan
et al., 2019). Although many bacteria are known to produce secondary metabolites,
the majority of those used for medical purposes are obtained from Streptomyces species.
For example, it has been reported that Streptomyces species produce different antibiotics such
as aureomycin, daptomycin, clavulanic acid, cefamycin, nystatin, streptomycin, kanamycin,
thienamycin, pristinamycin, chloramphenicol, neomycin, nicomycin, erythromycin,
spiramycin, streptogramin, ethamycin, sansanmycin and bafilomycin, and that these seconder
metabolites can be used as a drug against infections caused by bacteria, fungi, virus or
parasites (Solecka et al., 2012; Gupta et al., 2014; Pan et al., 2019). Some secondary
metabolites (actinomycin D, azinomycin, bleomycin, gilvocardin, daunomycin, doxorubicin,
lidamycin, sirolimus, mitomycin C, pentostatin, chartreucin, epirubicin, idarubicin,
geldanamycin, plicamycin, lemonomycin, monensin, telomestatin, salinomycin, and
rubromycin) which are produced by Streptomyces species show anticancer activity (Gupta et
al., 2014; Mohan et al., 2021). Lipstatin obtained from S. toxytricini bacterium works as a
pancreatic lipase inhibitor, and thus has anti-obesity and anti-diabetic properties. Secondary
metabolites such as leupeptin, antipain and chymostatin which are synthesized by
Streptomyces species may be used in the treatment of diseases such as emphysema, arthritis,
cancer and AIDS (Gupta et al., 2014). It has been shown that strepsesquitriol and salinamides
isolated from Streptomyces species have anti-inflammatory property, while tacrolimus,
scrolimus,as cyclosporine A and sirolimus have immunosuppressive property (used in organ
transplants) (Solecka et al. , 2012; Pan et al., 2019). Moreover, some secondary metabolites
such as physostigmine and tumescenamide A from these bacteria may be used as drug for the
treatment of Alzheimer's disease (Solecka et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2019).
Keywords: Streptomyces, secondary metabolite, biological activity

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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

İLERİ GLİKASYON SON ÜRÜNLERİNİN ÖNCÜLLERİNİN BAKLAVA'DA

BELİRLENMESİ

Mustafa YAMAN
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim
University
ORCID: 0000-0001-9692-0204

ÖZET
Günümüzde modern diyette işlenmiş gıda tüketimi giderek artmaktadır. α-dikarbonil
bileşikleri gibi birçok zararlı ürün, pişirme ve uzun süreli saklama koşullarında oluşabilir. Bu
çalışmada, yaygın olarak tüketilen geleneksel gıdalardan biri olan baklavada şeker bileşenleri,
glioksal ve metilglioksal ile şeker bileşeni türü ve miktarının ileri glikasyon ürünleri (AGE)
öncüllerinin oluşumuna etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlamaktadır. Glioksal ve metilglioksal
miktarları kolon öncesi türevlendirme reaktifi olarak 4-nitro-1,2-fenilendiamin ile
türevlendirildi ve HPLC ile kantitatif tayini yapıldı. Baklavadaki glioksal ve metilglioksal
değerleri sırasıyla 344 ile 815 µg/100 g arasında ve 19 ile 358 µg/100 g arasında
değişmektedir. Fruktoz, glukoz, sakaroz ve toplam şeker içeriği değerleri sırasıyla 2,4 ile 11,0
g/100 g, 4,0 ile 13,1 g/100 g, 0,2 ile 19,9 g/100 g ve 14,6 ile 40,8 g/100 g arasında
değişmektedir. Baklava örneklerinden birinde yüksek fruktozlu mısır şurubu içerebileceğini
düşünülmüştür. Çünkü diğer örneklere göre yüksek miktarda metilglioksal içermektedir. Bu
baklava numunesi sadece glikoz ve fruktoz içerirken diğer baklava numuneleri ayrıca sakaroz
içermektedir. Dolayısıyla bu numunede sadece glukoz ve fruktoz olması bu numunede yüksek
fruktozlu mısır şurubu olabileceği düşünülmektedir. AGE öncülleri olan glioksal ve
metilglioksal, maillard reaksiyonları, lipid peroksidasyonu, gıda işleme ve uzun süreli
depolama sırasında oluşabilir. Bu nedenle bu ürünler daha az tüketilmeli veya AGE'leri
azaltan ajanlar ile formüle edilmelidir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İleri glikasyon son ürünleri, glioksal, metilglioksal, baklava

DETERMINATION OF THE MOST POTENT PRECURSORS OF ADVANCED

GLYCATION END PRODUCTS IN BAKLAVA

ABSTRACT
Nowadays, in the modern diet, processed food consumption is continuously increasing. Many
harmful products, such as α-dicarbonyl compounds, can form throughout the cooking and
longstanding storage conditions. The study aims to investigate the sugar components, glyoxal,
and methylglyoxal and the effect of the type and amount of sugar component on AGEs
formation in commonly consumed baklava. The concentrations of glyoxal and methylglyoxal
were detected using 4-nitro-1,2-phenylenediamine as a pre-column derivatizing reagent by
HPLC. The values of glyoxal and methylglyoxal in baklava ranged from 344 to 815 µg/100g,
and between 19 and 358 µg/100g, respectively. The values of fructose, glucose, sucrose, and
total sugar contents ranged from 2.4 to 11.0 g/100 g, 4.0 to 13.1 g/100 g, 0.2 to 19.9 g/100 g,
and 14.6 to 40.8 g/100 g, respectively. We thought that one of the baklava samples might
contain high fructose corn syrup (HCFS) because it has a significantly high amount of
methylglyoxal than that of other samples.

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This sample contains only glucose and fructose, while other samples also contain sucrose. The
AGE precursors, glyoxal and methylglyoxal, are formed by maillard reactions, lipid
peroxidation during food processing and prolonged storage. Therefore, these products should
be consumed less or formulated with agents that reduce AGEs.
Keywords: Advanced glycation end products, glyoxal, methylglyoxal, baklava

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 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

AKSU CREEK (ÇORUH RIVER) FISH FAUNA AND SEASONAL VARIATIONS

Sadi AKSU
Vocational School of Health Services, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
ORCID: 0000-0003-2770-561X

ABSTRACT
Çoruh is one of Turkey's most important and fast-flowing rivers. In this study, the
determination of the fish fauna of the Aksu Creek, which is an important branch of the Coruh
River, and the seasonal changes in the fish distributions were investigated. The study was
carried out following the samplings at different times between 2002 and 2020 and the
information obtained by amateur fishermen. As a result of the study, nine fish species, Salmo
cf. coruhensis, Salmo cf. rizeensis, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Capoeta sieboldii, Capoeta
banarescui, Alburnus derjugini, Barbus rionica, Chondrostoma colchicum and Squalius
orientalis, were identified in Aksu creek. Salmo cf. coruhensis is more common in the lower
basin of the creek, and Salmo cf. rizeensis is only distributed in areas of the creek at an
altitude higher than 2000 [Link] was detected in the lower part of the stream.
Cyprinid species migrated to the Aksu Stream, which has a total length of approximately 30
km, up to 6 km. It was observed that Cyprinid species started to enter Aksu creek from the
Çoruh River in late May and early June. Cyprinid species density increases in late July and
early August. Cyprinid species were not found in the spring months when the water flows
fastly and in the winter months when the water temperature is low. The entry of Cyprinid
species into the stream is seasonal. The effect of water temperature on the distribution of
Cyprinid species is quite high. This situation will cause a narrowing in the habitat areas of
Salmonidae species, distributed in the stream, together with the increase in temperatures due
to climate change.
Keywords: Trout, Cyprinidae, Aksu Creek, Fish fauna, Coruh River

NTRODUCTION
Turkey is an important biodiversity centre due to its geographical location and bioclimatic
characteristics (Çiçek et al. 2018). At the same time, as a result of studies carried out in recent
years, it has been observed that Turkey has aquatic systems that host important endemic fish
species (Çiçek et al. 2018; Yoğurtçuoğlu et al. 2020). The number of these studies is
increasing day by day, and new species are reported (Küçük et al. 2017; Sungur et al. 2018;
Kaya 2020; Turan et al. 2018). However, in the studies conducted towards the end of the
century, the factors threatening biodiversity were frequently mentioned (Emiroğlu et al. 2016;
Tarkan et al. 2017). One of the most important is climate change (Aksu, 2020; Aksu et al.
2021). Especially fish populations will be directly affected by the increase in temperatures
and decrease in precipitation due to climate change. Another is the presence of invasive
species and their constant occupation of new habitats (Emiroğlu et al. 2020).
Çoruh river is one of the fast-flowing rivers of Turkey. Coruh basin is one of the basins where
important endemic fish species are distributed in biodiversity (Bayçelebi et al. 2015). Coruh
River tributaries generally consist of high mountain streams. There are 17 known fish species
in the Coruh basin (Bayçelebi et al. 2015; Turan et al.2019). Invasive fish species are
distributed in very limited areas in the basin (Yerli et al. 2014).

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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

In recent years, important studies have been carried out on the basin's fish (Bayçelebi et
al.2015; Turan et al. 2019; Aksu, 2020). S. coruhensis and C. ekmekciae species distributed in
the region are in IUCN protection status NT class. (Freyhof, 2014; Freyhof, 2019).
Aksu Creek is one of the important tributaries feeding the Coruh River. The source of Aksu
Creek is the glacial lakes within the borders of Kaçkarlar National Park. In this study, fish
distributed in Aksu Creek and the seasonal distribution of fish were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aksu Creek is a stream with approximately 30 km, and the source is formed by glacial lakes
and feeds the Coruh River (Figure 1). The data obtained in this study covers the studies
conducted between 2002-2020. Species of fish were determined with the help of literature
(Bayçelebi et al. 2015). The information and observations obtained from amateur fishers were
also used in obtaining fish samples and determining the species distribution. Climate data
were obtained from [Link] (current data version 1.4; future data CMIP5 Hadgemes
representative concentration pathway (RCP8.5) year 2070) (Hijmans et al. 2005). ArcGIS
10.8.1 was used to prepare climate data and create altitude maps.

Figure 1. Study area

RESULTS
As a result of the study, nine fish species (Salmo cf. coruhensis, Salmo cf. rizeensis,
Oncorhynchus mykiss, Capoeta sieboldii, Capoeta banarescui, Alburnus derjugini, Barbus
rionica, Chondrostoma colchicum and Squalius orientalis) were determined from Aksu
Stream. Eight of the detected fish are endemic. Two endemic species have IUCN protection
status in the NT category (Freyhof, 2014; Freyhof, 2019). It was observed that Cyprinid
species entered up to 6 km of the stream in August.

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It was determined that the density of Cyprinid species in the middle parts of the creek
increased in July and August. It was observed that the trout populations decreased
considerably in July and August in the region where Aksu Creek joins the Çoruh River.
Cyprinid species were encountered only in the downstream region in winter and spring but
not in the middle and upper parts of the stream. It was observed that Cyprinid species were
found only in the downstream region of the stream in April, May and early June, when the
waters flow rapidly and the water temperature is low. The presence of [Link] species has
been detected in high altitude (3000 m) glacial lakes and water bodies above 2000 meters. It
has been observed that S. coruhensis species are mostly distributed in the middle and lower
parts of the creek. The change in average annual temperature and average annual precipitation
resulting from climate change in the Aksu Creek basin is given in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Average annual temperature and precipitation changes

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Climate change will significantly affect species distribution and their habitat areas (Aksu et al.
2020). With the increase in average temperatures, changes in water temperatures and as a
result, Salmonid species that are distributed in cold water sources will adversely affect (Aksu,
2020). On the other hand, climate change will turn into an advantage for heat-tolerant species.
The study observed that Cyprinid species entered the inner regions intensively and shared
habitat with Salmonid species, especially in the summer months when the temperature
increased. The increase in temperature will decrease the dissolved oxygen levels in the water,
negatively affecting Salmonid species. In addition, the decrease in precipitation will cause a
decrease in the water flow rate. This situation will affect land and water use. Excessive water
use and drop in water levels will adversely affect fish populations in small river sources.

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WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

The Coruh basin is very important in terms of endemic species. The species distributed in the
basin have an endemism rate of about 28%. There is a significant increase in water in the
basin, especially in the spring months, and a significant decrease in the water flow rate in the
summer months. This situation causes a significant increase in water temperatures, especially
in summer. As the water temperature increases, the migration of Cyprinid species to mountain
streams increases. As a result of migration, Cyprinid species and Salmonid species enter into
habitat sharing, and increasing temperatures will cause Salmonid species to migrate towards
high altitude parts of the stream and continue their existence in a narrow area. This situation
will cause habitat shrinkage of Salmonid species and endanger the species.

REFERENCES
Aksu, S, Başkurt S, Emiroğlu E (2020). Assessıng Impacts of Clımate Change On
Dıstrıbutıon Range of Squalius cephaloides (Battalgil 1942), Endemıc Specıes in Turkey,
International Journal of Natural and Engineering Sciences. 14 (3): 22-31
Aksu, S. (2020). Possıble Effects Of Clımate Change on The Habıtats of The Trout
Specıes: Predıctıng The Current and Future Dıstrıbutıon of Anatolıan Sea Trout (Salmo
Coruhensıs Turan, Kottelat & Engın, 2010) Under Clımate Change, Usıng The Maxent
Model. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 29(10), 9031-9042.
Aksu, S. (2021). Current and future potential habitat suitability prediction of an
endemic freshwater fish species Seminemacheilus lendlii (Hankó, 1925) using Maximum
Entropy Modelling (MaxEnt) under climate change scenarios: implications for
conservation. Journal of Limnology and Freshwater Fisheries Research, 7(1), 83-91.
Bayçelebi, E., Turan, D., & Japoshvili, B. (2015). Fish fauna of Çoruh River and two
first record for Turkey. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, (15), 783-794.
Çiçek, E., Frıcke, R., Sungur, S., & Eagderı, S. (2018). Endemic freshwater fishes of
Turkey. FishTaxa, 3(4), 1-39.
Emiroglu, O., Ekmekci, F. G., Aksu, S., Baskurt, S., Atalay, M. A., & Tarkan, A. S.
(2016). Introduction and establishment of tropical ornamental fish, Pterygoplichthys
spp.(Actinopterygii: Siluriformes: Loricariidae) in hot springs: Aquarium trade as a potential
risk for biodiversity in Turkey. Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria. 46 (4), 351–356.
Emiroğlu, Ö., Atalay, M. A., Ekmekçi, F. G., Aksu, S., Başkurt, S., Keskin, E., &
Tarkan, A. S. (2020). One Of The World's Worst Invasıve Specıes, Clarıas batrachus
(Actınopterygıı: Sılurıformes: Clarııdae), Has Arrıved And Establıshed A Populatıon In
Turkey. Acta Ichthyologica et Piscatoria, 50(4).
Freyhof, J. 2014. Capoeta ekmekciae. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
2014: e.T19025623A19222868. [Link]
[Link]. Downloaded on 14 September 2021.
Freyhof, J. 2019. Salmo coruhensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019:
e.T19516809A19849589. [Link] A1
[Link]. Downloaded on 14 September 2021.
Hijmans, R.J., Cameron, S.E., Parra, J.L., Jones, P.G. & Jarvis, A. (2005) Very high
resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of
Climatology, 25, 1965– 1978.
Kaya, C. (2020). Spirlins of the southern Black Sea basin, with the description of a
new species (Teleostei: Leuciscidae). Zootaxa, 4763(3).

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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

Küçük, F., Turan, D., Güçlü, S. S., Mutlu, A. G., & Çiftci, Y. (2017). Two new
species of Chondrostoma Agassiz, 1832 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from the Ceyhan, Seyhan and
Göksu rivers in the East Mediterranean region of Turkey. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences, 17(4), 795-803.
Sungur, S., Jalili, P., Eagderi, S., & Çiçek, E. (2018). Seminemacheilus ahmeti, a new
species of Nemachelid from Sultan Marshes, Turkey. FishTaxa, 3(2), 466-473.
Tarkan, A. S., Vilizzi, L., Top, N., Ekmekçi, F. G., Stebbing, P. D., & Copp, G. H.
(2017). Identification of potentially invasive freshwater fishes, including translocated species,
in Turkey using the Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit (AS‐ISK). International
Review of Hydrobiology, 102(1-2), 47-56.
Turan, D., Kaya, C., Geiger, M., & Freyhof, J. (2018). Barbus anatolicus, a new barbel
from the Kızılırmak and Yeşilırmak River drainages in northern Anatolia (Teleostei:
Cyprinidae). Zootaxa, 4461(4), 539-557.
Turan, D., Kaya, C., Kalayci, G., Bayçelebi, E., & Aksu, İ. (2019). Oxynoemacheilus
cemali, a new species of stone loach (Teleostei: Nemacheilidae) from the Çoruh River
drainage, Turkey. Journal of Fish Biology, 94(3), 458-468.
Yerli, S. V., Mangıt, F., Emiroğlu, Ö., Yeğen, V., Uysal, R., Ünlü, E., ... & Zengin, M.
(2014). Distribution of invasive Carassius gibelio (bloch, 1782) (teleostei: cyprinidae) in
Turkey. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 14(2), 581-590.
Yoğurtçuoğlu, B., Kaya, C., & Freyhof, J. (2020). Freshwater fishes of the anatolian
midwestern black sea basin. Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters, 30(2), 111-30.

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KÖK YER EĞRİSİ YAKLAŞIMI TABANLI FAZ GERİLEMELİ-İLERLEMELİ

KOMPENSATÖR TASARIMI

Öğr. Gör. Dr. Mehmet ÇINAR

Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi, Tatvan Meslek Yüksekokulu, Elektronik ve Otomasyon Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-1542-9120

ÖZET
Kontrol sistemlerinde tasarım problemleri, sisteme bir kompensatör dahil edilerek sistem
performansının düzeltilmesi şeklinde olmaktadır. Kullanılan kompensatör çeşitlerinden birisi
de faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kompensatördür. Bu kompensatör içerisinde hem faz gerilemeli
hem de faz ilerlemeli kompensatör bulunmaktadır. Faz ilerlemeli kompensatör temel olarak
sistem cevabını hızlandırır ve sistem kararlılığını artırır. Faz gerilemeli kompensatör ise
sürekli haldeki doğruluğu düzeltir, ancak cevap hızını azaltır. Hem geçici cevap hem de
sürekli durum cevabında iyileşme istenirse, o zaman faz ilerlemeli ve faz gerilemeli
kompensatörlerin her ikisi aynı anda kullanılabilir. Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kompensatör iki
kutup ve iki sıfıra sahip olduğundan dolayı, kompenze edilmiş sistemde kutuplar ve sıfırlar
sadeleşmediği sürece bu tür bir denetleme sistemin derecesini 2 artıracaktır.
Bu çalışmada faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kompensatör tasarımı için köklerin yer eğrisi yöntemi
kullanılmıştır. Köklerin yer eğrisi yöntemi ile tasarım, sistemin açık çevrim transfer
fonksiyonuna kutuplar ve sıfırlar ekleyerek ve kök-yer eğrisinin s düzleminde istenen kapalı
çevrim kutuplarından geçmesini zorlayarak, sistemin kök yer eğrisini tekrar şekillendirme
esasına dayanır. Bunu gerçekleştirebilmek için örnek transfer fonksiyonları kullanılarak
Matlab ortamında program yazılmış; böylece kompenze edilmiş ve kompenze edilmemiş
sistemlerin birim basamak ve birim rampa cevapları elde edilerek yüzde aşım oranı, yükselme
zamanı ve kalıcı durum hatası sonuçları karşılaştırılarak yorumlanmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kompensatör, köklerin yer eğrisi yöntemi,
kompensatör tasarımı

ROOT-LOCUS APPROACH BASED PHASE LEAD-LAG COMPENSATOR DESIGN

ABSTRACT
Design problems in control systems are in the form of improving system performance by
including a compensator in the system. One of the compensator types used is the phase lead-
lag compensator. There are both phase lead and phase lag compensators in this compensator.
The phase lead compensator basically accelerates the system response and increases the
system stability. On the other hand, the phase lead compensator improves the steady state
accuracy, but reduces the response speed. If improvement in both transient response and
steady state response is desired, then both phase lead and phase lag compensators can be used
simultaneously. Since the phase lead-lag compensator has two poles and two zeros, this type
of supervision will increase the rating of the system by 2 unless the poles and zeros are
simplified in the compensated system.
In this study, the root locus method was used for the phase lead-lag compensator design.

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Design by the root locus method is based on reshaping the root locus of the system by adding
poles and zeros to the open-loop transfer function of the system and forcing the root locus to
pass through the desired closed-loop poles in the s-plane. In order to achieve this, a program
was written in Matlab using sample transfer functions; Thus, the unit step and unit ramp
responses of the compensated and uncompensated systems are obtained and the percent
overshoot rate, rise time, and steady-state error results are compared and interpreted.
Keywords: Phase lead-lag compensator, root-locus method, design of compensator

1. GİRİŞ
Otomatik kontrol, mühendislik ve bilimin ilerlemesinde önemli bir role sahiptir. Özellikle
uzay teknolojisindeki gelişmelerin yanında robotik sistemler, modern üretim ve endüstriyel
süreçlerde otomatik kontrol, sürecin önemli ve vazgeçilmez bir unsuru haline gelmiştir.
Örneğin, havacılık endüstrisinde kullanılan oto pilot sisteminin tasarımında, sürücüsüz
otomobil kontrolünde, imalat endüstrisinde takım tezgahlarının sayısal kontrolünde otomatik
kontrol çok önemlidir. Otomatik kontrol teorisi ve pratiğindeki gelişmeler, dinamik
sistemlerin optimum performansına ulaşma ve üretkenliği artırma araçları sağlar. Kontrol
edilen değişken, ölçülen ve kontrol edilen nicelikler veya durumlar, otomatik kontrol
sistemindeki kontrolör tarafından belirlenir. Aslında kontrolörün temel görevi, sistemin
kontrol edilen değişken değerini ölçmek ve ölçülen değeri daha önce belirtilen ya da
amaçlanan değer ile kıyaslayıp, sapmasını düzeltmek veya sınırlandırmaktır (Brogan,1985).
Kontrolör tasarımı literatürde sıklıkla karşılaşılan bir konudur ve bu konuda pek çok bilimsel
çalışma vardır. Özellikle orantılı-integral-türev (PID) kontrolörlerin tasarımı üzerine
literatürde çok sayıda çalışma vardır (Monje vd., 2008; Tan, 2005; Barbosa et al., 2004). Bu
çalışmada lag-lead kontrolör olarak bilinen faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli (lag-lead) kontrolörlerin
tasarımı kök-yer eğrisi yöntemi kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Lag-lead kontrolörler genellikle
integral etkiye sahip endüstriyel servo sistemlerde kullanılır ve PID kontrolörden daha iyi bir
kontrol performansına sahiptir. Chang (2004) servo sistemleri kontrol etmek için lag-lead
kontrolör kullanmıştır. Lag-lead kontrolörler genel yapı olarak birbirlerine benzer olsalar bile,
kutupların ve sıfırların konumu açısından farklılık gösterirler. Lead kontrolör sisteme faz
ilerlemesi sağlarken, lag kontrolörler faz gerilemeli olarak işlev görür. Kontrol sisteminin
performansının izlenebilmesi için geçici durum davranışındaki zaman alanı parametreleri ve
yüzde aşım değerinin doğru tespit edilmesi gerekir. Lead kontrolör, aşma yüzdesi değerini
azaltmak için sistemin cevabını iyileştirir. Ayrıca sistemin bant genişliğini ve geçiş frekansını
artırarak sistemin daha hızlı yanıt vermesini sağlar. Lag kontrolör, aşım yüzdesini azaltırken,
zaman parametrelerinin uzamasına neden olur. Böylece sistemin tepki süresi azalır.
PID denetleyicilerin parametrelerinin belirlenmesinde birçok ayarlama yöntemi olmasına
rağmen, lag-lead kontrolörlerde sınırlı ayarlama yöntemleri vardır. Kök-yer eğrisi ve Bode
diyagramı yaklaşımı, lag-lead kontrolör ile kontrol sistemini tasarlamak için kullanılan en
yaygın iki yöntemdir. Loh et al., (2004) lag-lead kontrolör parametrelerini belirlemek için
histerisiz rölesine dayalı bir çevrim içi algoritma geliştirmiştir. İnşaat mühendisliği yapılarının
titreşim kontrolü için lag kontrolör çalışmasında mevcuttur (Zhang et al., 2006).
Ntogramatzidis et al., (2012) kararlı durum performansı, kararlılık marjları ve geçiş
frekansları açısından PID ve lag-lead kontrolörlerin analizi için bazı tasarım teknikleri
sunmuşlardır. Naqshi et al., (2013) güç sistemlerinin dinamik kararlılığını arttırmak için statik
VAR ve lag kontrolörünü birleştirerek analiz yapmıştır.

89
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

Optimizasyon algoritmalarının yanı sıra, bilgisayar ve yazılım teknolojisindeki gelişmeler

ilekontrolör parametreleri hızlı ve başarılı bir şekilde belirlenebilmektedir. Bilindiği gibi
optimizasyon gerçek bir işlevi minimize veya maksimize etmek için fonksiyona değerler
yerleştirerek gerçekleştirilen sistematik bir problem çözme sürecidir. Panda ve Padhy, güç
sistemi kararlılığını arttırmak için tristör kontrollü lag-lead kontrolör tasarlamak için genetik
algoritma tabanlı optimizasyon tekniği kullanmıştır (Panda and Padhy, 2007). Horng (2012)
genetik algoritmayı kullanarak istenen zaman yanıtlarına göre lag-lead kontrolör tasarlamıştır.
Kontrol sistemlerindeki hata, sistemin gerçek ve istenen değeri arasındaki fark olarak ifade
edilir. İdeal bir sistemde, hata sıfır olarak kabul edilir. Fakat pratikte bu mümkün değildir.
Hatayı en aza indirmek, kontrol sisteminin optimum performansta çalışmasını sağlayacaktır.
Optimizasyon tekniği aynı zamanda hata minimizasyonu içinde kullanılmaktadır. Kontrolör,
minimum hatayı elde etmek için kontrolör parametrelerine göre tasarlanır. Hesaplama
tekniğindeki ilerlemeye paralel olarak bilim ve mühendislik alanındaki uygulamalar hızla
artmaktadır. Cao et al., (2009) kök-yer eğrisi ve Bode yaklaşımını kullanarak sürekli zamanlı
bir kontrolör tasarlamak için MATLAB tarafından uygulanan bir grafik kullanıcı arayüzü
geliştirmişlerdir. Nandar, genetik bir algoritma ve birinci dereceden lag-lead kontrolör
kullanan bir güç sistemi stabilitesi önermiştir (Nandar, 2012).

2. KÖK-YER EĞRİSİ YÖNTEMİ İLE TASARIM

Kök yer eğrisi ile tasarım, sistemin açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonuna kutuplar ve sıfırlar
ekleyerek ve kök-yer eğrisinin s düzleminde istenen kapalı çevrim kutuplarından geçmesini
zorlayarak, sistemin kök yer eğrisinin tekrar şekillendirilmesi esasına dayanır. Bir kontrol
sisteminin tasarımında, eğer bir kazanç ayarı dışında hususlar gerekiyorsa, özgün kök-yer
eğrisini uygun kontrolörler ekleyerek düzenlemek gerekir. İlave kutuplar ve/veya sıfırların
kök-yer eğrisi üzerindeki etkileri tam olarak anlaşıldığında, kök-yer eğrisini istenen tarzda
yeniden şekillendirebilecek kontrolörün kutup ve sıfırlarının yerleri kolaylıkla belirlenebilir.
Kök yer eğrisi yöntemi ile tasarımda, bir çift baskın kapalı çevrim kutbu arzu edilen yerlere
yerleştirilecek şekilde sistemin kök-yer eğrisi kontrolör kullanımı ile tekrar şekillendirilir.
Açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonuna kutup eklenmesi, kök-yer eğrisini sağa çekme etkisine
sahip olup, sistemin göreceli kararlılığını azaltmaya yöneltmekte ve sistem cevabının
yerleşme zamanını yavaşlatmaktadır. Açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonuna sıfır eklenmesi, kök-
yer eğrisini sola çekme etkisine sahip olup, sistemin göreceli kararlılığını artırmaya
yöneltmekte ve sistem cevabının yerleşme zamanını hızlandırmaktadır. Fiziksel olarak ileri
beslemeli transfer fonksiyonuna sıfır eklenmesi sisteme türevsel kontrol eklenmesi anlamına
gelmektedir.

[Link] İlerlemeli Kontrolör

Tasarım kriterleri istenen baskın kapalı çevrim kutuplarının sönüm oranı ve sönümsüz doğal
frekansı, en yüksek aşım, yükselme zamanı ve yerleşme zamanı gibi zaman uzayı
büyüklükleri cinsinden verilmişse kök-yer eğrisi yaklaşımı ile tasarım çok güçlü ve etkilidir.
Bütün kazanç değerleri için kararsız olan veya kararlı olduğu halde istenmeyen geçici-cevap
karakteristiği bulunan orijinal bir sistem için bir tasarım problemini düşünelim. Böyle bir
durumda, baskın kapalı çevrim kutuplarının karmaşık düzlemde istenen yerlerde olabilmesi
için jw ekseni ve orijine çok yakın bir komşulukta kök-yer eğrisinin tekrar şekillendirilmesi
gereklidir. Bu problem ileri yol transfer fonksiyonuna uygun bir faz ilerlemeli kontrolörün
araya yerleştirilmesi ile çözülebilir.

90
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

Şekil 1. Kontrol sistemi

2.1.1. Kök-Yer Eğrisi Yöntemi İle Faz İlerlemeli Kontrolör Tasarımı

Şekil 1’de gösterilen sistemde kök-yer eğrisi yöntemi ile bir faz ilerlemeli kontrolör tasarımı
için izlenecek adımlar aşağıdaki gibidir:
1. Baskın kapalı-çevrim kutuplarının arzu edilen yerleri performans kriterlerinden
belirlenir.
2. Kompanze edilmemiş sistemin (orijinal sistemin) kök-yer eğrisi grafiğini çizilir ve
kazanç ayarının tek başına istenen kapalı çevrim kutuplarını sağlayıp
sağlayamayacağını tespit edilir. Eğer sağlamıyorsa,  açı bozulmasını hesaplanır.
Eğer yeni kök-yer eğrisi baskın kapalı-çevrim kutuplarının istenen yerlerinden
geçiyorsa, bu açı faz ilerlemeli kontrolör tarafından katkı yapılarak sağlanmalıdır.
3. Faz ilerlemeli kontrolör Gc(s) aşağıdaki gibi olduğunu düşünelim.
1
s
Ts  1 T , (0   1)
G c ( s )  K c  Kc (1)
Ts  1 1
s
T

Burada  ve T açı bozulmasından belirlenir. Kc açık çevrim kazanç gerekliliğinden

hesaplanır.

4. Eğer statik hata sabitleri belirtilmemişse, faz ilerlemeli kontrolör kutup ve sıfırının
yeri, faz ilerlemeli kontrolör gerekli açı katkısı  ’yi yapacak şekilde belirlenir. Eğer
sisteme başka bir gereklilik şartı yüklenmemişse,  değerinin mümkün olduğu kadar
büyük yapılması gerekir. Daha büyük bir  değeri, genellikle istendiği gibi, daha
büyük bir Kv değeri sonucu verir.

K v  lim sGc ( s ) G ( s )  K c lim sGc ( s ) (2)

s 0 s0

5. Açı şartından faz ilerlemeli kontrolörün Kc değeri belirlenir.

Bir kere kontrolör tasarımı tamamlandığında, tüm performans kriterlerinin karşılanıp
karşılanmadığını kontrol edilir. Eğer kompanze edilen sistem performans kriterlerini
sağlamıyorsa, bütün kriterler sağlanıncaya kadar kontrolör kutup ve sıfırını ayarlayıp tasarım
adımları tekrarlanır. Eğer büyük bir statik hata sabiti isteniyorsa, faz gerilemeli bir devreyi
seri olarak devreye alınır veya faz ilerlemeli kontrolörü, bir faz ilerlemeli-gerilemeli kontrolör
olarak değiştirilir.
Eğer seçilen baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları gerçekten baskın değilse veya seçilen baskın
kapalı-çevrim kutupları istenen sonucu sağlamıyorsa, seçilen baskın kapalı-çevrim kutup
çiftinin yerlerinin değiştirilmesi gerekebilecektir.

91
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

Baskın olanlarının dışındaki kapalı-çevrim kutupları, yalnız başına baskın kapalı-çevrim

kutuplarından elde edilen sistem cevabını değiştirirler. Değişim miktarı kalan kapalı-çevrim
kutuplarına bağlıdır. Ayrıca, kapalı çevrim sıfırları da eğer orijine yakın yerleştirilmişse
sistem cevabını etkilemektedirler.

[Link] Gerilemeli Kontrolör

Geçici cevap karakteristiği yeterli ancak sürekli-durum karakteristiği tatmin edici olmayan bir
sistem için uygun kontrolör devre tasarımının bulunmasını ele alan bir problem düşünelim. Bu
durumda kompanzasyon tasarımı, geçici-cevap davranışını önemli ölçüde değiştirmeden açık-
çevrim kazancının artırılmasını içermektedir. Bunun anlamı, baskın kapalı-çevrim
kutuplarının komşuluğundaki kök-yer eğrisinin belirgin bir şekilde değişmemesi, fakat açık
çevrim kazancının gerektiği kadar artırılması demektir. Bu durum eğer faz gerilemeli bir
kontrolör, verilen ileri yol transfer fonksiyonuna seri bağlanırsa gerçekleştirilebilir.
Kök yer eğrisinde fark edilir bir değişiklikten sakınmak için faz gerilemeli devrenin açı
katkısı küçük bir değerle, mesela 50’den küçük bir açı katkısı ile sınırlandırılmalıdır. Bunu
sağlayabilmek için faz gerilemeli devrenin kutup ve sıfırını birbirine çok yakın ve s
düzleminin orijini civarına yerleştirilir. Bu durumda kompanze edilmiş sistemin kapalı-çevrim
kutupları, orijinal yerlerinden çok az kaymış olacaktır. Böylelikle geçici-durum davranışı da
çok az değişecektir.
Faz gerilemeli kontrolörün asıl negatif etkisi, orijine yakın kapalı-çevrim kutbunu ortaya
çıkaran ve kendisi de orijine yakın kontrolör sıfırıdır. Bu kapalı-çevrim kutbu ve kontrolör
sıfırı, birim basamak cevabında yerleşme zamanını artıran küçük genlikli uzun bir kuyruk
şeklinde cevap üretecektir.

2.2.1. Kök-Yer Eğrisi Yöntemi İle Faz Gerilemeli Kontrolör Tasarım

Şekil 1’de gösterilen sistemde kök-yer eğrisi yöntemi ile bir faz gerilemeli kontrolör tasarımı
için izlenecek adımlar aşağıdaki gibi açıklanabilir. Kompanze edilmemiş sistemin basit bir
kazanç ayarı ile geçici hal davranış kriterlerini karşıladığı düşünülürse aşağıdaki adımlar takip
edilir:
1. İlk başta açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonu G(s) olarak verilen kompanze edilmemiş bir
sistemin kök-yer eğrisi grafiği çizilir. Geçici-cevap kriterlerine göre baskın kapalı-
çevrim kutupları yerleştirilir.
2. Faz gerilemeli kontrolörün transfer fonksiyonu
1
s
 Ts  1 
T
Gc ( s )  K c   Kc (3)
Ts  1 1
s
T

O zaman, telafi edilmiş sistemin açık-çevrim transfer fonksiyonu Gc(s)G(s) olur.

3. Problemde belirlenen statik hata sabiti hesaplanır.

4. Tasarım kriterlerini sağlayacak statik hata sabitinde gereken artış miktarı belirlenir.
5. Kök-yer eğri grafiğini önemli ölçüde değiştirmeden, hesap edilen statik hata
sabitindeki gereken artışı üretecek faz gerilemeli kontrolörün kutup ve sıfırı belirlenir.
6. Kompanze edilmiş sistemin kök-yer eğri grafiği çizilir. Kök-yer eğrisi üzerinde
istenen baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları yerleştirilir.

92
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]


7. Baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları istenen yerlerinde bulunacak şekilde kontrolörün K c

kazancını, açı şartı ayarlanır. K c yaklaşık 1 olacaktır.)

2.3. Faz Gerilemeli-İlerlemeli Kontrolör

Faz ilerlemeli kontrolör temel olarak sistem cevabını hızlandırır ve sistem kararlılığını artırır.
Faz gerilemeli kontrolör sistemin sürekli haldeki doğruluğunu düzeltir, ancak cevap hızını
azaltır. Hem geçici cevap hem de sürekli durum cevabında iyileşme isteniyorsa, o zaman faz
ilerlemeli ve faz gerilemeli kontrolörlerin her ikisi aynı anda kullanılabilir. Faz ilerlemeli
kontrolörü ve faz gerilemeli kontrolörü ayrı birimler halinde sistemde uygulamaktansa, tek bir
faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör kullanmak daha ekonomik olacaktır.
Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör, faz gerilemeli ve faz ilerlemeli kontrolörün avantajlarını
da bir araya getirir. Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör iki kutup ve iki sıfıra sahip olduğundan
dolayı, kompanze edilmiş sistemde kutuplar ve sıfırlar sadeleşmesi olmadığı sürece bu tür bir
denetleme sistemin derecesini 2 artırır.

2.3.1. Kök-Yer Eğrisi Yaklaşımı Tabanlı Faz Gerilemeli-İlerlemeli Kontrolör Tasarım

Teknikleri
Aşağıdaki faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörü kullandığımızı düşünelim.

 1  1 
s   s 
T1  T2
Gc ( s)  K c    (4)
    1 
s  s 
 T1   T2 

Bu denklemde   1 ve   1 ve Kc sabitinin faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün ilerletici

kısmına ait olduğunu düşünelim. Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün tasarımında    ve
 =  olmak üzere iki durumu dikkate almamız gerekir.

Durum 1.   

Bu durumda, tasarım işlemi faz ilerlemeli kontrolörün tasarım ve bu tasarımın faz

geriletmesinin birleşiminden oluşur. Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün tasarım işlemi
aşağıdaki gibidir:
1. Verilen performans kriterlerinden, baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları için istenen yerleri
belirlenir.
2. Eğer baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları istenen yerlerinde iseler, kompanze edilmemiş
açık-çevrim transfer fonksiyonunu kullanarak, açı bozulması  belirlenir. Faz
gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün faz-ilerletme kısmı bu açıyı  sağlamalıdır.
3. Sonraki aşamada T2 değerini yeterince büyük seçtiğimizi varsayıp faz gerilemeli
kısmının büyüklüğü yaklaşık 1 olacaktır. Burada s=s1 baskın kapalı çevrim
kutuplarından birisidir. T1 ve  değerleri aşağıdaki gerekliliğe göre seçilir.

93
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

1
s1 
T1
 (5)

s1 
T1

T1 ve  değerlerinin seçimi tekil değildir. (Sonsuz sayıda farklı T1 ve  değerleri seçmek

mümkündür. Sonraki aşamada Kc değeri genlik şartından belirlenir:

1
s1 
T1
Kc G ( s1 )  1 (6)

s1 
T1

4. Eğer statik hız hata katsayısı Kv değeri belirlenmiş ise Kv için gereken tasarım şartını
sağlayacak  değerini bulunuz. Statik hız hata sabiti Kv aşağıdaki gibi verilir:

 1   1 
s   s 
K v  lim sGc ( s) G ( s)  lim sK c 
T1   T2  G ( s)  lim sK  G ( s) (7)
s 0 s 0     1  s 0
c

s  s 
 T1   T2 

Burada Kc ve  üçüncü adımda zaten belirlenmiştir. Böylece Kv değeri verildiğinde,  değeri

son denklemden belirlenebilir. Daha sonra, belirlenen  değeri kullanılarak, T2 değeri
aşağıdaki şartları sağlayacak şekilde seçilir.

1 1
s1  s1 
T2 T2
1 ve -5o < < 00 (8)
1 1
s1  s1 
T2 T2

Durum 2.  =  .

Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör için verilen tasarım işlemleri aşağıdaki gibidir:

1. Verilen performans kriterlerinden, baskın kapalı-çevrim kutupları için istenen
yerler belirlenir.
2. Denklem 4’te verilen faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör aşağıdaki gibi
düzenlenir:

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 1   1 
s   s 
T1 T2
Gc ( s )  K c     (9)
    1 
s  s 
 T1   T2 

Denklem 9’da  >1 olarak alınır. Kompanze edilmiş sistemin açık-çevrim transfer
fonksiyonu Gc(s), G(s) olarak yazılır. Eğer statik hız hata sabiti Kv belirlenmişse, aşağıdaki
denklemden Kc sabitinin değeri hesaplanır:

K v  lim sGc ( s ) G ( s ) = lim sK c ( s ) G ( s ) (10)

s 0 s 0

3. Baskın kapalı çevrim kutuplarını istenen yerlere yerleştirmek için faz

gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün faz geriletme kısmından gerekli açı katkısı 
hesaplanır.
4. Faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör için T2 değeri yeterince büyük seçilmeli ki
denklem 11

1
s1 
T2
(11)
1
s1 
T2

yaklaşık olarak 1 değerini alabilsin. Bu denklemde s=s1 baskın kapalı-çevrim kutuplarından

birisidir. T1 ve  değerleri genlik ve açı şartlarından belirlenir:

 1  1
 s1   s1 
T2 T1
Kc   G (s )  1 ,  (12)
 1  1

 s1   s1 
  T2  T1

5. Belirlenen  değerini kullanarak T2 değerini aşağıdaki şartları sağlayacak

şekilde seçilir.

1 1
s1  s1 
T2 T2
1 ve -5o < < 00 (13)
1 1
s1  s1 
T2  T2

 T2‘ nin değeri, faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolörün en büyük zaman sabiti, fiziksel olarak
gerçekleştirilebilmesi için çok büyük olmamalıdır.

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3. Örnek uygulama

Şekil 2. Örnek kapalı çevrim kontrol sistemi

Şekil 2’ deki kontrol sistemini ele alalım. Baskın kapalı çevrim kutupları s= -2 ± j2 3
noktalarına yerleştirilmiş ve statik hız hata sabiti Kv= 50 s-1 olan bir kontrolör tasarlayalım.
Denklem 14’ teki gibi faz gerilemeli-ilerlemeli bir kontrolör seçelim:

 1   1 
s   s 
T1 T2
Gc ( s )  K c     (   1) (14)
    1 
s  s 
 T1   T2 

Kontrolör tarafından istenen kapalı çevrim kutupları s= -2 ± j2 3 noktalarına yerleştirilir. Kv

statik hız sabiti 50 s-1 olacak şekilde kontrolör sisteminin açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonu
denklem 15’ teki gibi elde edilir:

 1  1
 s    s  
T1   T2  10
Gc ( s ) G ( s )  K c  (15)
   1  s ( s  2)( s  5)
 s    s  
 T1    T2 

Böylece; Kc denklem 16’daki gibi hesaplanır.

10
 K c  50
K v  lim sG c ( s ) G ( s ) = lim K c
s 0 2* 5
s 0 (16)
Zaman sabiti T1 ve  nın değeri aşağıdaki gibi hesaplanır:

1
s
T1 50 *10
 1, (17)
 s( s  2)( s  5)
s s  2  j 2 3
T1

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79,10660 açı değerine bakılırsa ileri kontrolörün bu açı bozulmasını kompanze etmesi
gerekmektedir. Trigonometriyi kullanarak ileri kontrolörün sıfır ve kutuplarının yeri aşağıdaki
gibi hesaplanır:

1
s
T1 s  2.2187
 (18)
 s  27.1111
s
T1

Denklem 18’deki eşitlikten T1 = 0,4507 ve  =12,2189 elde edilir. Faz gerilemeli kontrolörün
T2 değeri 10 olarak seçilir. Daha sonra gerilemeli kontrolör kısmı aşağıdaki gibi verilir:

1
s
T2 s  0 .1
 (19)
1 s  0.008184
s
T2

1 1
s s
T2 s  0.1 T2
  0.9888 ,  1.1544 (20)
1 s  0.008184 s 2 j 2 1
s 3 s
T2 s  2  j 2 3
T2 s  2 j 2 3

Gerilemeli kontrolör tarafından yapılan değişiklikler küçük ve kabul edilebilir seviyededir.

Böylece gerilemeli-ilerlemeli kontrolör aşağıdaki gibi elde edilir:

s  2.2187 s  0 .1
Gc ( s )  50 (21)
s  27.1111 s  0.008184

Kompanze edilen sistemin açık çevrim transfer fonksiyonu aşağıdaki gibi elde edilir:

50 ( s  2.2187)( s  0.1) 10
Gc ( s )G ( s ) 
( s  27.1111)( s  0.008184) s ( s  2)( s  5)
(22)
500s 2  1159.35s  110.935

s 5  34.1193s 4  200.0570s 3  272.7962s 2  2.2188s

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Olarak elde edilir. Böylece kapalı çevrim transfer fonksiyonu aşağıdaki gibi elde edilir:

C (s) 500s 2  1159.35s  110.935

 5 (23)
R( s) s  34.1193s 4  200.0570s 3  272.7962s 2  1161.5688s  110.935

Elde edilir. Kompanze edilmemiş ve kompanze edilmiş sistemin MATLAB programı

yardımıyla elde edilen birim-adım cevapları aşağıdaki gibi verilmiştir. MATLAB çıktısı elde
edilirken aşağıdaki kodlar kullanılmıştır.
num1= [10];
den1= [1 7 10 10];
num2 = [0 0 0 500 1159.35 110.935];
den2=[1 34.1193 200.057 772.7462 1161.5688 110.9351];
t=0:0.1:10;
c1=step(num1,den1,t);
c2=step(num2,den2,t);
plot(t,c1,'-',t,c2,'-')
grid
text(1.2,1.2,'Kompanze edilmiş sistem')
text(3.8,1.1,'Kompanze edilmemiş sistem')
xlabel('t(saniye)')
ylabel('Sistemlerin Çıktıları')
title('Kompanze Edilmiş ve Kompanze Edilmemiş Sistemlerin Birim-Basamak Cevabı')

Şekil 3. Sistemin birim basamak fonksiyonu cevapları

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Şekil 4. Sistemin birim rampa fonksiyonu cevapları

4. SONUÇLAR
Bir kontrol sisteminin geçici ve kalıcı durum cevaplarında iyileşme istendiğinde lag-lead
kontrolör kullanılması gerekmektedir. Sistemin cevabında hızlı bir yanıt ve doğru sonuçlar
elde edilmek istenirse lag-lead kontrolör kullanmak çok avantajlıdır. Lag-lead kontrolör
kullanılarak sistemin band genişliği arttırılabilir ve sistemdeki yüksek gürültülü frekanslar
azaltılabilir. Lag-lead kontrolör kullanılarak düşük frekans cevabı arttırılabilir ve aynı
zamanda sistem bant genişliği ve kararlılık marjı da arttırılmış olur.

KAYNAKLAR
Barbosa, R.S. and et al. (2004). Tuning of PID controllers based on Bode’s ideal
transfer function. Nonlinear Dynamics, 38(1), 305–321.
Brogan, W.L. (1985). Modern Control Theory. Upper saddle river, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cao, M. and et al. (2009). A graphical user interface for a unified approach for
continuous time compensators design. Computers in Education,19(1), 49-59.
Chang, T. (2004). Servo control design. Control Systems, Robotics and Automation,
VIII, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems.
Horng, H. (2012). Lead-lag compensator design based on genetic algorithms. IEEE
Proceedings of the conference on Technologies and applications of artificial intelligence,
Tainan, New York, 80-85.
Loh, A. and et al. (2004). Auto-tuning of phase lead/lag compensators.
Automatica,40(3), 423-429.
Monje, C. A. and et al. (2008). Tuning and auto-tuning of fractional order controllers
for industry applications. Control Engineerting Practice,16(7), 798–812.
Nandar, C. (2012). Design of robust power system stabilizer considering less control
energy. Int. J. Power Electronics and Drive System, 2(1), 99-106.

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Naqshi, K. and et al. (2013). Power oscillation damping using lead-lag controlled
SVC. Screna International, 25(3), 451-456.
Ntogramatzidis, L. and et al. (2012). A unified analytical design method of standard
compensators. arXiv:1210.3812,1.
Panda, S. and Padhy, N. (2007). Thyristor controlled series compensator-based
controller design employing genetic algorithm: A comparative study. Int. J. Electrical and
Computer Engineering, 2(9), 608-617.
Tan, N. (2005). Computation of stabilizing PI and PID controllers for processes with
time delay. ISA Transactions, 44(2), 213–223.
Zhang, C. and et al. (2006). Design of step response based lag-lead compensators for
the asynchronous linear servo motors used in the AMD control system. Pacific Science
Review, 8, 109-114.

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STRUCTURAL AND ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL

CaFCl UNDER HIGH PRESSURE

Cihan KÜRKÇÜ
Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Department of
Electronics and Automation
ORCID: 0000-0003-3597-1950

Selgin AL
Department of Environmental Protection Technologies, Vocational School, Izmir Democracy
University
ORCID: 0000-0003-2496-1300

ABSTRACT
Alkaline-earth fluorochlorides (CaFCl) are very important from fundamental and applications
because of their low phonon energy and electronic properties. Structural and electronic
properties of CaFCl were investigated by applying high pressure. CaFCl belongs to the
tetragonal PbFCl groups (P4/nmm). The package of SIESTA was used with the generalized
gradient approximation (GGA) for the exchange-correlation functional and norm-conserving
Troullier-Martins pseudopotentials within the density functional theory (DFT) to reveal its
structural and electronic properties. In addition, high pressure computations have been carried
out to reveal any possible phase transitions. A phase transition was successfully observed
from the tetragonal structure with space group P4/nmm to the orthorhombic structure with
space group Pmmn. For each structure, several physical properties such as lattice parameters,
bulk module, derivative of bulk module, and volume were calculated as a result of structure
optimization. The phase transformations of CaFCl were computed by carrying out the total
energy and enthalpy calculations. Moreover, the electronic properties of CaFCl were also
obtained and examined in the increased pressure effect and compared with the ground state
properties. Based on the electronic structure calculations, it can be said that that P4/nmm and
Pmmn phases of CaFCl demonsrate semicondunting behaviours which makes CaFCl
important for electronic applications.
Keywords: High pressure, Phase transition, Enthalpy, Electronic Structure.

1. Introduction
Alkaline-earth fluorochlorides (CaFCl) are interesting and attractive in terms of their
applications and fundamentals. These materials consist of mixed-halides formulated as MFX
(M= Ca, Sr, Ba; X=Cl, Br, I) and eight isostructural members which are produced by
isovalent addition of the alkaline-earth metal and of the heavy halogen [1, 2]. Because of the
band gaps of these materials, they have taken a great deal of attention for electronic and
optoelectonic purposes. In 2004, producing graphene experimentally opened a new
perspective to produce 2D materials which are significant due to their extraordinary physical
properties [3]. From this point of view, this study focuses on structural and electronic
properties of 2D CaFCl by appliying high pressure. The stuructural transformations of CaFCl
under pressure and their electronic properties will be discussed in a great detail.

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2. Method of Computation
All the computations have been done by using SIESTA package. First principles
computations were adopted within the DFT. The exchange-correlation energy was obtained
by using the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) of Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE).
A 350 Ryd cut-off energy was adopted through out the computations. The representative cell
included of 72 atoms with periodic boundary conditions. The Brillouin-zone integration was
performed with 8×8×4 and 8×6×4 k-point meshes for P4/nmm and Pmmn phases of CaFCl,
respectively. The k-point meshes were adopted for the energy-volume computations.
Conjugate gradient method was chosen to employ the pressure externally to the system.
Pressure was rose with a 10.0 GPa increase. In order to examine minimization steps, the
KPLOT program was adopted which provides critical information about lattice parameters,
atomic positions and space group of the structure.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Structural Properties
The lattice parameters of tetragonal P4/nmm phase of CaFCl at equilibrium are computed by

a=3.8290 Å, b=3.8290 Å, c=6.3902 Å and = = =90°. Subsequently, constant pressure ab-

relaxation of 72 atoms supercell at zero pressure. The lattice parameters are obtained as

initio simulation is applied in order to investigate phase transitions of CaFCl. The change in
volume under pressure is given in Figure 1. As can be seen from Figure 1 that a volume
collapse happens at 320 GPa. This implies a phase transition in CaFCl.

Figure 1. Simulation cell volume change versus pressure.

The structural analysis demonsrates that the monoclinic structure with space group P4/nmm

Å, b=3.2178 Å, c=5.5091 Å and α=β=γ=90°) at 320 GPa pressure as shown in Figure 2.

transforms into orthorhombic structure with space group Pmmn (lattice parameters: a=2.7711

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Figure 2. The crystal structures of CaFCl.

The phase transformation indicates that this technique can be applied to to investigate high
pressure phase transitions. However, it is also worthwhile to know that this technique can
overestimate phase transitions due to perfect boundary conditions and surfaces. Thus,
thermodynamic theorem is also applied to investigate phase transition pressure. The obtained
result is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The change in energy-volume for P4/nmm and Pmmn phases of CaFCl.

This data is then fitted to the third-order Birch-Murnaghan equation. At the phase transition,
the two phases will have the same enthalpy (H= Etot + PV, where P=−dEtot/dV is obtained
by direct differentiation of the obtained the energy-volume values.), thus, the transition
pressure can be seen by equating the enthalpy of the two phases. The obtained enthalpy curve
of the tetragonal and orthorhombic structures versus pressure is illustrated in Figure 4. Based
on the thermodynamic theorem calculations, the phase transition occurs at 125 GPa as shown
in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. Enthalp change of P4/nmm and Pmmn phases of CaFCl versus pressure.

3.2 Electronic Properties

The electronic band structures of CaFCl along the high-symmetry directions is illustrated in
Figure 5a and 5b. The Fermi energy (EF) level is adjusted to zero. In these Figures, the
valance band is defined lower than the EF, whilst the conduction band is defined higher than
it. The tetragonal phase of CaFCl shows a direct transition in bands with nearly 5.40 eV gap
since the higher value of valance band and the lower value of conduction band indicates the
same symmetry point (Γ-Γ). Thus, P4/nmm phase of CaFCl shows semiconductor properties.

Figure 5a. Band structure for tetragonal P4/nmm phase of CaFCl.

Another direct band transition is seen in Figure 5b for orthorhombic phase of CaFCl with a
band gap of nearly 0.9 eV. Therefore, it can be said that Pmmn phase of CaFCl also shows
semiconducting behaviour.

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Figure 5b. Band structure for orthorhombic Pmmn phase of CaFCl.

The total density of states of phases are also obtained and presented in Figure 6a and 6b. As
Figure 6a demonsrates that, under the EF, the largest contribution comes from Cl between (0)-
(-5) eV and from F between (-5)-(-8) eV. Over the EF, the largest contribution comes from Ca.

Figure 6a. The total density of states for tetragonal P4/nmm phase of CaFCl.

Figure 6b depicts that for Pmmn phase of CaFCl under the EF, the largest contribution comes
from Cl between (0)-(-5) eV and from F between (-5)-(-11) eV. Over the EF, the largest
contribution comes from Ca.

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Figure 6b. The total density of states for orthorhombic Pmmn phase of CaFCl.

4. Conclusion
An ab-initio computation under constant pressure is applied to study the pressure-induced
phase transformations in the tetragonal structured CaFCl. A first-order phase transformation
from tetragonal to orthorhombic structure is obtained through calculations. Moreover,
electronic band structures of phases are computed. The results indicate a phase transition from
tetragonal to orthorhombic phase. Both phases are found to have semiconducting behaviours.

Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Kırşehir Ahi Evran University under Scientific Research
Project (BAP) No.: TBY-A4-20-002.

References
[Link], B.D., H.N. Munasinghe, and F.A. Rabuffetti, Temperature-dependent
luminescence of CaFCl:Yb,Er upconverting nanocrystals. Journal of Luminescence, 2021.
235: p. 117974.
[Link], L., et al., Luminescence properties of alkali metal ions sensitized CaFCl:Tb3+
nanophosphors. Journal of Rare Earths, 2015. 33(10): p. 1026-1030.
[Link], M., N. Sfina, and M. Said, Electronic properties of SrFCl and SrFBr
monolayers using density functional theory and GW approximation. Solid State
Communications, 2021. 336: p. 114430.

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BİR FAZLI TAM DALGA KONTROLSÜZ DOĞRULTUCUNUN HARMONİK

ANALİZİ

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Süleyman ADAK

Mardin Artuklu Üniversitesi, Meslek Yüksekokului Elektrik ve Enerji Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-1436-2830

ÖZET
Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik bileşenler güç elektroniği ekipmanları ile doğrusal olmayan
yüklerin kullanılmasından sonra oldukça artılar. Güç elektroniği tabanlı devre elemanlarından
(diyot, transiztor, tiristor, mosfet, IGBT) ile yapılan çihazlar, Demir çekirdekli bobinler, non-
lineer elemanlarına örnek olarak verilebilirler. Harmonik bileşenlerin güç sisteminde artması
ile, sistemin toplam harmonik distorsiyonu (THD) de yükselir. Elektrik şebekelerinde kaliteyi
belirleyen kriterler akım ile gerilimin sinüzoidal formda olması ve güç katsayısının bire yakın
olmasıdır. Bu çalışmada, sinüzoidal bir kaynak ile non-lineer yükün analiz ve simulasyonu
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Güç sistemlerinde harmonik bileşenlerin azaltılması ve güç faktörünün
iyileştirilmesi amacı ile pasif filtreler kullanılmaktadır. Önerilen elektriksel güç sistemi,
sinüzoidal gerilim kaynağı, tek fazlı güç trafosu, bir fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz bir doğrultucu
ve R-L endüktif yükünden oluşmaktadır. Güç sisteminin modellenmesi ve analizi
Matlab/Simulink programı kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Güç sisteminde harmonik
bileşenler ekonomik ve teknik sorunlar oluştururlar. Ekonomik sorunlar, harmonik
bileşenlerin elektrik şebekesinde ek kayıplar meydana getirmesidir. Teknik problemler tesis
çalışmasının negatif yönde etkilenmesi ve yüke aktarılan enerji kalitesinin düşmesidir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Harmonik bileşenler, Non-lineer yük, Aktif güç, Reaktif güç,
Distorsiyon gücü

HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF ONE PHASE FULL WAVE UNCONTROLLED

RECTIFIER

ABSTRACT
Harmonic components in electrical installations increase considerably after the use of non-
linear loads and power electronic equipment. Devices made with power electronics based
circuit elements (diode, transistor, thyristor, mosfet, IGBT), Iron core coils, can be given as
examples of nonlinear elements. As the harmonic components increase in the power system,
the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the system also increases. The criteria that determine
the quality in electrical networks are that the current, voltage are in sinusoidal form and the
power coefficient is close to one. In this study, analysis and simulation of nonlinear load with
a sinusoidal source was performed. Passive filters are used in power systems to reduce
harmonic components and improve power factor. The proposed electrical power system
consists of sinusoidal voltage source, single phase power transformer, a single-phase full-
wave uncontrolled rectifier and R-L inductive load. Modeling and analysis of the power
system was carried out using Matlab / Simulink program. Harmonic components in the power
system create economic and technical problems. The economic problems are that harmonic
components create additional losses in the electrical network.

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Technical problems are that the plant operation is negatively affected and the quality of
energy transferred to the load is reduced.
Keywords: Harmonic components, Nonlinear load, Active power, Reactive power, Distortion
power

1. GİRİŞ
Sinüzoidal şebekeye non-lineer yüklerin bağlanmasına sonucunda tesiste harmonik bileşenler
oluşur. Güç sistemlerinde sinüzoidal değişim göstermeyen dalga formları, nonsinüzoidal
dalgalar olarak adlandırılır. Güç sistemlerinde oluşan gerilim ve akımdaki harmonik
bileşenleri birbirlerinden farklı olabildiği gibi aynı da olabilir. Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik
bileşenler, gerilimde bulunan harmonik bileşenler, akımda bulunan harmonik bileşenler, hem
akım hem de gerilimde bulunan harmonik bileşenler olmak üzere üç şekilde gözükebilir. Non-
lineer yüklü bir devreye sinüzoidal gerilim uygulanması sonucunda devrede harmonik
bileşenler oluşur [1, 2]. Elektrik tesislerinde sisteme bağlanan non-lineer yükler sonucunda
devrede bulunan sinüzoidal formlu gerilim ve akım dalgalarında bozulmalar sinüsten
sapmalar oluşur. Sinüs dalga formundan sapmalar genellikle harmoniklerin oluşmasına neden
olurlar. THD değeri sinüsten sapmalar hakkında bize bilgi verir. Bu değer büyüdükçe dalga
şekli sinüs formundan uzaklaşır [3-5] . Bu lineersizlikler akım ve gerilim dalga şeklinin
sinüsten uzaklaşmasına bozulmasına neden olurlar. Güç sistemlerinde harmonik bileşen
üreten elemanların bağlanması ile non-lineerlik etkisi hızlı bir şekilde artar.
Yarıiletken devre anahtarların kullanımının hızla artması ve onların doğrultucu, inverter ve
çeşitli elektronik devre tasarımı olarak uygulanması sonucunda harmonik bileşen içeren bir
şebekenin oluşmasına sebep olurlar [4-6]. Tek fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu giriş
non-lineer akımı dalgasına aitt analitik ifade denklem (1)’de verildiği gibidir.

i (t )  17.42 sin(t  12.31)  2.547 sin(3t  24.14)  1.623 sin(5t  13.31) 
1.18 sin(7t  7.717)  0.9243 sin(9t  4.051)  0.759 sin(11t  1.293)  (1)
0.6435 sin(13t  0.9683)  0.5582 sin(15t  2.928)

Non-lineer karakteristikle olan bir fazlı kontrolsuz doğrultucu giriş akımı ile buna ait
harmonik bileşenleri Şekil 1’ de verilmiştir.

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Şekil 1 Konrolsuz doğrultucu giriş akım ile harmonik bileşenleri

THD değeri dalga formunun sinüsten uzaklaşmasının bir ölçütüdür. Bu değer büyüdükçe
akım veya gerilim dalgası sinüs formundan uzaklaşır. Bunun sonucunda güç sisteminde
harmonik bileşenler sinüsten uzaklaşma ile orantılı bir şekilde harmonikler artar [7, 8]. Bu
artış sonucunda sistem kayıpları artar verim ise azalır. Şekil 2’de tek fazlı tam dalga
kontrolsüz doğrultucu ait çıkış gerilimi dalga formu verilmiştir.

Şekil 2 Bir fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu çıkış gerilimi dalga formu

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Güç sistemlerinde harmonik bileşenler devre parametreleri ile rezonans olaylarına da sebep
olmakta işletme için çok tehlikeli durumlar meydana getirmektedirler. Bu yüzden işletmelerde
harmonik bileşenlerin meydana gelmemesi için tedbirler düşünülüp ona göre tasarım ve tesis
dizaynı yapılmalıdır [9, 10].

1.1 Harmoniklerin Oluşmasına Neden Olan Kaynaklar

Güç sistemlerine bağlanan non-lineer elemanlar non-sinüsoidal büyüklüklere neden
olmaktadır. Non-sinüzoidal devre büyüklükleri için güç faktörü, güç ifadelerinin hesabı ile
güç ve enerjinin ölçümleri önem kazanmaktadır [11-13]. Güç elektroniği tabanlı konverterler
ile kesintisiz güç kaynaklarının kullanımının artması ve uygulama alanları nedeniyle, elektrik
sistemlerinde gözlenen toplam harmonik distorsiyonu giderek artmakta ve bunun sonucunda
oluşan harmonik bileşenler elektrik enerji kalitesinin azalmasına sebep olmaktadırlar. Toplam
harmonik distorsiyonu yükselmesi şebekeye bağlı cihazlara zarar vermekte ve ayrıca
sistemdeki kondansatörlerin delinmesine rölelerin zamansız açmalarına neden olmaktadır [12-
14]. Elektrik tesislerinde harmoniklerin oluşmasına neden olan çihazların başlıçaları şunlardır:

 Konvertörler (Doğrultucular, inverterler, DC/DC kıyıcılar),

 Motor hız kontrol düzenleri,
 Şebekedeki nonlineer yükler,
 Çıkık ve yuvarlak rotorlu generatörler,
 Enerji tasarrufu için kullanılan aygıtlar,
 Frekans konverterleri,
 Ark fırınları,
 Gerilim regülatörleri,
 Gaz deşarjı prensibine göre çalışan aydınlatma armatürleri,
 Statik VAR kompanzatörleri,
 Akümlatör şarj devreleri,
 Fotovoltanik solar sistemler,
 Bilgisayar labaratuarları,
 Kaynak makineleri,
 Güç kaynakları,
 Doğru akım ile enerji iletimi (HVDC),
 Elektrikli ulaşım sistemleri.

Harmonikler bileşenler güç sistemlerindeki kirliliktir. Statik konverterlerin kullanılmalarının

arması ile bu kirlilik oranı gün be gün artmaktadır. Güç elektroniği elemanları ve çeşitli non-
lineer elemanların her gecen gün artış göstermesi, enerji sisteminde dolaşan non-sinüzoidal
büyüklüklerin artmasına neden olmaktadırlar [15, 16]. Bunun bir sonucu, akım ya/da gerilim
için harmonik distorsiyonu da artmaktadır.

1.2 Harmoniklerin güç sistemlerindeki belli başlı etkileri

Elektrik tesislerinde harmonikler bileşenler devrede kullanılan non-lineer yükler sonucunda
ve/veya güç kaynağının durumuna göre oluşurlar.
Güç sisteminde non-lineer devre elemanları veya non-sinüzoidal güç kaynaklar bulunacak
olursa veya bunların her ikisinin de olması durumunda oluşurlar.

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Bunun sonucunda enerji tesisindeki akım ve gerilimin sinüzoidal olan dalga formu bozulur
[17-19]. Bu bozuk dalga formları “non-sinüzoidal dalga” olarak isimlendirilir. Harmonik
bileşenlerin güç sistemlerindeki etkileri şunlardır:
 Kondansatörlerin delinmesi veya sigortaların zamansız açması,
 Üçüncü harmoniğin etkin olduğu tesislerde nötr iletkeninin aşırı ısınması,
 Demir nüveli transformatör ve benzeri cihazların ısınması,
 Elektrik elektronik tabanlı ölçme cihazlarında hatalı ölçmeler,
 Güç sistemlerinde akım ve gerilimdeki dalgalanmalar,
 Kondansatörlerin delinmesi,
 CAD/CAM hafıza silinmeleri,
 Ofis cihazlarının gürültülü çalışması,
 Elektrik makinalarının titreşimli çalışması,
 Elektrik tesislerinde kayıplarının artması.

AC/DC dönüştürücüler, inverterler, frekans konvertörleri sinüzoidal gerilimin anahtarlanması

prensibiyle çalışan makinalar değişik frekanslı akımlar üretirler. Ek olarak manyetik
devrelerin doyması, elektrik arkları, güç sistemlerinde açma kapamalarda meydana gelen
darbe ve çökmeler lineer olmayan yüklere örnek verilebilir [18-20]. Demir çekirdekli
cihazların doyma bölgesinde çalışması, jeneratör ve motor oluklardaki kaçak akılar, ark
ocakları .. vb de değişik frekanslı akımlar üretirler. Bu akımlar şebekedeki empedanslar
üzerinde değişik frekanslı ve genlikli gerilimlerin oluşmasına neden olurlar. Bir fazlı tam
dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu giriş akımı dalga formu ile etkin harmonik bileşenlerden üçüncü
ve beşinci etkin harmonik bileşenler Şekil 3’te verilmiştir.

Şekil 3 Bir fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu giriş akımı dalga formu ile üçüncü ve
beşinci etkin harmonik bileşenleri

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Güç sistemlerinde non-sinüzoidal dalga biçimleri, frekans ve genliği farklı diğer sinüzoidal
dalgaların toplamından oluşurlar. Temel dalga dışındaki sinüzoidal formdaki dalgalara
“harmonik bileşen” adı verilir [21, 22].
Güç sistemindeki bulunan sinüzoidal dalganın simetrisinden dolayı 3., 5., 7., 9., 11,.... , gibi
tek harmonik bileşenleri bulunur buna karşılık çift harmonikli bileşenler bulunmaz.
Günümüzde non-lineer yüklerdeki artışlar dikkate alındığında, harmonik bileşenler yakın
gelecekte elektrik tesislerini büyük oranda etkileyecekleri gözükmektedir. Sonuç olarak
elektrik tesislerinde harmonik bileşenler için sınır limitleri belirlenmelidir. Harmonik
bileşenlerin etkili olduğu tesislerde filtre kullanımını zorunlu kılınmalıdır [23].

2. GELİŞME
Elektrik tesislerinde güç elektroniği tabanlı çihazların kullanımının arması ve bu elemanların
karakteristiğinin lineer olmaması sonucunda enerji sisteminde dolaşan non-sinüsoidal
büyüklüklerin artmasına neden olmaktadırlar. Bunun bir sonucu, akım ya da gerilim
sinüzoidal olan dalga formu bozulmakta ve güç siseminin tolam harmonik distorsiyonu değeri
de artmaktadır. Harmonik bileşenleri iyi tanımanın yolu bu büyüklüklere ilişkin tanımlamaları
öğrenmekten geçer.

2.1 Toplam Harmonik Distorsiyonu

Güç sisteminde harmonik bileşenlerin temel bileşene göre seviyesini belirlemede dikkate
alınan en önemli parametredir. Dalga formunda sinüzoidalden uzaklaşmayı, distorsiyon
miktarını diğer bir deyişle bozulmanın derecesini belirtir. Bu kavram hem gerilim, hem de
akım için verilebilir. Gerilim için,
1/ 2
1   2
THD V   Un  (2)
U1  n  2 
şeklinde ifade edilir. Akım için toplam harmonik distorsiyonu (akım bozulma faktörü)
1/ 2
1  
THD I    I 2n  (3)
I1  n  2 

olarak ifade edilir. Güç sisteminde non-lineer yükler düşük güçlü olsalar bile enerji sisteminin
sinüsoidal olan akım ve gerilimin dalga formunu bozarlar. Elektrik tesisine bağlanan birçok
non-lineer yük dikkate alınırsa bunların sonucunda ek kayıp ile THD (Toplam Harmonik
Distorsiyonu) değerinin yükselmesi kaçınılmazdır. Toplam harmonik distorsiyonun zamana
bağlı değişimi Şekil 4’te verildiği gibidir.

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Şekil 4 Bir fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu giriş akımının değişimi

Elektrik tesislerinde enerji kalitesi ile ilgili parametrelerin değerleri ne kadar küçük olursa
akım ve gerilimin dalga formunun değişimi sinüs eğrisine daha yakın olur. Dalga formunun
saf sinüs şeklinde olması durumunda harmonik bileşenler bulumaz, harmonik bileşenlerin
değeri matematiksel olarak sıfır olur. Bunun sonucunda enerji kalitesi ile ilgili bu
parametrelerin değerlide sıfır olur. Güç sisteminde yükün non-lineer olması durumunda
kaynaktan çekilen akımın efektif değeri,

I  I12  I 22  .......  I n2 (4)

olarak ifade edilir. Teknolojinin ilerlemesi ile birlikte harmonik kaynakları günbegün
artmaktadır. Artan bu harmonik kaynakları da elektrik şebekelerinde istenmeyen olaylara yol
açmaktadırlar.

2.2 Yükün Non-Lineer, Kaynağın Sinüzoidal Olduğu Durumda Güç Hesaplamaları

Bu tür devreler besleme kaynağının sinüzoidal yükün non-lineer olması durumunda oluşur.
Şekil 5’te non-lineer yük ile sinüzoidal kaynağın bulunduğu devre şeması verilmiştir.

Şekil 5 Yükün non-lineer kaynağın sinüzoidal olması

Bu tür devrelerde kaynaktan yüke yapılan güç transferi sistemdeki akım ve gerilimin temel
bileşenleri tarafından yapılmaktadır.

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Yüke aktırılan görünür güç,

S V *I (5)
olarak ifade edilir. Aktif gücün ifadesi,

P  VI1 cos 1 (6)

şeklinde ifade edilir. Reaktif güçün ifadesi,

Q  VI1 sin 1 (7)

olarak belirtilir. Distorsiyon gücünün formülü (8) denkleminde verildiği gibidir.

D  S 2  P2  Q2 (8)
Bu gücün fiziksel anlamı, birimi ile reaktif güçle olan ilişkisi halen tartışma konusudur. Bu
güç ifadesi konusunda bilim dünyasında halen bir birliktelik mevcut değildir. Harmonik
bileşenlerin bulunmadığı sinüzoidal devrelerde bu güç D= 0’ dır. Güç sistemlerinde güç
faktörü, sinüzoidal veya sinüsoidal olmayan devrelerde aktif güçün görünür güçe oranı
şeklinde ifade edilir. Aktif, reaktif ve distorsiyon güçlerinin perspektif gösterimi Şekil 5’te
verilmiştir.

Şekil 5 Harmonikli devrelerde güç bileşenleri

Güç sistemlerinde non-lineer yükler düşük güçlü olsalar bile güç sistemlerinde sinüzoidal olan
akım ve gerilim dalga formunu bozarlar. Elektrik tesislerine bağlanan çok sayıda non-lineer
yük dikkate alınırsa bunların sonucunda sistemde ek kayıplar ile THD (Toplam Harmonik
Distorsiyonu) değerlerinin yükselmesi kaçınılmazdır.

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2.3 Sayısal Uygulama

Bir fazlı tam dalga kontrolsüz doğrultucu endüktif bir yükü beslemektedir. Kaynak sinüzoidal
yük non-linerdir. Doğrultucunun çektiği akımın harmonikli ifadesi ile aktif reaktif distorsiyon
ve görünür gücü bulalım.

Şekil 6 Bir fazlı kontrolsüz doğrultucunun sinüzoidal kaynaktan beslenmesi

Güç sistemlerinde non-lineer yüklerin etkinliğinin azaltılması ve toplam harmonik

distorsiyonunun azaltılması enerjinin kalitesi açısından oldukça önemlidir. Elektrik
tesislerinde non-lineer elemanlar, üretim, iletim ve dağıtım tesislerinde ciddi bir harmonik
kirliliğe sebep olmakta ve yüke aktarılan enerjinin kalitesini düşürmektedirler. Transformatör
sekonder devresinden çekilen Is akımının harmonik bileşenlerinin değerleri Matlab/Simulink
paket programında bulunan Fourier blokları yardımıyla bulunur.

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Şekil 6 Kontrolsüz doğrultucu giriş akımı Fourier analizi

i (t )  17.42 sin(t  12.31)  2.547 sin(3t  24.14)  1.623 sin(5t  13.31) 
1.18 sin(7t  7.717)  0.9243 sin(9t  4.051)  0.759 sin(11t  1.293) 
0.6435 sin(13t  0.9683)  0.5582 sin(15t  2.928)

olarak bulunur. (4) denkleminden transformatör sekonder akımının effektif değeri,

I  12.57 A

(5) denkleminden transformatör sekonderinin görünür gücü,

S  220 *12.57  2765 .4 VA

olarak bulunur. (6) denkleminden transformatör sekonderinin raktif gücü,

17.42
P  71* * Cos (14.81)  845.51 W
2

şeklinde bulunur. (7) denkleminden transformatör sekonderinin raktif gücü,

17.42
Qs  71 * * Sin(14.81)  223.55 VAr
2

olarak bulunur. (8) denkleminden transformatör sekonderinin distorsiyon gücü,

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Ds  2765 .42  845.512  223.552  2623 .47 VAh

olarak hesaplanır. Güç sistemlerinin kararlı ve sorunsuz bir şekilde çalışmasını sağlamak için,
tasarım ve dizayn aşamasında non-lineer yükler veya non-sinüsoidal kaynakların meydana
getirdiği harmonik bileşenlerin hesaplanarak veya ölçülerek ortaya konması gerekli tedbirlerin
alınması gerekir.

3. SONUÇ
Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik bileşenlerin oluşmasının nedeni elektrik devrelerinde
kullanılan lineer olmayan devre elemanlarıdır. Bu devre elemanlarının, gerilimi ile akımı
arasındaki bağıntının lineer olmayışından dolayı harmonikler oluşmaktadır. Transformatör
gibi magnetik devrelerde aşırı doyma, elektrik arkları ile güç elektroniği tabanlı cihazlarda
sinüzoidal gerilimin anahtarlaması ve kıyılması gibi olaylar lineer olmayan olaylardır.
Teknolojik gelişmelere paralel olarak güç elektroniği devre elemanları ve çeşitli non-lineer
yüklerin artış göstermesi güç sistemlerinde dolaşan non-sinüzoidal bileşenlerin çoğalmasına
neden olmaktadırlar. Sonuç olarak, güç sisteminde akım ya da gerilim için toplam harmonik
distorsiyonu artmaktadır. Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik problemlerinin analizi ve elimine
edilmesi için, harmonik bileşenlerin seviyelerinin belirlenmesi hesaplanması gerekmektedir.
Harmonik bileşenlerin yok edilmeleri gerekmektedir.
Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik distorsiyonu güç kaynaklardan büyük uzaklıkta bulunan tüm
güç sistemini etkilemektedir. Harmonik bileşenlerin güç sistemlerindeki kirliliktir. Statik
konverterlerin kullanılmalarının arması ile bu kirlilik oranı gün geçtikçe artmaktadır.
Harmonik bileşenler ile aktif, reaktif ve distorsiyon güçlerinin incelendiği bu çalışmada
sağlanan sonuçlar ve öneriler şumlardır:
 Güç sistemlerinde non-lineer yüklerin bozucu etkilerinin azaltılması, oluşan harmonik
distorsiyonunun giderilmesi tüketicilere sunulan enerjinin kalitesi açısından önemlidir. Güç
sisteminde non-lineer yükler elektriksel üretim, iletim ve dağıtım sistemlerinde harmonik
bileşenlerin artmasına neden olmakta sistemin harmonik distorsiyon değerinin artmasına
neden olmaktadırlar.
 Elektrik tesislerinde harmonik bileşenler teknik ve ekonomik olumsuzluklara sebep
olmaktadırlar. Sistemde harmonik bileşenler ısı kayıplarına neden olmakta buda elektrik
faturalarının artmasına neden olmaktadır. Elektrik tüketicileri sanayi kuruluşlarının harmonik
bileşenlerin meydana getirdiği olumsuzluklar hakkında bilgileri yoktur. Bundan dolayı
tüketicilerin bu konularda bilgilendirilmeleri gerekir.
 Harmonik bileşenlerin zaralı etkilerinde korunmak için aktif veya pasif filtreler
kullanılmalıdır. Elektrik tesisinde toplam harmonik distorsiyonu statndartlarca belirtilen
seviyelerin altına çekilmelidir. Bu yapılmazsa bir tüketicinin ürettiği harmoniklerden komşu
diğer bir tüketici zarar görecektir. Güç sistemlerinde non-lineer yüklerin bozucu etkilerinin
azaltılması enerjinin kalitesi açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Elektrik tesislerinde bulunan
non-lineer yükler harmonik distorsiyonun artmasına neden olmakta yüke aktarılan elektrik
enerjisinin kalitesini düşürmektedirler.

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KAYNAKLAR
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Analysis, John Wiley & Sons.1997.
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Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference Ohrid, Macedonia, 2010.
[3] Germeç, K. E., Erdem H., Time-harmonic analysis in electric power systems,
Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture of Gazi University, 30 (2), 263-271,
[Link] Faculty of Engineering and Architecture of Gazi University, 24(34)(715-723). 2009.
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Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, ISSN 2147-3129,2015.
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Harmonikler, Birsen Yayınevi, İstanbul 2003.
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Grid-Interactive Distributed Generation System, DE Gruyter:International Journal of
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[10] Yilmaz, A. S., Alkan, A., Asyali, M., Applications of parametric spectral
estimation methods on detection of power system harmonics, Electric Power Systems
Research, 78, Issue 4, , pp 683-693, April 2008.
[11] Rüstemli, S., Okuducu, E., Efe, S.B., Elektrik Tesislerinde Harmoniklerin Pasif
Filtre Kullanılarak Azaltılması ve Simülasyonu, EVK2015: 6. 2015, Enerji Verimliliği
Kalitesi Sempozyumu, pp120-124, 4-6 Haziran, Sakarya.
[12] Acha E. and Madrigal M. Power System Harmonics Computer Modeling and
Analysis., John Willey & Sons, 2001.
[13] Inan, A., Köroğlu, S., İzgi, E., Dengeli Elektrik Enerji Sistemi Verilerini
Kullanarak Dengesiz Sistem Kayıplarının Yapay Sinir Ağları ile Belirlenmesi, Pamukkale
Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, cilt.11, sa.1, ss.47-52, 2005
[14] Ayan, K., Arifoğlu, U., Optimizing reactive power flow of HVDC systems using
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[15] Bathurst, N., Smith, B.C., Watson, N. R., Arrillaga, J., Harmonic Domain
Modelling of High-Pulse Converters”. IEE Proceedings Online no.19990294. pp. 335-349,
1999.
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Technique by Passive Shunt Filter. International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering
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[19] Nedimoğlu,E. Gümüş ,B., Şebekeye Bağlı Güneş Enerjisi Santrallerinin

Harmoniklerine Etki Eden Parametrelerin Araştırılması, Dicle Üniversitesi Mühendislik
Dergisi , [Link] 2019.
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964p. İstanbul-Turkey, 2016.
[21] Germeç, K.E., Erdem H., Time-Harmonic Analysis in Electric Power Systems,
Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture of Gazi University, 30 (2), 263-271,
2015.
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2-TEST FOR DETECTING BAD DATA IN WLS STATE ESTIMATION

Res. Assis. Cenk ANDIC

Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Department
of Electrical Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0003-1123-899X

Prof. Dr. Ali OZTURK

Duzce University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-3609-3603

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salih TOSUN

Duzce University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-5698-6628

ABSTRACT
State estimation problem is of great importance for the operating conditions of a power
system. The purpose of the state estimation is to know the voltage magnitude and angle value
of all bus in the power system. Measurement data is needed to make a state estimation. These
measurement data are obtained from Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) or
Phasor Measurement Units (PMU) measurement devices. However, these measurement data
contain some errors due to measurement errors, such as telemetry errors, communication
noise etc. Furthermore, these bad data in the measurement data greatly affect the results of the
state estimation. The Weighted Least Squares (WLS) method is widely used in the state
estimation problem. In this study, Chi-squares test was used to determine whether there is bad
data in a measurement data set. Firstly, state estimation with normal measurement data set
was made in three different test systems. Afterwards, bad data was added by intentionally
changing some of the data sets. The state estimation results in two different situations were
compared and it was seen that the results were faulty. Whether there is bad data in the
measurement data set was checked with the Chi-squares test. Measurement datasets
containing bad data were successfully detected with the Chi-squares test. Finally, this study
show that erroneous data in the measurement data, which is of great importance for the state
estimation problem, are successfully detected.
Keywords: State Estimation, Bad Data Detection, Chi-squares, Power Systems

ÖZET
Bir güç sisteminin işletilmesi için durum tahmini problemi büyük bir önem teşkil etmektedir.
Durum tahmininin amacı sistemdeki tüm baraların gerilim genlik ve açı değerinin
bilinilmesidir. Durum tahmininin yapılabilmesi için ölçüm verilerine ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.
Bu ölçüm verileri Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) ya da Phasor
Measurement Units (PMU) ölçüm cihazlarından elde edilmektedir. Fakat bu ölçüm verileri,
ölçümden kaynaklanan, telemetre hataları, iletişim gürültüsü gibi sebeplerden bir miktar hata
içermektedir. Ölçüm verilerindeki bu kötü veriler durum tahmininin sonucunu büyük ölçüde
etkilemektedir.

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Durum tahmini probleminde yaygın olarak Ağırlıklı En Küçük Kareler (AEKK) yöntemi
kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada bir ölçüm veri setinde kötü veri olup olmadığını belirlemek
için Chi-squares test kullanılmıştır. İlk olarak, normal ölçüm veri seti ile durum tahmini üç
farklı test sisteminde yapılmıştır. Sonrasında veri setlerinden bir kısmını kasıtlı olarak
değiştirerek kötü veri eklenilmiştir. İki farklı durumdaki durum tahmini sonuçları
karşılaştırılmıştır ve sonuçların bozulduğu görülmüştür. Ölçüm veri setinde kötü veri olup
olmadığı Chi-squares testi ile kontrol edilmiştir. Kötü veri içeren ölçüm veri setleri Chi-
squares testi ile başarıyla tespit edilmiştir. Bu çalışma sayesinde durum tahmini problemi için
büyük önem taşıyan ölçüm verilerindeki hatalı veriler başarıyla tespit edilmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Durum Tahmini, Kötü Veri Belirleme, Chi-squares, Güç Sistemleri

I. INTRODUCTION
The power system can be monitored and even controlled with the state estimation result.
Therefore, the problem of state estimation in power systems is an important issue [1-3]. The
voltage magnitude and phase angle value of all buses in power systems are found by state
estimation [4]. A number of measurements are needed to make a state estimation. For this,
measuring devices (such as Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) or Phasor
Measurement Unit (PMU)) are installed on certain buses of power systems. The state vector is
estimated using the measurement data obtained from these devices. When placing measuring
devices in power systems, the entire of power system must be observable. Otherwise, the
power system goes into an unobservable state and there is a shortage of measurement data [5].
With the state estimation results, the network can be monitored online and even the network is
intervened in case of emergency. By monitoring the instantaneous status of the network,
control mechanisms such as Economic Dispatch (DP), Energy Management System (EMS)
and Automatic Generation Control (AGC) work [6]. For this reason, the state estimation
results are very important.
There have been many studies in which traditional methods have been used to solve the
problem of state estimation in power systems. These methods include Newton, Linear
programming methods, etc. it is based on the derivative method [7,8]. Moreover, it has been
noted that these methods are insufficient in some cases. For example, Newton's method is
insufficient in cases where there are inequality constraints [8]. The linear programming
method, on the other hand, has slow convergence problems when the initial values are not
selected correctly in iterative steps [9]. The problem of state estimation in power systems is
generally based on the use of Weighted Least Squares (WLS) method [10]. Recently, methods
based on the use of the Kalman filter (KF) have also been proposed [10]. Gelagaev [11] made
a comparison between the methods of WLS and the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). False
Data Injection (FDI) attacks were proposed by Liu et al. [15]. Bad data is injected into the
measurement data set by a cyber attack, which, if not noticed, negatively affects the results of
the state estimation of the power system and damages the operation of the network [13].
As mentioned before, measurement data obtained from SCADA devices are used while
solving the state estimation problem. However, these measurement data contain some error.
These errors are caused by reasons such as telecommunication error, measurement error,
parameter error etc. So, there is some difference between the obtained measurement data and
the actual measurement values [12]. Measurement errors are assumed to have a Standard
Normal Gaussian distribution. That is, there is no dependency between the measurements, the
mean of the measurement errors is zero and the standard deviation is one [13].

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However, in some cases larger errors occur in these measurement data. In general, this
situation is called False Data Injecting (FDI) and this event is called a Cyber Attack (CA)
scenario [15]. In other words, the amount of error in the measurements obtained is higher and
in this case, the situation affects the estimation results negatively. Thus, FDI is important for
the state estimation problem.
In this study, the Chi-Square (χ2) test method was used (bad data detection) to determine
whether bada data was injected in a measurement data set [7]. The Chi-Square (χ2) test
method was applied in three different test systems. In all three different test systems, a data in
the measurement data set was intentionally changed as if the network had been subjected to a
CA. And, this has been successfully detected by the Chi-Square (χ2) test.

II. THEORICAL BACKGROUND

A. WLS STATE ESTIMATION
In the state estimation problem, the state vector is estimated. The state vector (x) consists of
the voltage magnitude (V) and phase angle value (δ) of all buses in the network (except for
the angle value of the slack bus, assuming zero) [1]. Measurement data (z) is needed to make
the state estimation. As mentioned, the measurement data contains some error (e). The
nonlinear relationship between the measurement data (z) and the state vector (x) for the AC
state estimation is shown in Equation 1.

= ℎ(" ) + % (1)
where,
i = 1, 2, 3, … , m;

ℎ(" ) is show the nonlinear relationship between the measurement and the state vector;
is ith measurement (has m dimension);

% the noise vector of ith measurement;

x is the state vector (has n dimension);

m is number of measurements.
The purpose of the state estimation is to find the voltage magnitude and phase angle value
(state vector) of all buses in the network, providing the measurement data obtained at a certain

current measurement data ( ) and the calculated measurement data ((ℎ(" ))) is tried to be
time. Therefore, while estimating the situation, the residual value (residual) between the

minimized [1-4]. In the state estimation problem, two formulas are generally used as the
objective function. These are the Weighted Least Square (WLS) and Weighted Least Absolute
Value (WLAV) methods [1-3]. In this study, WLS method was preferred because it is more
sensitive to bad data.
The weighted least square (WLS) estimate can be found by minimizing the following
1 1
1
objective function in Equation 2;

min *(") = + , . ( − ℎ(" ) ./ + . ( − ℎ(" ) (2)

0
23 23

, is the weight of the ith measurement (specifies the measurement sensitive);

where,

0 is the variance of the ith measurement.

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B. BAD DATA
The measurement data contains some noise errors due to various reasons. These errors are
filtered by some state estimators. However, measurement data containing large measurement
errors greatly affect the state estimation results and cause inaccurate results. These
measurement data are called bad data [1]. Bad data occurs due to wrong connection of
measuring devices to the system, unexpected situations or FDI into the measurement data set
as a result of a CA [15]. If there is bad data in the measurement data set, the state estimation
results are heavily affected and deviated from accuracy. In this case, whether there is bad data
in a measurement data set is very important for the state estimation result. Bad data are
classified as one bad data and multiple bad data [14-17]. The WLS state estimator is
commonly used to determine whether there is bad data in the measurement data set. Because
in an error situation, it is emphasized by squaring the error. A various methods are used to
detection bad data. In this study, the Chi-Square (χ2) test method [7] was used.

C. CHI-SQUARE (χ2) TEST

One of the methods used to detect bad data is the Chi-square (χ2) test. Chi-square distribution
is showed briefly as follows:
Consider a set of N independent random variables X1, X2 , …, XN, where each Xi is distributed

5 ~7(0,1)
according to the Standart Normal distribution:

Then, a new random variable Y defined by:

;

: = +5
23

: ~ 5;
will have a χ2 distribution with N degrees of freedom,

The degrees of freedom N, represents the number of independent variables in the sum of
squares. The function f(x) written with regard to measurement errors is shown in Equation 3
1 1 1
%
below;

<(") = + = . % = + ?
>3
A = +(% ; ) (3)
23 23
@= 23
where Rii is the diagonal error covariance matrix, represents the reliability of the measuring

m is the whole number of obtained measurements.% ; has a Standard Normal Gaussian

devices. This value varies depending on the measurement accuracy of the measuring devices.

distribution, in which the mean of errors is zero and the variance is one. Afterwards, f(x) will
have a distribution χ2 with a maximum Degree of Freedom (m – n) (DF). For the state
estimation problem in power systems, m is the number of obtained measurements and n is the
number of state variables (voltage magnitude and angle) [14]. In order to understand whether
the errors in the measurements correspond to the Chi-square distribution, the probability of X
must be greater than a certain threshold (xi) value. This threshold value is called the
confidence level. A high value is preferred to be able to check if the confidence level errors
match the distribution. Usually, the confidence level is accepted at 95% [14-17]. If J(x) in
Equation 2 is greater than χ2(m-n), p, it is considered that there is bad data in the measurement
data set. In the other case, it is assumed that there is no bad data in the measurement data set.

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III. CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

A. 5-BUS TEST SYSTEM
The first test system is a 5-bus (n is five) system. Hence, the number of state variables
according to 2n-1 is nine, which consists of the voltage magnitude value of 5 buses and the
voltage angle value of 4 buses (the angle of the slack bus is zero, it is not taken as a state
variable). Measurement values of this system are shown in the Table 3.1. below.

Table 3.1. The measurement values for 5-bus test system.

Measured Value
Measurement No: Measurement Type
No Bad Data One Bad Data
1 V2 0.989 0.989
2 P1 2.10 2.10
3 P2 -3.00 -2.50
4 P3 0.2349 0.2349
5 P4 -3.9497 -3.9497
6 P5 4.6651 4.6651
7 Q1 0.3073 0.3073
8 Q2 -0.9861 -0.9861
9 Q3 0.9604 0.9604
10 Q4 0.5265 0.5265
11 Q5 -0.3821 -0.3821
J(x) 1.69751e-05 66.1594

There are altogether m = 11 measurements which are 1 voltage magnitude measurement, 5

real power injections and 5 reactive power injections. The degree of freedom required for the
chi-square distribution in this case is m – n = 11 – 9 = 2. As a result of a cyber attack, bad
data is generated in the measurement data set. One of the measurement data sets for this
scenario is that P2 has been deliberately changed. It is preferred that the threshold value of the
confidence level is high, the value of which is 95%. As a result, the chi-square distribution
value was calculated from the Matlab function and its value was chi2inv(0.95, 2) = 5.9915.

In the first step (no bad data), because J(x) < 5.9915, it is assumed that there is no bad data in
the measurement data set. In the second case, because the value J(x) = 66.1594 exceeds the
threshold value, it is assumed that there is an bad data in the measurement data set. Indeed,
the measurement has detected the data that was deliberately changed in the data set. If there is
a measurement error or an intervention in the measurement data set by a cyber attack, the Chi-
square test successfully notices this situation.

B. 6-BUS TEST SYSTEM

The first test system is a 6-bus (n is six) system. Hence, the number of state variables
according to 2n-1 is eleven, which consists of the voltage magnitude value of 6 buses and the
voltage angle value of 5 buses (the angle of the slack bus is zero, it is not taken as a state
variable). Measurement values of this system are shown in the Table 3.2. below.

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Table 3.2. The measurement values for 6-bus test system.

Measured Value
Measurement No: Measurement Type
No Bad Data Two Bad Data
1 V1 1.05 1.05
2 P1 1.0788 1.0788
3 P2 0.50 0.90
4 P3 0.60 0.90
5 P4 -0.70 -0.70
6 P5 -0.70 -0.70
7 P6 -0.70 -0.70
8 Q1 0.1596 0.1596
9 Q2 0.7436 0.7436
10 Q3 0.8963 0.8963
11 Q4 -0.70 -0.70
12 Q5 -0.70 -0.70
13 Q6 -0.70 -0.70
J(x) 8.34267e-08 10.0162

There are altogether m = 13 measurements which are 1 voltage magnitude measurement, 6

real power injections and 6 reactive power injections. The degree of freedom required for the
chi-square distribution in this case is m – n = 13 – 11 = 2. As a result of a cyber attack, bad
data is generated in the measurement data set. Two of the measurement data sets for this
scenario is that P2 and P3 has been deliberately changed. It is preferred that the threshold value
of the confidence level is high, the value of which is 95%. As a result, the chi-square
distribution value was calculated from the Matlab function and its value was chi2inv(0.95, 2)
= 5.9915.
In the first step (no bad data), because J(x) < 5.9915, it is assumed that there is no bad data in
the measurement data set. In the second case, because the value J(x) = 10.0162 exceeds the
threshold value, it is assumed that there is an bad data in the measurement data set. Indeed,
the measurement has detected the data that was deliberately changed in the data set. If there is
a measurement error or an intervention in the measurement data set by a cyber attack, the Chi-
square test successfully notices this situation.

C. 9-BUS TEST SYSTEM

The first test system is a 9-bus (n is nine) system. Hence, the number of state variables
according to 2n-1 is seventeen, which consists of the voltage magnitude value of 9 buses and
the voltage angle value of 8 buses (the angle of the slack bus is zero, it is not taken as a state
variable). Measurement values of this system are shown in the Table 3.3. below.

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Table 3.3. The measurement values for 9-bus test system.

Measurement Measured Value
Measurement Type
No: No Bad Data One Bad Data
1 V2 1.025 1.025
2 P1 0.7164 0.7164
3 P2 1.63 1.63
4 P3 0.85 0.85
5 P4 0 0
6 P5 -0.90 -0.90
7 P6 0 0
8 P7 -1.00 -1.00
9 P8 0 0
10 P9 -1.25 -1.25
11 Q1 0.2705 0.2705
12 Q2 0.0666 0.0666
13 Q3 -0.1086 -0.1086
14 Q4 0 0
15 Q5 -0.30 0.30
16 Q6 0 0
17 Q7 -0.35 -0.35
18 Q8 0 0
19 Q9 -0.50 -0.50
J(x) 5.52993e-09 39.3249

There are altogether m = 19 measurements which are 1 voltage magnitude measurement, 9

real power injections and 9 reactive power injections. The degree of freedom required for the
chi-square distribution in this case is m – n = 19 – 17 = 2. As a result of a cyber attack, bad
data is generated in the measurement data set. Two of the measurement data sets for this
scenario is that P2 and P3 has been deliberately changed. It is preferred that the threshold value
of the confidence level is high, the value of which is 95%. As a result, the chi-square
distribution value was calculated from the Matlab function and its value was chi2inv(0.95, 2)
= 5.9915.
In the first step (no bad data), because J(x) < 5.9915, it is assumed that there is no bad data in
the measurement data set. In the second case, because the value J(x) = 39.3249 exceeds the
threshold value, it is assumed that there is an bad data in the measurement data set. Indeed,
the measurement has detected the data that was deliberately changed in the data set. If there is
a measurement error or an intervention in the measurement data set by a cyber attack, the Chi-
square test successfully notices this situation.

IV. CONCLUSION
The state estimation results are very important for the monitoring and control of the power
system. Measurement data is needed to make a state estimation. These measurement data
contain some noise error. However, in some cases (e.g. cyber attack), FDI into the
measurement data or large errors occur in the measurement data. Thus, the state estimation
results are negatively affected. Therefore, it is necessary to determine whether there is bad
data in the measurement data set.

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In this study, the Chi-Square (χ2) test method, which is one of the various methods, was used.
In three different test systems, firstly, normal measurements obtained from measuring devices
were used and it was seen that it could not exceed the threshold value for the Chi-Square (χ2)
test. Thus, it was understood that there was no bad data in the measurement data set. In the
latter case, one or two of the measurement data from the measurement data set were
deliberately changed to simulate bad data. In this case, it is seen that J(x) values exceed the p
(confidence level) threshold value in all three different test systems. That is, it was determined
that the measurement data set contains bad data. Finally, the bad data situation, which is an
important issue for the state estimation problem, was successfully detected in this study.
Future studies will continue on identifying and eliminating bad data in the event of a cyber
attack.

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data detection. In 2015 IEEE Eindhoven PowerTech (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
[8] Hagh, M. T., Mahaei, S. M., & Zare, K. (2011). Improving bad data detection in
state estimation of power systems. International Journal of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, 1(2), 85.
[9] Handschin, E., Schweppe, F. C., Kohlas, J., & Fiechter, A. A. F. A. (1975). Bad
data analysis for power system state estimation. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, 94(2), 329-337.
[10] R. E. Kalman, “A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems,”
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[11] R. Gelagaev, P. Vermeyen, and J. Driesen, “State estimation in distribution
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2008, Wollongong, Australia, Sept. 28–Oct. 1, 2008, pp. 1–6.
[12] S. Kamireddy, N.N. Schulz, and A.K. Srivastava, Comparison of state estimation
algorithms for extreme contingencies, in: Power Symposium, 2008. NAPS '08. 40th North
American, 2008, pp. 1–5.

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[13] T. Dhadbanjan, S.S. Kumar Vanjari, Linear programming approach for power
system state estimation using upper bound optimisation techniques, International Journal of
Emerging Electric power systems, vol. 11 (3) (2010) 1–17.
[14] Van Cutsem, T., Ribbens-Pavella, M., & Mili, L. (1985). Bad data identification
methods in power system state estimation-a comparative study. IEEE transactions on power
apparatus and systems, (11), 3037-3049.
[15] Y. Liu, M.K. Reiter, and P. Ning, “False Data Injection Attacks against State
Estimation in Electric Power Grids,” Proc. the 16th ACM Conf. Computer and Comm.
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[16] Y. Liu, P. Ning, and M.K. Reiter, “Generalized False Data Injection Attacks
against State Estimation in Electric Power Grids,” ACM Trans. Information and System
Security, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 13:1-13:32, May 2011.
[17] Zhao, J., & Mili, L. (2017). Robust unscented Kalman filter for power system
dynamic state estimation with unknown noise statistics. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid,
10(2), 1215-1224.

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THE ROLE OF LANDSCAPE LIGHTING FOR URBAN BEAUTY IN

ARCHITECTURE

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ

Department of Technical Vocational School, Bitlis Eren University
ORCID: 0000-0003-3029-3388

Çiğdem CENGİZ
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bitlis Eren University
ORCID: 0000-0002-0010-0795

ABSTRACT
The value of architectural projects increases when the attention paid to the interior and facade
lighting of the buildings is also shown for the natural and artificial environments of these
buildings. Landscape lighting is the lighting that represents both functional lighting and
architectural lighting in architecture. Efficient use of the living environment after dark as well
as during the day is possible with landscape lighting. Evening walks, nocturnal social
activities, the perception of security, and the use of entertainment environments can extend
until late at night with landscape lighting. Landscape lighting within the scope of architectural
lighting is to create a night view that creates an aesthetically comfortable, relaxing effect and
even a romantic atmosphere in a garden where nothing is seen covered with darkness. When
considered as functional lighting, it is the illumination of landscape arrangements in medians
or intersections with landscape lighting methods at night. The correct use of light creates a
landscape that is very different from the landscape seen during the day. Choosing accent and
shading lighting in landscape lighting creates an atmosphere where shrubs, trees, and flower
clusters stand out. In order to create a good landscape design, it is necessary to preserve the
mysterious and surprising effects of the environment and to ensure that the light and shadows
are in harmony. The point to be considered in landscape lighting is to illuminate the elements
in the landscape area in order of importance around a garden or road in the area where
outdoor lighting is applied. While this order of importance may be a centuries-old tree, it may
be an endemic flower garden representing that city or an ambitious garden arrangement. In
other words, applying different lighting solutions according to their importance in order to
add emotion, drama, and beauty to the space makes landscape lighting attractive. For this
purpose, recessed lighting or projector-type lighting fixtures can be used to create accent
lighting that will draw attention to the related landscape elements, and step lights can be used
for secondary road and step lighting. Again, in order to provide functional lighting and
aesthetic lighting together in park-green areas, decorative pole-type lighting elements that
meet the criteria in international standards can be used. Using light only where it is needed,
avoiding very strong misdirected lighting, being sensitive to the environment, not disturbing
drivers with misguided light sources, especially in functional lighting, and using energy-
saving lighting elements provide good landscape lighting. In this way, while indirectly
preventing light pollution, wildlife is protected and their natural ecosystems are respected.
Keywords: Landscape lighting, Urban beautification, Architectural lighting, Functional
lighting, Physical environment control

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1. INTRODUCTION
With the industrialization of cities, the need for nature is increasing, while open green space
systems are gradually decreasing and their connection with people begins to break. People
who are away from nature are left alone with mental, social, and physical problems in a
monotonous life amid the spatial growth brought by urbanization. Urban open green spaces;
make a great contribution to the development of a city in terms of ecology, economy, health,
social and cultural aspects. According to the recreation functions of urban open green space
systems; It can be classified as parks, gardens, children's playgrounds, sports fields, city
parks, groves, and cemeteries. In the open green area system, areas that provide urban park
functions such as rest, entertainment, socialization, and recreation were created as urban green
areas called groves. Today, landscaping works carried out with the aim of using the groves as
a city park within the open green area system should be in a way that will not lead to the
destruction of the grove. The natural texture of these areas, which are common areas of use
for people of different nature, should not be disturbed. The designs should not hinder the
functions of the usage areas.
There are two main points in outdoor lighting. These are lighting for safety and aesthetic
purposes. Paying attention to some basic points and suggestions that should be considered
when using the light factor in landscape works ensures that the project is suitable for its
purpose in terms of both usefulness, aesthetics, and safety. In the illuminated area, the
psychological comfort of the users should be considered together with the perspective of the
plants. While providing lighting, the differences between plant groups and the prominent
qualities of each plant (height, height, form, etc.) should be well evaluated and an
emphasizing effect on the plant should be achieved. While illuminating the plant elements in
the landscape, they should be considered together with all other elements and the lighting
colors should be suitable for the space and the user. The amount of light, that is, weak light,
strong light, or medium light, causes the object to take on different characters, and each offers
different possibilities that affect the message to be conveyed. Not all plants in the area should
be illuminated. Because such an environment causes light pollution. Only hierarchically
important plants should be highlighted. General principles in lighting work in landscape
projects; Using light only where and when it is needed, Being sensitive to the environment by
avoiding too strong and misdirected lighting, Not disturbing drivers with misdirected light
sources, Minimizing electricity consumption by using energy-efficient equipment and
automation systems, Minimizing blue light emissions, Using fully protected luminaires
suitable for outdoor conditions, avoiding light pollution, respecting wildlife and ecosystems.
When choosing a lighting device, its resistance to external conditions should also be
considered. The main lighting products used in landscape lighting can be listed as Lanterns,
Sconces, Pendant lights, Suspended Lights, Recessed Lights, Floodlights, Spots, Road Lights,
Garden Lights, Indoor Lights, Security Lighting, Lanterns, and Sconces. Pendant and
Suspended Lights are low-voltage pendant lighting placed from the ceiling and strung
between trees or the beams of a pergola. They can make a garden fascinating. Recessed
Lights, these lights can be placed inside the eaves that hang from a deck or warehouse door.
Floodlights and Spots can illuminate a driveway, building facade, or a huge area of trees.
Stage lights have a similar structure. However, in combination with a lawn sculpture or shrub,
they offer a narrower beam to highlight a selected object. Path and Garden Lights, these lights
are low voltage lights, they can be used to strip a small pool of light in the direction of
pavement or asphalt.

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In-Ground Lights, these lights are recessed into the ground and protected by a weatherproof
lens. They can be used to illuminate a wall, fence, or tree. Security Lighting, this type of
lighting is usually very bright and is only triggered by motion.

2. LANDSCAPE WITH OPTIMUM LIGHTING

The way to create a good landscape design is to preserve the mysterious and surprising effects
of the environment and to ensure that the light and shadows are in harmony. The best method
to be applied in outdoor lighting is hierarchical lighting. This method is to apply different
lighting solutions according to their importance for different points in order to add emotion,
drama, and beauty to the space. For example, ground recessed or floodlight type luminaires
that will provide strong emphasis for valuable trees or architectural elements, step lights to
illuminate secondary roads and steps, or technical and decorative poles for driveways to
provide functional and aesthetic lighting in boulevards, parks, and green areas. type lighting
elements can be used. Types of lighting fixtures, lumen output, color temperatures, beam
angles, functions, the desired environment to be created, types of plants (height, size, cover
density, structure, shape, color, texture, and location, etc.), and what is desired to be
emphasized. should show. Hierarchical lighting also includes controlling light sources in the
environment for different purposes. Thanks to this hierarchy, which guides the lighting
control plan, various atmospheres can be created and individually controlled. Lighting
automation systems also reduce energy consumption by allowing lighting fixtures to be used
in certain time zones and where necessary. The purpose of a lighting designer when designing
landscape lighting is to create a night scene and meet the needs of people living, working, or
visiting the environment. This night environment created should be a safe, visually
comfortable, and pleasant living space where necessary details can be easily perceived and of
course respectful to the world we live in and all living things. If we look at an example of
optimum landscape lighting, a project in Indonesia stands out as an example of a landscape
arrangement with optimum lighting. Indonesia is known as the second homeland of orchid
species after Brazil. Cikole Orchid Forest was established to promote and protect all orchid
species to Indonesian people and tourists. Cikole Orchid Forest has become a very popular
place in Lembang, offering visitors fresh mountain air, rows of pine trees, and, of course, an
extensive collection of orchids. More than 20,000 orchids from Indonesia, the Philippines,
Peru, and Brazil are found in the forest. To increase the popularity of Cikole, it organizes
some exciting activities such as forest management, trekking, shows, and concerts in the
amphitheater. The forest offers its visitors different views during the day and at night. It is
very enjoyable to watch the colorful orchids and walk among the pine trees during the
daytime. But at night, the forest turns into a fairy tale land. Illuminated by a romantic light
decoration, controlled by sensors, the Garden of Light creates an insatiable light show. The
bridge, which is quite high from the ground, offers a vast view in the dark. The lighting
concept applied in the Cikole Orchid Forest is a very good example of the impressive power
of light. Simple wooden structures have been transformed into dreamlike elements with
uncomplicated lighting elements and the forest into a magical environment. The harmony of
the lighting in the forest with the darkness is seen in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4,
and Figure 5.

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Figure 1. Forest and landscape lighting-I

([Link]
indonesia-orchid-forest-cikole-is-projected-to-be-t/2285069734855193/)

Figure 2. Forest and landscape lighting-II ([Link]

orchid-forest/)

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Figure 3. Forest and landscape lighting-III ([Link]

orchid-forest/)

Figure 4. Forest and landscape lighting-IV ([Link]

orchid-forest/)

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Figure 5. Forest and landscape lighting-V ([Link]

orchid-forest/)

3. CONCLUSIONS
Public spaces are urban spaces where the citizens perform their daily routines or periodic
activities. However, cities have lost their beauty as a result of rapid population growth, intense
migration, and unqualified construction. In this respect, the quality of life of public spaces,
city dwellers, and visitors is adversely affected. Landscape lighting application projects
should be applied to beautify the city. Landscape lighting should be developed for all open
public spaces. For this purpose, improvement or renewal proposals in landscape lighting
should be detailed and lighting plans should be prepared in this regard. A lighting program
should be prepared for the strategy of transforming certain public spaces in the city in terms
of landscape lighting. In this way, it will be possible to beautify the city aesthetically. As a
result, economic vitality will be ensured. An overall design vision is required to guide
construction and management proposals for public spaces and streetscape designs. The units
that will support this vision should be local governments and the public.

REFERENCES
CIE 136–2000, Guide to the lighting of urban areas, 3 August 2000.
Kaşlı, Ö. Tarihi Yarımada’da Öncelikli Aydınlatmalar ve Tarihi Yarımada’nın
İstanbul Siluetine Gece Etkisinin İncelenmesi, Master Thesis, Yıldız Teknik University,
İstanbul, 2007. Şen, Z. İstanbul Boğazı kentsel değerlerinin aydınlatma yönünden incelenmesi
ve öneriler, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Mimarlık Anabilim Dalı,
1997.

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Onaygil, S. Kent İçi Aydınlatma, Ișık Kirliliği ve Karanlık Gökyüzü Sempozyumu, 16

Kasım 2001, Antalya
Öztürk, L. The effect of luminance distribution on interior perception, Archıtectural
Scıence Revıew. 2003. V46, #3, pp. 233–238.
Sağlar, R. V., 1998, Kamusal Mekanlar ve Tasarım İlkeleri-Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
Sirel, Ş. (1997), Aydınlatma Sözlüğü, YEM Yayın, İstanbul
Şerefhanoğlu Sözen, M. Aydınlatma Teknik ve Estetik. Arrademento Mimarlık
Dergisi, 2011. V5, pp. 116.
Şerefhanoğlu, M. (1972), Konutlarda Aydınlatma, Karaca Ofset Basımevi, İstanbul
Şerefhanoğlu, M. (2004) Sözen, Mimari Mekan Oluşumu ve Aydınlatma,
Arredamento, Mimarlık Kültürü Dergisi, No.2004/9, s.91.
Ünver, R., Okutan M. Aydınlatmanın Tasarım, Uygulama, Kullanım Evreleri ve İç
Aydınlatma, Lightworld, 2014. V29, pp. 76-82.

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CONTRIBUTIONS OF CITY LIGHTING TO TOURISM POTENTIAL

Mehmet Sait CENGİZ

Department of Technical Vocational School, Bitlis Eren University
ORCID: 0000-0003-3029-3388

Çiğdem CENGİZ
Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bitlis Eren University
ORCID: 0000-0002-0010-0795

ABSTRACT
It is known that small settlements in various parts of the world have the capacity to attract
more tourists than their own population. In addition, considering that these settlements have a
limited historical, cultural background or natural beauties, it is understood that such intense
tourist visits can only be realized with the implementation of a well-designed project. For
example, Dubai, the project city of the United Arab Emirates, was a simple Arab city in the
middle of the desert under normal conditions, but today it has become a city flooded with
tourists. Dubai is a tourist city that attracts tourists from all over the world. Such a project
approach can be considered for urban lighting. Because in Russia, Europe, and Japan, it is
tried to attract tourists for certain periods with the events related to lighting organized in the
form of festivals. According to the approach here, it is possible to try to attract tourists every
day of the year with the lighting designs to be applied to the whole city. Urban lighting at
night has direct effects on health, culture, safety, and ecology, and indirect effects on the
economy and carbon emissions. Lighting can change the appearance and character of the city
in a positive or negative way. Based on this idea, the economic potential of cities can be
increased by utilizing tourism, which is a candidate to become the world's largest economic
power.
Keywords: Urban lighting, Urban beautification, Tourism, Physical environment control.

1. INTRODUCTION
All lighting other than the interior lighting of the buildings is defined as external lighting and
can be used in important buildings, monuments, squares, parks, roads, etc. It is made for
purposes such as perceiving places such as at night, providing a more emphatic and powerful
life at night, and increasing security. urban lighting; Today, it is not only the lighting of
pedestrian and vehicle traffic roads and squares, which covers safety and security issues, but
also the lighting that makes the city attractive in terms of use and visual appeal, in other
words, that makes the city beautiful. Cities illuminated by daylight during the day are
illuminated by lamps at night to exhibit their beauties, and the lighting itself contributes to
this beauty, providing nightlife in cities, enabling social relations and interactions, and
providing functional, historical, social, aesthetic, and cultural aspects of important and
interesting structures and spaces for the city. It is important in various aspects such as
revealing and emphasizing their importance and meanings, and the contribution of works of
art tonight environments.

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Urban lighting is a very broad field. This area, which can be defined as night lighting of all
open spaces outside the buildings, or simply exterior lighting, is one of the main and
secondary streets in the city; highways, bridges, and tunnels; green areas such as parks,
gardens, and promenades; sea, airports, and shipyards; outdoor sports facilities; residential
zones; public structures representing the state; important commercial buildings and shopping
centers of the city; It includes the illumination of many urban elements that we have not yet
counted, including historical artifacts, monuments, and sculptures.
Good city lighting, which has many benefits, is of great importance, especially in terms of
traffic, security, and recreation. By creating a safe night herd, it contributes to the city's
security by preventing traffic and crimes that can be committed at night. In the recreational
sense; It helps green areas such as parks, gardens, promenade areas, and urban areas, in
general, to be used at night, in short, to continue human activities like day and night. A good
city lighting not only responds to the physiological and functional needs mentioned above but
also appeals to aesthetic feelings by revealing the material and spiritual beauties of the city.
Illumination of the historical, cultural, and natural values of the cities at night creates a lively
and magical atmosphere and attracts the attention of foreigners who come to the city. Thus, it
also contributes to tourism. So much so that, with the right lighting, some cities can be much
more interesting, mysterious, and magnificent at night than during the day, and they remain in
the memories with their night appearances. In particular, tourists can see some urban values at
night that they cannot pay attention to or perceive during the day.
In urban lighting, the night use purposes of the city are very important. Lighting for different
vital functions plays a fundamental role for urban users. Besides, revealing the beauties of the
city at night can make this city attractive for tourists. In the light of all these, urban lighting to
the city; can be said that brings many benefits such as security, orientation, city promotion,
scenery, urban identity, and social interaction.

2. RELATIONSHIP WITH LIGHTING AND TOURISM

The economic growth of the tourism industry supports sustainable urban development
worldwide. Urban lighting can be the most important parameter of revitalizing cities and
creating attraction for local and foreign visitors. With urban lighting, social areas,
monuments, historical buildings, roads, residences, commercial and social facilities can be
made attractive. By increasing the attractiveness of the city with urban lighting and providing
the functional requirements with optimum lighting, the perception of security changes by
itself, and the feeling of being safe increases. Tourists, whose perception of security has
changed positively, spend more time in social activities at night and provide economic vitality
to the city they are in. It is much easier to attract tourists to the city with lighting, to clarify the
entrance-exit and borders of the city, to direct tourists to the city center and other attraction
areas at night, and to create a city silhouette. Because lighting makes this chance possible in
the dark of night. Creating inspiring visuals with light in order to be recognized, attract
visitors, and thus generate economic income can be achieved with lighting. For example, a
beautifully lit palace or a bridge can become a city's center of attraction and contribute to its
recognition. A unique city lighting concept, well-lit historical heritage, and international
lighting organizations enable the development of night tourism.
Light-based events attract people from all over the world to one common place to participate.
The basic idea in tourism is always to facilitate exploration for tourists, to provide an
environment for information exchange and entertainment.

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Tourists share their experiences, visual beauties, and the photos they take with their
surroundings. Today, these shares on social media can be followed by millions of people. In
this way, cities are introduced to large masses, that is, cities are marketed in the literal sense
of the word. As a result, it would be correct to say that cities and their architectural values can
only exist at night with their illumination. For this reason, to create a lighting concept that will
be planned as if writing the life story of the city in accordance with the geographical structure
and culture; It should be the main goal of city administrations in order to reveal historical
riches and natural beauties, to make the city unique and to contribute to the development of
tourism. Lighting design for a city is possible with an economical budget at ultra low cost
compared to construction costs.
According to the results of a study conducted by Era Research & Consultancy in 7
geographical regions and 13 cities, it has been revealed that people living in cities with correct
and adequate lighting have a more peaceful and safe life, and people want bright cities.
According to the results of interviews with more than 1250 people, 94% think that lighting
contributes to beautifying the city, while 97% of the participants believe that the lighting of
prominent buildings that have become the symbol of a city makes that city attractive. The rate
of those who agree that the roads will become safer and the accident rate will decrease with
the city lighting has been determined as 96%. It is understood that the idea that bright cities
increase the quality of life is widespread. 96% of the respondents believe that city lighting has
a positive effect on social life, and 95% believe that city lighting increases their quality of life.
The rate of those who believe that architectural lighting in open areas will contribute to the
local economy is 94%. 94% of the society thinks that lighting a city brings with it a unique
identity and ambiance. 92% of them think that city lightings provide the development of that
city in terms of tourism and increase the number of tourists.
The results of the research show that the buildings symbolized on the basis of provinces are
shown as the most beautifully illuminated structures. In other words, the visual effect of
lighting has been decisive in perception. According to this result, the people living in Istanbul
cited the Bosphorus Bridges as the best-illuminated places, the people of Izmir the Clock
Tower, the people of Bursa, the Red Crescent Square, and the people living in Mardin the
Mardin Castle as an example. Istanbul Bosphorus Bridge is seen in Figure 1, Izmir Clock
Tower in Figure 2, Bursa Ulu Mosque in Figure 3, and Mardin Castle in Figure 4.

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Figure 1. Istanbul Bosphorus Bridge ([Link]

aydinlatmasi-turizmi-etkiliyor/822/)

Figure 2. Izmir Clock Tower ([Link]

kulesi/111)

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Figure 3. Bursa Ulu Mosque ([Link]

[Link])

Figure 4. Mardin Castle ([Link]

aydinlandi-37117580)

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3. CONCLUSIONS
Understanding the characteristics of the item to be illuminated, namely a building, square,
fountain, or sculpture, and emphasizing them effectively is very important in terms of touristic
promotion. Therefore, for example, the lighting of a historical building should reflect the
function, form, and details of the building, in general, its architectural character, and should
not cause disturbance in the environment.
The strong effect of visual perception makes historical or modern buildings the focus of
attention. Illuminated buildings contribute to the tourism sector by creating an attractive
atmosphere for both domestic and foreign tourists or those living in that city.

REFERENCES
Geçioğlu, E. (1997). İstanbul Boğazı Kentsel Değerlerin Aydınlatma Yönünden
İncelenmesi ve Öneriler, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
[Link]
etkiliyor/822/
Kaşlı, Ö. (2007). Tarihi Yarımada da Öncelikli Aydınlatmalar ve Tarihi Yarımada’nın
İstanbul Siluetine Gece Etkisinin İncelenmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yıldız Teknik
Üniversitesi, İstanbul, 13-17.
Lavaei, F. (2014). Ankara Aydınlatma Master Planı Bölgeleme Çalışmalarında
Gençlik Parkı ve Çevresi Bölgesine Yönelik Analiz Çalışması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara, 36-38.
Öztürk, L. The effect of luminance distribution on interior perception, Archıtectural
Scıence Revıew. 2003. V46, #3, pp. 233–238.
Sağlar, R. V., 1998, Kamusal Mekanlar ve Tasarım İlkeleri-Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
Şahin, A. (2011). Kentsel Aydınlatma İlkelerinin Üsküdar Örneğinde İncelenmesi ve
Bir Öneri, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul,
1-33.
Şahin, A. (2011). Kentsel Aydınlatma İlkelerinin Üsküdar Örneğinde İncelenmesi ve
Bir Öneri, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul,
22-25.
Şen, Z. İstanbul Boğazı kentsel değerlerinin aydınlatma yönünden incelenmesi ve
öneriler, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Mimarlık Anabilim Dalı, 1997.
Şerefhanoğlu Sözen, M. (2005). Aydınlatma ile Kent Güzelleştirme ve Etkin Enerji
Kullanım, III. Ulusal Aydınlatma Sempozyumu ve Sergisi Programı, İstanbul.
Şerefhanoğlu Sözen, M., ve Arıcı, P. (1999). İstanbul Aydınlatma Master Planı
Kapsamında Haliç Bölgesi- Dini Yapılar, Yapı Fiziği Kongresi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi,
İstanbul.
Şerefhanoğlu Sözen, M., ve Arifoğlu, N. (1999). İstanbul Aydınlatma Master Planı
Hazırlık Çalışmaları Galata-Pera-Beyoğlu Bölgesi, Yapı Fiziği Kongresi, Yıldız Teknik
Üniversitesi, İstanbul.

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Tuna İ. E. (1994). Sultanahmet Bölgesinin Kent Aydınlatma İlkeleri Yönünden

İncelenmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,
İstanbul, 10.
Ünver, R., Okutan M. Aydınlatmanın Tasarım, Uygulama, Kullanım Evreleri ve İç
Aydınlatma, Lightworld, 2014. V29, pp. 76-82.

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BEBEK BEZİ FABRİKA ARTIKLARININ TEMİZLİK KAĞIDI ÜRETİMİNDE

DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ ÜZERİNE BİR ÇALIŞMA

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Mustafa ÇİÇEKLER

Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, Orman Endüstri Müh. Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0001-5793-2827

Ayşe ÖZDEMİR
Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, Orman Endüstri Müh. Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-0480-3973

Prof. Dr. Ahmet TUTUŞ

Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, Orman Endüstri Müh. Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-2922-4916

ÖZET
Bu çalışma, bebek bezi fabrikalarında oluşan artıkların temizlik kağıtlarının üretiminde
değerlendirilmesini amaçlamıştır. Bebek bezi artıkları özel bir değirmende 0.25 mm
boyutlarında öğütülmüş ve kağıt üretiminde katkı maddesi olarak kullanılmıştır. Kağıt
üretiminde uzun (%30) ve kısa (%70) lifli ağartılmış kağıt hamurları belirli serbestlik
derecesine kadar dövülerek harmanlanmıştır. Dövülmüş hamurlar ve öğütülmüş bebek bezi
artıkları (%5, 10, 15, 20, 25) retansiyon kimyasalı kullanılarak belirli oranlarda karıştırılarak
80 (g.m-2) gramajında test kağıtları üretilmiştir. Üretilen kağıtların kopma, yırtılma ve patlama
mukavemetleri ile beyazlık, parlaklık ve sarılık değerleri belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, temizlik
kağıtlarının önemli özelliklerinden COBB (su emiciliği), Klemm (kapilar yükselme) ve su
emme hız testleri de uygulanmıştır. Üretilen test kağıtlarının mekanik özellikleri ilave edilen
bebek bezi artıklarının katılma oranı arttıkça düşerken optik özellikleri ise artış göstermiştir.
Kağıtların su emiciliği ve kapilar yükselme özellikleri bebek bezi artıklarının katılması ile
sırasıyla %34.5 ve %62.2 oranlarında artarken su emme hızları ise %87.7 oranında azalmıştır.
Sonuç olarak, temizlik kağıdı üretimlerinde belirli oranlarda bebek bezi artıklarının katkı
maddesi olarak kullanılması su emiciliği, kapilar yükselme ve su emme hızı gibi önemli
özelliklerde olumlu etkiler sağlamaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Temizlik kağıdı, bebek bezi artıkları, su emiciliği, su emme hızı, kapilar
yükselme

A STUDY ON THE EVALUATION OF DIAPER MILL RESIDUALS IN TISSUE

PAPER PRODUCTION

ABSTRACT
This study aimed to evaluate the residues formed in diaper factories in the tissue paper
production. Diaper residues were ground to 0.25 mm in a special mill and used as an additive
in paper production. In paper production, long (30%) and short (70%) bleached fibers were
blended and beaten to a certain freeness level. Test papers in 80 (gr/m2) grammage were
produced by blending beaten pulp and ground diaper residues (5, 10, 15, 20, 25) using
retention chemical. Tensile, tear, and burst strengths and whiteness, brightness and yellowness
values of the papers were determined.

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In addition, COBB (water absorbency), Klemm (capillary rise) and water absorption rate tests,
which are important properties of tissue paper, were also applied. The physical properties of
the produced test papers decreased as the addition rate of diaper residues added increased,
while the optical properties increased. With the addition of diaper residues, the water
absorbency and capillary rise properties of the papers increased by 38.1% and 62.2%,
respectively, while their water absorption rate decreased by 87.7%. As a result, the use of
diaper residues at certain rates as an additive in the tissue paper production provides positive
effects on important properties such as water absorbency, capillary rise and water absorption
rate.
Keyword: Tissue paper, diaper residues, water absorbency, capillary rise, water absorption
rate

1. GİRİŞ
Günümüzün her aşamasında farklı fonksiyonlarda kullanılan kağıt, gramajına, üretiminde
kullanılan hammaddesine, fiziksel ve optik özelliklerine göre çeşitli gruplarda
sınıflandırılabilmektedir. Bu sınıflandırma genel olarak, yazı-tabı kağıdı, sargılık kağıtlar,
kraft torba ve çimento kağıtları, özel kağıtlar (sigara kağıdı vb.), oluklu mukavva kağıtları,
kartonlar ve temizlik kağıtları olarak belirtilebilmektedir (Eroğlu ve Usta, 2004). Kağıt
üretiminde hammadde olarak odun, yıllık bitki ve atık kağıtlar değerlendirilmektedir. Bu
hammaddelerden selüloz lifleri üretilerek kağıt üretiminde bu lifler ile birlikte bazı dolgu ve
katkı maddeleri kullanılmaktadır (Eroğlu, 1982; Tutuş, 2000; Akgül, 1997).
Temizlik kağıtları düşük gramajlarda üretilen tuvalet kağıdı, kağıt havlu, peçete, mendil gibi
kağıt çeşitlerini ifade etmektedir (Paulapuro, 2000). Temizlik kağıdı üretiminde hammadde
olarak %45-50 odun, %40-50 atık kağıt, %2-3 diğer malzemeler kullanılmaktadır. Dünya
temizlik kağıdı üretimi 2019 yılında yaklaşık 35 milyon ton olup Türkiye’de ise yaklaşık 1
milyon tondur (FAO, 2021). Ülkemizde temizlik kağıdı tüketim miktarı ise yaklaşık 125 bin
tondur (SKSV, 2020). Bu veriler doğrultusunda ülkemiz üretilen temizlik kağıtlarının büyük
bir kısmını ihraç etmektedir.
Temizlik kağıtlarında aranan özelliklerden en önemlisi sıvılara karşı göstermiş olduğu
niteliklerdir. Su tutma kapasitesi, su emme hızı ve kapilar yükselme gibi özellikler temizlik
kağıdının kalitesi üzerinde önemli etmenlerdir (Tutus ve ark., 2016). Ayrıca, kopma, patlama,
yırtılma mukavemetleri ile optik özellikleri de kalite üzerinde etkilidir. Bu nedenle,
bahsedilen özellikleri iyileştirme üzerine birçok çalışma yapılmaktadır (Terrazas ve ark.,
2010; Tao ve ark., 2018; Stankovská ve ark., 2020). Temizlik kağıtlarının normal kağıtlara
göre hacimli olması krepleme işlemiyle sağlanmaktadır. Hacimli kağıtların su tutma
kapasitesi artarken direnç özellikleri azalmaktadır (Ismail ve ark., 2020).
Bebek bezleri, bebeklerin dışkılarını ve idrarını bünyesine alarak kıyafetlerinin kirlenmesini
engelleyen, bebeğin kuru, temiz ve konforlu hissetmesini sağlayan kumaş ya da kullan-at
maddelerden yapılmış iç çamaşırıdır (Adam, 2008). Bebek bezi bileşenleri; üst tabaka,
dağıtıcı tabaka, örtücü kumaş tabaka, emici tabaka (selülozik tabaka ve hidrofil süper emici
polimerler (SAP)), arka tabaka, yapıştırıcılar, lastikler, yan bantlar ve ön bant, üst tabakaya
eklenen losyonlar ve dekoratif dış tabaka olarak sıralanmaktadır (Uyanık ve Duru-Baykal,
2016; Gündüz, 2018). Emici tabaka, idrarın depolandığı katman olup modern bebek bezinde
anahtar bileşendir. Modern bebek bezlerinde bu tabakada odun hamuru gibi fibrilleştirilmiş
materyal ve hidrofil süper emici polimerler (SAP) olmak üzere iki ana bileşen vardır. İlk
zamanlarda bebek bezi üretiminde %100 odun hamuru (çam) kullanılmıştır.

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Bebek bezi üretiminde kullanılan elyafın (lifin) uzunluğu yaklaşık 2.6 mm’dir. Selülozik
tabakayı oluşturan lifler bebek bezini oluşturan bileşenlerin %35’ini oluşturur. Süper emici
malzemeler (SAP), hijyen ve kişisel bakım ürünlerinde cildi kuru tutmak amacıyla kullanılan,
kendi ağırlığının 100-200 katına kadar sıvıyı içerisine hapseden polimer esaslı malzemelerdir
(Castrillon ve ark., 2019).
Emici tabakada kullanılan selüloz lifleri özel bir işlemden geçirilerek hacmi ve su tutma
kapasiteleri artırılmaktadır (Hong ve ark., 2005). Ancak, bu işlem sonucundan selüloz lifleri
özellikle kağıt üretiminde değerlendirilememektedir. Yapılan işlemler sonucunda selülozların
lif-lif bağ yapma yetenekleri ortadan kaldırılmaktadır. Bu nedenle, bebek bezi fabrikalarının
emici tabaka artıkları farklı sektörlerde değerlendirilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, bebek bezi
fabrikalarındaki emici tabaka artıklarının temizlik kağıdı üretiminde değerlendirilmesi ve
temizlik kağıtların bazı önemli özellikleri üzerine etkileri araştırılmıştır.

2. MATERYAL VE METOT
2.1. Materyal
Çalışmada katkı maddesi olarak kullanılan selüloz ve süper emici malzemelerden (SAP)
oluşan bebek bezi artıkları (BBA), Gaziantep’te bebek bezi üretimi gerçekleştiren bir
firmadan temin edilmiştir. Temizlik kağıdı üretiminde kullanılan ağartılmış kısa ve uzun lifli
odun selülozları ise Konya Kağıt San. ve Tic. A.Şti’nden alınmıştır.

2.2. Temizlik kağıdı üretimi

Selüloz ve SAP içeren bebek bezi artıkları IKA marka öğütücüde 200-250 mikron
boyutlarında öğütülmüştür. Uzun ve kısa lifli ağartılmış selülozlar sırasıyla %30 ve %70
oranlarında harmanlanarak serbestlik derecesi 35 SR° olacak şekilde laboratuvar tipi
Hollander cihazında dövülmüştür. Ağartılmış selüloz ve bebek bezi artıkları (BBA) aşağıda
Tablo 1’de verilen oranlarda karıştırılarak temizlik kağıdı üretimi gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Tablo 1. Temizlik kağıdı üretiminde kullanılan selüloz ve bebek bezi artıkları oranları
Karışım Ağartılmış Selüloz Oranı Bebek Bezi Artık Oranı
No (%) (%)
1 100 -
2 95 5
3 90 10
4 85 15
5 80 20
6 75 25

BBA tutunumunun sağlanması için retansiyon maddesi olarak poliakrilamid (PAM)

kullanılmıştır. Her bir karışımdan Rapid Kothen marka kağıt makinesinde ISO 5269-2
standardına göre 80 gramajlarında (g.m-2) test kağıtları üretilmiştir.

2.3. Temizlik kağıdı testleri

Odun selülozları ve BBA karışımından üretilen temizlik kağıtları aşağıda Tablo 2’de verilen
testlere ilgili standartlara göre tabi tutulmuştur.

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Tablo 2. Temizlik kağıtlarına uygulanan testler ve standartları

Testler Standartlar
Kopma Uzunluğu (km) TAPPI T494
Patlama İndisi (kPa.m2.g-1) TAPPI T403
Yırtılma İndisi (mN.m2.g-
1 TAPPI T414
)
COBB (g.m-2) TAPPI T441
Su Emme Hızı (saniye) ISO 12625-8
Kapilar Yükselme (mm) ISO 8787
Beyazlık (%ISO) ISO 11475
Parlaklık (%ISO) ISO 2470
Sarılık (E313) ASTM E313
Opaklık (%) TAPPI T519

Tablo 2’de belirtilen testler her bir karışım oranı için en az üç tekrarlanmış ve elde edilen
verilere varyans analizi ve karışım oranlarının temizlik kağıtlarının bu özelliklerine etkisini
gösteren Duncan testi uygulanmıştır.

3. BULGULAR VE TARTIŞMA
Aşağıda Tablo 3’te farklı oranlarda BBA ile karıştırılarak üretilen temizlik kağıtlarına ait bazı
mekanik ve fiziksel özellikler verilmiştir.

Tablo 3. BBA ile odun selülozlarından belirli oranlarda karıştırılarak üretilen temizlik
kağıtlarının bazı mekanik ve fiziksel özellikleri
Patlama Yırtılma Su
Kopma Kapilar
Karışım İndisi İndisi COBB60 Emme
Uzunluğu Yükselme
No (kPa.m2.g- (mN.m2.g- (g.m-2) Hızı
(km) 1) 1) (mm)
(saniye)
1 5.93a 3.41a 6.36a 139f 45f 43.2f
2 4.74b 2.64b 5.19bc 145e 52e 36.8e
c c ab d d
3 4.15 2.41 5.74 160 60 20.1d
4 3.72d 2.13d 5.26bc 162c 63c 12.6c
e e c b b
5 3.11 1.85 5.05 169 75 6.78b
6 2.92e 1.52f 3.90d 187a 73a 5.30a
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
*Aynı harflerle verilen ortalama değerler arasında Duncan testine göre önemli derecede
farklılıklar bulunmamaktadır.

Temizlik kağıdı üretiminde katkı maddesi olarak kullanılan BBA oranı arttıkça kağıdın
mekanik özelliklerinden kopma, patlama ve yırtılma mukavemetlerinde düşüşler meydana
gelmiştir. BBA %25 oranında temizlik kağıdında kullanıldığında kopma uzunluğu, patlama ve
yırtılma indisleri sırasıyla %50.8, %55.4 ve %38.7 oranlarında azalmıştır. BBA su tutma
kapasiteleri yüksek malzemeler olup yapılan özel işlemler sonucunda lif-lif bağlanma
potansiyelleri oldukça düşüktür. Kağıtların mukavemet özellikleri genellikle lif boyutları,
parametreleri, lif-lif bağlanma potansiyellerine bağlıdır (Zhai ve Zhou., 2014).

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Temizlik kağıdı üretiminde katkı maddesi olarak kullanılan BBA özellikle liflerin birbirleriyle
bağlanma sayılarını düşürdüğü için olumsuz yönde etkilediği için üretilen kağıtların mekanik
özelliklerinde düşüşler olmuştur (Şekil 1).

Şekil 1. Temizlik kağıdında BBA kullanım oranlarının bazı mekanik özellikler üzerine etkileri
Temizlik kağıtlarından istenen en önemli özelliklerden su tutma kapasitesi (COBB), kapilar
yükselme ve su emme hızı değerleri Tablo 3’te görüldüğü gibi BBA katılım oranı arttıkça
iyileşmiştir. BBA’nın %25 oranında temizlik kağıdı üretiminde kullanılması ile COBB ve
kapilar yükselme değerleri sırasıyla %34.5 ve %62.2 artarken su emme hızı değerleri ise
%87.7 oranlarında azalmıştır. COBB değeri bahsedildiği üzere kağıtların su tutma
kapasitesinin bir göstergesi olup, BBA’nda bulunan kabartılmış (fluffy) selülozlar ve SAP’ler
üretilen temizlik kağıtlarının COBB değerlerini oldukça artırmıştır (Castrillon ve ark., 2019;
Uyanık ve Duru-Baykal, 2016). Su emme hızları ve kapilar yükselme değerleri COBB
değerlerinde olduğu gibi kullanılan BBA oranı arttıkça olumlu yönde etkilenmiştir (Şekil 2).

Şekil 2. Temizlik kağıdında BBA kullanım oranlarının bazı fiziksel özellikler üzerine etkileri
Aşağıda Tablo 4’te odun selülozlarına belirli oranlarda BBA katılarak üretilen temizlik
kağıtlarına ait bazı optik özellikler verilmiştir.

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Tablo 4. BBA ve odun selülozları karışımlarından üretilen temizlik kağıtlarının bazı optik
özellikleri
Karışım Beyazlık Parlaklık Sarılık Opaklık
No (%ISO) (%ISO) (E313) (%)
BBA 84.01 73.65 16.4 **
c a a
1 78.66 75.66 5.29 92.43b
2 78.68c 75.27b 6.17b 92.26b
3 78.69c 75.21b 6.68c 93.09a
b b c
4 79.00 75.20 6.72 93.07a
5 79.22a 75.19b 6.79c 93.17a
a b c
6 79.30 75.12 6.81 93.29a
Sig. .000 .004 .000 .000

*Aynı harflerle verilen ortalama değerler arasında Duncan testine göre önemli derecede
farklılıklar bulunmamaktadır.
**Bebek bezi artıklarından kağıt üretimi gerçekleştirilemediği için opaklık değerleri tespit
edilememiştir.
Çalışmada kullanılan BBA optik özelliklerinden beyazlık değeri odun selülozundan yüksek
olduğu için temizlik kağıdı üretiminde BBA kullanım oranı arttıkça üretilen temizlik
kağıtlarının beyazlık değerleri de artış göstermiştir. Aynı durum parlaklık değeri için de
geçerli olup beyazlık değerinin aksine BBA parlaklık değerleri odun selülozuna nazaran
düşük olduğu için BBA katılım oranı arttıkça parlaklık değerleri düşmüştür (Şekil 3).

Şekil 3. Temizlik kağıdında BBA kullanım oranlarının bazı optik özellikler üzerine etkileri
Kağıt sektöründe optik özelliklerden sarılık değerinin genel olarak düşük olması
istenmektedir (Bajpai, 2015). BBA’nın sarılık değerleri 16.4 iken odun selüloz ile
karıştırıldığında bu değerler olumlu yönde değişerek düşüş göstermiştir. Temizlik kağıtların
opaklık değerleri ise BBA kullanım oranındaki artışa paralel olarak artmıştır. Üretilen
temizlik kağıtlarının optik özellikleri kullanılan BBA oranına paralel olarak iyileşmiştir.

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4. SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER
Bu çalışmada bebek bezlerinin emici tabaka artık kısımları temizlik kağıdı üretiminde
değerlendirilmiş ve kağıtların bazı özellikleri üzerine etkileri incelenmiştir. Çalışma
sonucunda temizlik kağıdı üretiminde SAP ve selüloz tabaka içeren BBA’nın öğütülerek
belirli oranlarda temizlik kağıdı üretiminde katkı madde olarak kullanılmasıyla su tutma
kapasite (COBB), kapilar yükselme ve su emme hızı özellikleri önemli derecede iyileşmiştir.
Ancak, BBA lif-lif bağ sayılarında azalmaya neden olduğu için kopma ve patlama
mukavemetlerinde düşüşler meydana gelmiştir. Üretilen temizlik kağıtlarının optik
özelliklerinden beyazlık ve opaklık değerleri BBA kullanımı ile artış gösterirken sarılık ve
parlaklık değerleri BBA’nın düşük değerlere sahip olmasından dolaya azalış göstermiştir.
Ancak bu azalmalar kayda değer bir azalma değildir. Sonuç olarak, temizlik kağıdı üretiminde
BBA’nın katkı maddesi olarak kullanılması COBB, kapilar yükselme ve su emme hızı gibi
istenen özellikleri önemli derecede iyileştirmektedir. Temizlik kağıtlarının mekanik
özelliklerindeki düşüşler kullanılan BBA oranı optimum düzeyde tutularak istenilen
değerlerde tutulabilir.

4. TEŞEKKÜR
Bu çalışma, “YÖK 100/2000 Doktora Programı” ve “TÜBİTAK 2244-Sanayi Doktora
Programı” kapsamında hazırlanmıştır. Yazarlar vermiş oldukları desteklerden dolayı YÖK ve
TÜBİTAK’a teşekkür eder.

5. KAYNAKLAR
Adam, R., 2008. Skin care of the diaper area. Pediatric dermatology, 25(4), 427-433.
Akgül, M., 1997. Buğday (Triticum aestivum L.) Saplarından Organosolv Yöntemle
Kağıt Hamuru Üretim Koşullarının Belirlenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, KTÜ Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, Trabzon.
Bajpai, P., 2015. Pulp and paper industry: Chemicals. Elsevier.
Castrillon, N., Echeverria, M., Fu, H., Roy, A., Toombs, J., 2019. Super absorbent
polymer replacement for disposable baby diapers. Technical Report for ME223 Commodity
Polymer Project I: University of California, Berkeley.
Eroğlu, H, 1982. Kağıt Fabrikasyonu Ders Notları. KTÜ, Orman Fakültesi, Yayın No:
29, s. 151.
Eroğlu, H., Usta, M., 2004. Kağıt ve Karton Üretim Teknolojisi Ders Kitabı. Esen
Ofset Matbaacılık, Trabzon.
FAO, 2021. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT
statistics database, erişim: [Link]
Gündüz, E. O., 2018. Bebek Bezlerinin Performansını Etkileyen Özelliklerin
Araştırılması Ve Performans Özelliklerinin Karşılaştırılması. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Denizli.
Hong, K.H., Kim, S.C., Kang, T. J., Oh, K.W., 2005. Effect of abrasion and absorbed
water on the handle of nonwovens for disposable diapers. Textile research journal, 75(7), 544-
550.
Ismail, M. Y., Patanen, M., Kauppinen, S., Kosonen, H., Ristolainen, M., Hall, S. A.,
Liimatainen, H., 2020. Surface analysis of tissue paper using laser scanning confocal
microscopy and micro-computed topography. Cellulose, 27(15), 8989-9003.

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Paulapuro, H., 2000. Paper and Board grades. Papermaking Science and Technology:
Fapet Oy. pp. 75–92, Finland.
SKSV, 2020. Selüloz ve Kağıt Sanayii Vakfı, Yıllık Sektör Raporları, İstanbul.
Stankovská, M., Gigac, J., Fišerová, M., Opálená, E., 2020. Blending impact of
hardwood pulps with softwood pulp on tissue paper properties. Wood Res, 65, 447-458.
Tao, J., Long, X., Li, Z., Ying, G., 2018. Reusing tissue paper mill effluent water as
corrugated paper mill intake water: Case study of a new clean production measure.
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 37(3), 934-941.
Terrazas, E., Vázquez, A., Briones, R., Lázaro, I., Rodríguez, I., 2010. EC treatment
for reuse of tissue paper wastewater: Aspects that affect energy consumption. Journal of
Hazardous Materials, 181(1-3), 809-816.
Tutus, A., Cicekler, M., Cali, A., 2016. Tissue papers in Turkey and some physical
and optical properties. Süleyman Demirel University Journal of Natural and Applied
Sciences, 20(1): 98-102.
Tutuş, A., 2000. Buğday (Triticum aestivum L.) Saplarından Kağıt Hamuru
Üretiminde Kullanılan Soda-Oksijen, Soda-Antrakinon ve Soda Yöntemlerinin Silis Problemi
ve Diğer Yönlerden Araştırılması, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, Bartın.
Uyanık, S., Duru-Baykal, P., 2016. Bebek Bezi Üretimi. Çukurova Üniversitesi
Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 31(2): 327-341.
Zhai, R., Zhou, X., 2014. Enhanced effect of NaOH/Thiourea/Urea aqueous solution
on paper strength of high yield pulp. Bioresources, 9(2):2154-2166.

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P-ANA DAĞITIM ÜSSÜ MEDYAN PROBLEMİNİN ÇÖZÜMÜ İÇİN HIZLI YAPAY

ARI KOLONİSİ ALGORİTMASI

Betül YILDIRIM
Nuh Naci Yazgan Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Endüstri Mühendisliği Bölümü
Erciyes Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Endüstri Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-0177-6540

Latife GÖRKEMLİ AYKUT

Erciyes Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Endüstri Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-8233-237X

ÖZET
Ana dağıtım üsleri (ADÜ), varlıkların kaynak noktalarından varış noktalarına daha az bağlantı
ve daha düşük maliyetle hareket ettirilmesini sağlayan merkezlerdir. Günümüzde hava yolu
taşımacılığı, telekomünikasyon sistemleri, lojistik sistemleri gibi birçok alanda rekabetin
artmasıyla ana dağıtım üssü yerleşim problemlerini etkin bir şekilde çözmek önem
kazanmıştır. Bu tür problemlerin çözümünde, ana dağıtım üslerinin en uygun şekilde
konumlandırılması ve kaynak ve hedef noktalarının bu üslere en uygun şekilde atanması
gerekmektedir. Ana dağıtım üssü problemleri kaynak noktalarının bağlandığı ana dağıtım
üssü sayısına göre tek atamalı veya çok atamalı problemler olarak ayrılmaktadır. Bu
çalışmada, NP-zor türünde olan kapasite kısıtı olmayan-çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan problemi
ele alınmıştır. Ele alınan bu problem türü için literatürde yer alan çalışmalarda genetik
algoritma, karınca kolonisi algoritması, tabu arama algoritması gibi algoritmalar
kullanılmıştır. Bu çalışmada ise birçok optimizasyon probleminde iyi sonuçlar veren yapay arı
kolonisi algoritmasının farklı ve etkili bir versiyonu olan hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması
(qABC) ele alınan probleme uyarlanmıştır. Yapay arı kolonisi algoritması sürekli
optimizasyon problemlerinin çözümü için geliştirilen bir algoritma olup, kesikli problemlerde
de iyi sonuçlar vermektedir. Bu algoritmada, işçi ve gözcü arı fazlarındaki komşuluk
aramaları benzer şekilde yapılmaktadır. Hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasında ise gözcü arı
fazında komşuluk araması farklılaştırılmış ve algoritmanın iyi çözüme yakınsama hızı
arttırılmıştır. Öncelikle algoritma ana dağıtım üssü probleminin kesikli yapısı ve özellikleri
gözetilerek probleme uygun hale getirilmiştir. Daha sonra algoritmanın performansı
literatürde ana dağıtım üssü problemlerinin çözümü için sıkça kullanılan veri setleri ile test
edilmiş, standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritması sonuçları ile karşılaştırılarak etkinliği
gösterilmiştir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Ana dağıtım üssü problemi, yapay arı kolonisi algoritması, hızlı yapay
arı kolonisi algoritması

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A QUICK ARTIFICIAL BEE COLONY ALGORITHM FOR P-HUB MEDIAN

PROBLEM

ABSTRACT
Hubs are the centers that enable the assets to be moved from source points to destination
points with less connection and lower costs. Today, with the increasing competition in many
fields such as air transportation, telecommunication systems and logistics systems, it has
become important to solve the hub location problems effectively. In the solution of such
problems, the hubs should be located in the most appropriate way and the source and
destination points should be assigned to these hubs in the most appropriate way. The hub
location problems are divided into single assignment or multi-assignment problems according
to the number of hubs to which the source points are connected. In this study, the NP-hard
type uncapacitated-multiple allocation p-hub median problem is discussed. Algorithms such
as genetic algorithm, ant colony algorithm, tabu search algorithm have been used in the
studies in the literature for this problem type. In this study, the quick artificial bee colony
algorithm (qABC), which is a different and effective version of the artificial bee colony
algorithm, which gives good results in many optimization problems, is adapted to the
problem. Artificial bee colony algorithm is an algorithm developed for the solution of
continuous optimization problems and gives good results in discrete problems. In this
algorithm, neighborhood searches in worker and onlooker bee phases are performed similarly.
In the quick artificial bee colony algorithm, the neighborhood search in the onlooker bee
phase is differentiated and the speed of convergence of the algorithm to the good solution is
increased. First of all, the algorithm has been adapted to the problem by considering the
discrete structure and features of the hub location problem. Then the performance of the
algorithm has been tested with data sets frequently used in the literature for the solution of
hub location problems, and its effectiveness has been demonstrated by comparing it with the
results of the standard artificial bee colony algorithm.
Keywords: Hub location problem, artificial bee colony algorithm, quick artificial bee colony
algorithm

1. GİRİŞ
Ana dağıtım üssü yerleşim problemleri herhangi bir varlığın bir yerden başka bir yere
taşınmasını ele almaktadır. Varlığın kaynak noktasından hedef noktasına hareketi sırasında bu
iki noktanın direkt olarak birbirine bağlanması yerine daha az bağlantı ve daha düşük
maliyetle aktarım yapılmasını sağlayan nokta ana dağıtım üssüdür. Günlük hayatta karşımıza
çıkan posta dağıtım sistemi problemleri, havayolu taşımacılığı sistemi problemleri,
telekomünikasyon problemleri ADÜ problemlerine verilecek örneklerden sadece birkaç
tanesidir. Verilen bir ağ yapısında bulunan ve düğüm olarak adlandırılan noktalar arasındaki
aktarımlarda toplam taşıma maliyetini veya taşıma süresini en aza indirmek amaçlanmaktadır.
ADÜ’ler kullanılmadığı zaman yapılan aktarımlarda katlanılan maliyetler ADÜ’ler
kullanıldığında katlanılan maliyetlerden daha fazla olmaktadır. Bu problem türlerinde eğer her
bir düğüm sadece bir düğüme atanabiliyorsa tek atamalı ADÜ yerleşim problemi, her bir
düğüm birden fazla ana dağıtım üssüne atanabiliyorsa, bu problem çok atamalı ADÜ yerleşim
problemi olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Ayrıca, ana dağıtım üslerinin veya bağlantı yollarının
kapasite kısıtı olup olmama durumlarına göre de problem türlerinde ayrımlar yapılmaktadır.

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ADÜ yerleşim problemleriyle ilgili literatürde üç varsayım mevcuttur (Alumur ve Kara,

2008):
 Ana dağıtım üsleri arasında direkt bağlantı olması,
 Ağdaki akışlarda ölçek ekonomilerinden faydalanılması,
 İki talep noktası arasında ana dağıtım üssü yoksa direkt bağlantı olmamasıdır.

ADÜ yerleşim problemleri son yıllarda sıkça çalışmalara konu olmuştur. Problemin çözümü
için yapılan ilk çalışmalar matematiksel model geliştirme üzerinedir. Bunun yanında problem
çözümü için karınca kolonisi, tabu arama algoritması, genetik algoritma gibi pek çok
algoritmanın geliştirildiği çalışmalar da mevcuttur. Bu çalışmada, kapasite kısıtı olmayan-çok
atamalı p-ADÜ medyan problemlerinin çözümünde hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması
(qABC) kullanılmıştır. Yapay arı kolonisi algoritması doğadaki arı kolonilerinin besin arama
davranışlarından esinlenilerek geliştirilmiştir. Yapay arı kolonisi algoritması, optimizasyon
problemlerini çözmekte sıkça kullanılmaktadır (Akyol ve Alataş, 2012). Hızlı yapay arı
kolonisi algoritması ise yerel arama davranışının daha etkin bir şekilde geliştirilmesiyle ortaya
çıkmış bir algoritmadır. Standart yapay arı kolonisinde işçi ve gözcü arıların komşuluk
aramalarında aynı yaklaşımın kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Bu durum değerlendirilip, gözcü
arının komşuluk arama stratejisi daha etkin hale getirilmiş, bu nedenle geliştirilen yaklaşıma
hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması adı verilmiştir (Karaboğa ve Görkemli, 2014). Bu
çalışmada, kapasite kısıtı olmayan-çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan problemine daha etkin
çözümler elde etmek amacıyla başarılı komşuluk arama stratejisi ile ön plana çıkan hızlı
yapay arı kolonisi algoritması kullanılmıştır. Söz konusu problemin çözümünde ABC ve
qABC algoritmalarının performansları birbirleri ile kıyaslanmıştır. Sonuç olarak her iki
algoritmanın da iyi performans gösterdiği ancak hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasının
optimum çözümleri yakalama noktasında daha başarılı olduğu gösterilmiştir.

1.1. Literatür Taraması

Ana dağıtım üssü problemleriyle ilgili yapılan çalışmaların temelini 1969’da Goldman
tarafından yapılan çalışmanın oluşturduğu kabul edilmektedir. Bu çalışmada bir şebeke
üzerinde n adet merkezin, toplam taşıma maliyetini en aza indirecek şekilde
konumlandırılması ele alınmıştır (Goldman, 1969). ADÜ yerleşim problemiyle ilgili ilk
çalışma ise 1986 yılında O’Kelly tarafından ortaya konulmuştur. Çalışmada bir ve iki
ADÜ’lü problem çözümü için matematiksel model geliştirme üzerinde durulmuştur (O’Kelly,
1986). ADÜ yerleşim problemleri p-ADÜ medyan problemi, p-ADÜ merkez problemi, ADÜ
kapsama problemi ve sabit maliyetli ADÜ yerleşim problemi olarak gruplandırılmaktadır.
Çalışmamızda ele aldığımız p-ADÜ medyan problemlerinde, n adet düğümün olduğu bir ağ
üzerinde açılacak ana dağıtım üssü sayısı başlangıçta p adet olarak belirlenir. Amaç, ana
dağıtım üssü olmayan düğümler arasında direkt geçişe müsaade etmeden, toplam taşıma
maliyetlerini en küçüklemektir. Kapasite kısıtı olmayan çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan
problemlerinin çözümü için doğrusal tam sayılı matematiksel model ilk olarak Campbell
(1992) tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Campbell daha sonra çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan
problemlerinde akış eşik değerleri ve bağlantı hatları için sabit maliyetlerin bulunduğu
matematiksel model geliştirmiştir (Campbell, 1994). Daha sonra Skorin- Kapov, Skorin-
Kapov ve O’Kelly (1996), doğrusal programlama (LP) gevşetmesini uyguladıkları yeni karma
tam sayılı model geliştirmişlerdir.

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Konuyla ilgili yapılan sezgisellere dayalı çalışmalara baktığımızda, Ernst ve Krishnamoorthy

(1998), kapasite kısıtı olmayan p-ADÜ medyan problemlerinin çözümü için en kısa yol
tabanlı algoritma geliştirmişlerdir. Yazarlar amaç fonksiyonu değerini geliştirilmiş Floyd-
Warshall algoritması kullanarak elde etmişlerdir. Sohn ve Park (1998) da çalışmalarında çok
atamalı p-ADÜ medyan problemlerinin çözümü için en kısa yol tabanlı Floyd-Warshall
algoritması önermişlerdir. Ayrıca önerdikleri algoritmayı 4’ü ana dağıtım üssü olan 25
düğümlü bir örnekte denemişler ve açılacak ADÜ sayısının küçük olduğu durumlarda
algoritmanın etkin bir şekilde çalıştığını göstermişlerdir. Kratica (2013) çok atamalı
kapasitesiz p-ADÜ medyan probleminin çözümü için elektromanyetizma tabanlı bir algoritma
geliştirmiştir. Bu algoritmada çözümler arasında çekme-itme mekanizması bulunmaktadır.
Algoritmanın performansı Stanimirovic (2008) ve Milanovic (2010) tarafından genetik
algoritmayla elde edilen sonuçlarla kıyaslanmıştır. Karşılaştırma sonucunda Kratica
tarafından geliştirilen algoritmanın daha önce bilinen tüm en uygun çözümlere ulaştığı ve
büyük problemlerde de başarılı sonuçlar elde ettiği görülmüştür. Parvaresh, Golpayegang,
Husseini ve Karimi (2013) ise iki seviyeli karma tam sayılı bir oyun modeli tasarlamışlardır.
Modelde sistemin verimliliğini arttıracak şekilde en önemli ana dağıtım üslerinin belirlenmesi
amaçlanmaktadır. Modelin çözümü için tavlama benzetimi algoritması kullanılmıştır. Talbi ve
Todosijevic (2017) çalışmalarında kapasite kısıtı olmayan çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan
problemlerinde düğümler arası akışta meydana gelebilecek belirsizliklere karşı çeşitli yollar
önermişlerdir. Problemin çözümü için bu belirsizlikleri göz önüne alarak değişken komşuluk
araması algoritması geliştirmişlerdir. Kibiroğlu, Serarslan ve Topcu (2019) ise belirli bir ana
dağıtım üstünde toplanan gönderi miktarının çok fazla olduğu durumu düşünerek, maliyet
fonksiyonuna ceza maliyeti ekleyerek, parçacık sürü optimizasyonu algoritmasıyla çözüm
elde etmişlerdir. Yıldırım ve Görkemli (2019) ise çok atamalı, kapasite kısıtı olmayan ana
dağıtım üssü problemini yapay arı kolonisi algoritması ile çözmüşlerdir. Bu çalışmada,
algoritmanın işçi arı ve gözcü arı fazları için farklı komşuluk arama yaklaşımları geliştirilerek,
bu yaklaşımların performansları birbirleriyle kıyaslanmıştır.
Yukarıda verilen çalışmalara bakıldığında ADÜ yerleşim problemlerinin bir türü olan
kapasite kısıtı olmayan-çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan problemiyle ilgili pek çok çalışmanın
yapıldığı görülmektedir. Etkin komşuluk arama yapısıyla dikkat çeken çalışmamızda, yapay
arı kolonisi algoritmasının farklı bir versiyonu olan hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması
(qABC) p-ADÜ medyan problemine uyarlanmıştır. Geliştirilen algoritmanın, yazarların daha
önce farklı komşuluk arama stratejileri ile dikkate aldıkları standart yapay arı kolonisi
algoritmasına göre daha etkin sonuçlar verdiği tespit edilmiştir. Algoritmaların performansları
literatürde sıkça kullanılan CAB (Civil Aeronautics Board) veri seti ile test edilmiştir.

2. ARAŞTIRMA VE BULGULAR
2.1. Problemin Tanımı

yapısında, verilen bir ağ üzerinde C adet düğüm bulunmaktadır. Düğümler arasındaki uzaklık
Bu çalışmada çok atamalı-kapasitesiz p-ADÜ medyan problemi ele alınmıştır. Bu problem

D E (F . düğümden G. düğüme uzaklık), akışlar H E (F. düğümden G. düğüme akış) olarak ifade
edilmektedir. Düğümler arası aktarımlarda katlanılan üç tür maliyet bulunmaktadır. Bunlar;
kaynak düğümü ve ADÜ arasındaki toplama maliyeti; ana dağıtım üsleri arasındaki transfer
maliyeti ve ADÜ ve varış düğümü arasındaki dağıtım maliyetidir. Amaç bu üç maliyetin
toplamını en aza indirmektir. Düğümler arasında ADÜ olmadan direkt geçişe müsaade
edilmemektedir.

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Düğümler arasındaki aktarımlar aşağıdaki şekillerde gerçekleşebilmektedir:

 ADÜ olmayan bir düğümden ADÜ olmayan düğüme (arada en az 1 ADÜ olmak şartıyla),
 ADÜ olan düğümden ADÜ olan düğüme,
 ADÜ olmayan bir düğümden ADÜ olan düğüme,
 ADÜ olan düğümden ADÜ olmayan düğüme.
Literatür çalışması bölümünde bahsedildiği gibi problemi çözmek için birçok matematiksel

geliştirilen karma tam sayılı doğrusal programlama modeli dikkate alınmıştır. F kaynak
model geliştirilmiştir. Çalışmamızda Boland, Krishnamoorty, Ernst, Ebery (2004) tarafından

düğümü, I ve J açılan ana dağıtım üsleri, G ise hedef düğümü olmak üzere bu model aşağıda
verilmiştir.

KE : 1,eğer G düğümü ana dağıtım üssü ise; 0 diğer durumda,

Karar Değişkenleri:

:LM : F ’den çıkan, I ADÜ’nde toplanıp J ADÜ aracılığıyla aktarılan miktar,

N L : F ’den çıkan, I ADÜ’nde toplanan miktar,
5ME : F ’den çıkan, J yoluyla G’ye aktarılan miktar,

min ∑R23⦋Q ∑RL23 D L N L + α∑RL23 ∑RM23 D L :LM +γ∑RM23 ∑RE23 DME 5ME ]
Matematiksel Model:

∑R23 K = p
∑RL23 N L = ∑RE23 H E
(1)

∑RM23 5ME = H E
Ɐi (2)

∑RM23 :LM + ∑RE23 5LE - ∑RM23 :ML - N L =0

Ɐ i ,j (3)

N L ≤ ∑RE23 H E KL
Ɐ i ,k (4)

∑R23 5ME ≤ ∑R23 H E KM

Ɐ i ,k (5)
Ɐ l ,j (6)

5ME , :LM , N L ≥ 0 , KL є {0,1}

Amaç fonksiyonuna bakıldığında ölçek ekonomisi katsayıları (λ, α, γ) kullanılarak toplam

toplam ADÜ sayısının S kadar olmasını sağlamaktadır. 2. 3. ve 4. kısıtlar akışı

toplama, transfer ve dağıtım maliyetlerinin en küçüklendiği görülmektedir. 1. kısıt açılacak

dengelemektedir. 5. ve 6. kısıtlar ise ADÜ olmayan iki düğüm arasında direkt bağlantıyı
engellemektedir. Ayrıca akışlar negatif olamamakta ve bir düğüm ADÜ ise 1, değilse 0 ile
ifade edilmektedir.

2.2. Yöntem
Kapasite kısıtı olmayan-çok atamalı p-ADÜ medyan probleminin çözümü için hızlı yapay arı
kolonisi algoritması kullanılmış ve elde edilen sonuçlar standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritması
ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu başlık altında iki algoritmanın da yapısı, adımları ve özellikleri
hakkında bilgiler verilmektedir.

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2.2.1. Standart Yapay Arı Kolonisi Algoritması

Yapay arı kolonisi algoritması Karaboğa (2005) tarafından doğadaki arıların yiyecek arama
davranışlarından esinlenerek geliştirilmiştir. Kolonideki arılar işçi arı, gözcü arı ve kâşif arı
olarak 3 gruba ayrılmaktadır. Koloninin yarısı işçi arılardan, diğer yarısı gözcü arılardan
oluşmaktadır. Ayrıca yiyecek kaynağı sayısı işçi arı sayısına eşittir. Her bir yiyecek kaynağı
için bir işçi arı görevli olmaktadır. Kaynaktaki nektar miktarı bittiğinde işçi arılar kâşif arıya
dönüşerek yeni yiyecek kaynağı aramaktadırlar. Yiyecek kaynakları problemdeki muhtemel
çözümlere karşılık gelmektedir. Her bir yiyecek kaynağında bulunan nektar miktarı ise
kaynağın kalitesini göstermektedir (Karaboğa, 2005).

Algoritmanın algoritmik yapısı ise aşağıdaki gibidir (Karaboğa, Görkemli, Öztürk ve

Karaboğa, 2012):
Başlangıç
REPEAT
İşçi Arı Fazı
Gözcü Arı Fazı
Kâşif Arı Fazı
En iyi sonucu hafızada tut.
UNTIL (Maksimum çevrim zamanı veya CPU zamanı)
Algoritmik yapısı verilen algoritmanın genel adımları ise şöyledir (Akay, 2009):
Adım 1. Başlangıç yiyecek kaynağı bölgelerinin belirlenmesi
REPEAT
Adım 2. İşçi arıların yiyecek kaynağı bölgelerine gönderilmesi.
Adım 3. İşçi arılardan gelen bilgiye göre olasılıksal seleksiyonda kullanılacak olasılık
değerlerinin hesaplanması.
Adım 4. Gözcü arıların olasılık değerlerine göre yiyecek kaynağı bölgesini seçmeleri.
Adım 5. Terkedilecek kaynakların terkedilmesi ve kâşif arıların üretilmesi.
UNTIL (Maksimum çevrim sayısı)

Yiyecek kaynağı yerlerinin üretilmesi için 3.1 denklemi kullanılmaktadır. Denklemde, F =

1 … U7 ve G = 1. . V olmak üzere, U7 yiyecek kaynağı sayısı, V ise parametre sayısıdır. "E 1 R
j. parametrenin alt sınırı, "E 1WX j. parametrenin üst sınırıdır. Algoritma başlangıcında her bir
kaynağa ait çözüm geliştirememe sayacı (failurei) sıfırlanmaktadır (Karaboğa, 2004).

xij = xjmin+rand(0,1)(xjmax-xjmin) (3.1)

İşçi arılar görevli oldukları bir kaynağa yönelerek, kaynağın nektar miktarını hafızasında
tutarlar. Daha sonra komşu yeni yiyecek kaynakları bularak buldukları kaynakların kalitesini
mevcut kaynağındakiyle karşılaştırırlar. Hangi kaynak daha kaliteli ise o kaynağı hafızada
tutarlar. Komşu yiyecek kaynaklarının belirlenmesi için Karaboğa 3.2 denklemini
kullanmıştır.

vij = xij+Øij(xij-xkj) (3.2)

Bu denklemde 'k' değeri yiyecek kaynaklarını ifade ederken, ∅ değeri [-1,1] aralığında
rastgele üretilen bir sayıdır.

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Yeni yiyecek kaynakları belirlendikten sonra her bir kaynağın kalitesi (fi) hesaplanmaktadır.
Kaynağın kalitesi hesaplandıktan sonra uygunluk değeri (fitness value) denklem 3.3’ te
olduğu gibi hesaplanmaktadır.

fiti = 1/ (1+fi) fi≥0

fiti = 1+ abs(fi) fi<0 (3.3)

İşçi arılar daha sonra eski ve yeni yiyecek kaynaklarının uygunluk değerleri arasında hangisi
daha iyiyse onu hafızalarında tutarlar. Eğer yeni kaynağının uygunluk değeri, eski kaynağının
uygunluk değerinden daha iyiyse çözüm geliştirememe sayacı (failurei) sıfırlanır. Değilse 1
arttırılır. Gözcü arılar ise kovana dönen işçi arılardan yiyecek kaynaklarının kalitesi hakkında
bilgi alarak, belirli olasılık değerlerine göre bu kaynaklara yönelirler. Olasılık değerleri
aşağıdaki gibi hesaplanmaktadır (Akay, 2009).

S = ∑^_
Z [\
]`a Z []
(3.4)

Bu değerler hesaplandıktan sonra, rulet tekerleği yöntemi ile her bir kaynak için [0,1]
aralığında rastsal sayı üretilmektedir. Eğer kaynağın olasılık değeri (pi), üretilen bu sayıdan
büyükse 3.2 eşitliği ile yeni bir yiyecek kaynağı üretilir. Sonrasında yeni çözümün uygunluk
değeri hesaplanır ve eskisiyle karşılaştırılır. Yeni çözüm daha iyiyse çözüm geliştirememe
sayacı (failurei) sıfırlanır; değilse 1 arttırılır (Karaboğa, 2004). Eğer çözüm geliştirememe
sayacı belirlenen limit değerinin üzerinde ise kaynak tükenmiş demektir. Bu durumda işçi
arılar kâşif arıya dönüşerek yeni yiyecek kaynakları aramaya başlarlar.
Yapay arı kolonisi algoritması sürekli optimizasyon problemlerini çözümü için geliştirilmiş
olup, kesikli problemlerde de başarılı sonuçlar vermektedir. Çalışmada ele aldığımız p-ADÜ
medyan problemi ise kesikli problem olduğu için algoritmanın problemin yapısına uygun hale
getirilmesi gerekmektedir. Bu kapsamda Yıldırım ve Görkemli (2019)’nin geliştirdiği
algoritma komşuluk arama yapısı farklılaştırılmış şekli ile aşağıda verilmiştir. Ele alınan
kesikli problem için, başlangıçta alt ve üst sınır değerleri kullanılarak elde edilen çözümün
konumu yerine, çözüm uzayı içinde herhangi p düğümün ana dağıtım üssü olarak seçilmesiyle
çözüme başlanmaktadır. Algoritmadaki yiyecek kaynaklarına, belirlenen ana dağıtım
üslerinden oluşan çözüm karşılık gelmektedir. Algoritmanın detaylı adımları aşağıda
verilmiştir:

Adım 1) Başlangıç popülasyonunun oluşturulması.

 Başlangıç çözümünü rastsal üret.
 Her bir çözüm için uygunluk değerini (amaç fonksiyonunu) hesapla.
Çevrim=1
Sayaç=0

TEKRAR
Adım 2) İşçi arı fazı.
 Her çözüm için;
- Çözüm kümesindeki ana dağıtım üslerinden birini rastsal olarak seç ve rastsal olarak
seçilen başka bir çözümle değiştir.

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 Oluşan her yeni çözüm için uygunluk değerini hesapla.

 Her bir çözüm için;
-Yeni çözümün uygunluk değeri eski çözümden daha iyiyse, yeni çözümü eskisiyle değiştir.
Çözüm geliştirememe sayacını sıfırla. Değilse eski çözümü tut, çözüm geliştirememe sayacını
1 arttır.
 Her bir uygunluk değeri için p olasılıklarını hesapla.
Adım 3) Gözcü arı fazı.
 Her bir çözüm için;
-Eğer çözüme ait p olasılık değeri, (0,1) aralığında üretilen rastsal sayıdan büyükse o
çözümdeki ana dağıtım üslerinden rastsal seçilen birini elde tut, diğerini rastsal seçilen bir
düğümle değiştir (Problemde iki veya üç ana dağıtım üssü var ise bu yol izlenir. Dört ana
dağıtım üssü var ise rastsal seçilen ikisi elde tutulur, diğer ikisi rastsal seçilen iki düğümle
değiştirilir).
 Yeni oluşturulan çözüm kümesinin uygunluk değerini hesapla.
 Her bir çözüm için;
-Yeni çözümün uygunluk değeri eski çözümden daha iyiyse, yeni çözümü eskisiyle değiştir.
Çözüm geliştirememe sayacın sıfırla. Değilse eski çözümü tut, çözüm geliştirememe sayacını
1 arttır.
Adım 4) Kaşif arı fazı.
 Her bir yiyecek kaynağı için;
-Eğer maksimum çözüm geliştirememe sayacı limit değerinden büyükse, eski çözümü unut
yeni çözüm üret ve uygunluk değerlerini hesapla.
En iyi çözümü hafızada tut.
Çevrim =çevrim+1
UNTIL (maksimum çevrim sayısı)

2.2.2. Hızlı Yapay Arı Kolonisi Algoritması (qABC)

Standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasında işçi ve gözcü arı fazlarındaki komşuluk aramaları
benzer şekilde yapılmaktadır. Hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasında ise gözcü arı fazında
komşuluk araması farklılaştırılmış ve algoritmanın iyi çözüme yakınsama hızı arttırılmıştır.
Bu nedenle geliştirilen algoritma hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması (qABC) adını almıştır.
Karaboğa ve Görkemli (2014) tarafından geliştirilmiş ve sürekli optimizasyon problemleri
üzerinde standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasıyla kıyaslanıp etkinliği ortaya konmuştur.
Geliştirilen bu algoritma daha sonra kombinatoryal problemler üzerinde de test edilmiş,
gezgin satıcı problemi için etkinliği gösterilmiştir (Karaboğa ve Görkemli, 2019). Algoritma
daha önce de açıklandığı gibi gözcü arı fazında farklılık göstermektedir. p-ADÜ medyan
problemi için uyarlanan algoritmanın gözcü arı fazının detaylı adımları aşağıda verilmiştir:

 Gözcü arı fazı.

 Her bir çözüm için;
-Eğer çözüme ait p olasılık değeri, (0,1) aralığında üretilen rastsal sayıdan büyükse,
O çözümün her bir ana dağıtım üssü için, ilgili ana dağıtım üssünün diğer şehirlere olan

-Eğer ilgili çözümdeki söz konusu ana dağıtım üssünün G şehrine olan uzaklığı (G, o ana
toplam uzaklıklarını hesaplayıp (şehir sayısı-1) değerine böl (ortalama uzaklık elde et),

küçük veya o değere eşitse mevcut ana dağıtım üssünü G şehri ile değiştir.
dağıtım üssüne eşit olmamak şartıyla) daha önce hesaplanan ortalama uzaklık değerinden

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 Yeni oluşturulan çözüm kümesinin uygunluk değerini hesapla.

 Her bir çözüm için;
-Yeni çözümün uygunluk değeri eski çözümden daha iyiyse, yeni çözümü eskisiyle değiştir.
Çözüm geliştirememe sayacını sıfırla. Değilse eski çözümü tut, çözüm geliştirememe sayacını
1 arttır.

3. BULGULAR VE TARTIŞMA
Geliştirilen hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması p-ADÜ medyan problemi için MATLAB
ortamında kodlanmış ve sonuçları standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritması sonuçları ile
kıyaslanmıştır. Algoritmalar, şehir sayılarının farklı olduğu her bir durum için 30 kere
koşturulmuş ve bunun sonucunda her bir koşumda, ortalama amaç fonksiyonu değeri,

algoritmanın çalıştırılması için kullanılan parametreler Tablo 1.’de verilmiştir. V, şehir

optimum sonucun kaç kere bulunduğu ve standart sapma değerleri kaydedilmiştir. Her iki

sayısını göstermektedir.

Tablo 1. Parametreler
Kontrol parametresi Değer
(D ∗ 2)
(CS)
Koloni büyüklüğü

(CS ∗ D)/2
Maksimum iterasyon 100
Limit

Tablo 2 ve Tablo 3’te probleme uyarlanan standart ve hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritmalarının

sütunda şehir sayısı (C), açılan ana dağıtım üssü sayısı (S) ve ana dağıtım üsleri arasında
CAB veri seti kullanılarak yapılan performans karşılaştırmaları gösterilmiştir. Tablolarda ilk

aktarım yapılırken maliyet hesaplanmasında kullanılan α değerleri gösterilmiştir. İkinci

sütunda probleme ait optimum çözüm değeri, üçüncü sütunda algoritmanın 30 kere
çalıştırılması sonucu bulduğu sonuçların ortalama değeri, dördüncü sütunda optimum çözümü
bulma sayısı, diğer sütunda ise 30 çözüme ait standart sapma değeri verilmiştir.
Tablolara bakıldığında her iki algoritmanın ana dağıtım üssü sayısı 2 olduğu durumda çok
başarılı sonuç verdiği görülmektedir. 3 ve 4 ana dağıtım üssünün bulunduğu durumlarda ise
hızlı yapay arı koloni algoritmasının standart algoritmaya göre çok daha başarılı sonuçlar
verdiği görülmektedir. Standart algoritma bazı problemlerde 30 çözümde az sayıda optimum
çözümü elde edebilmişken, hızlı algoritma ise bu çözümlerin hepsinde optimum çözümü
yakalayabilmiştir. Bu durum hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasının daha etkin ve tutarlı
sonuçlar verdiğini göstermektedir.

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Tablo 2. CAB veri seti için karşılaştırma(a)

Standart Hızlı
npα optimum ortalama opt.
std ortalama opt. bulma std
bulma
10 2 0,2 612,12 612,12 30 0 612,12 30 0
10 2 0,4 662,11 662,11 30 0 662,11 30 0
10 2 0,6 698,69 698,69 30 0 698,69 30 0
10 2 0,8 713,55 713,55 30 0 713,55 30 0
10 2 1,0 721,20 721,20 30 0 721,20 30 0
10 3 0,2 487,26 487,26 30 0 487,26 30 0
10 3 0,4 543,73 543,73 30 0 543,73 30 0
10 3 0,6 586,47 586,47 30 0 586,47 30 0
10 3 0,8 625,48 625,48 30 0 625,48 30 0
10 3 1,0 654,35 654,35 30 0 654,35 30 0
10 4 0,2 389,04 444,50 3 37,42 389,04 30 0
10 4 0,4 466,53 514,20 3 29,88 466,53 30 0
10 4 0,6 530,26 573,95 5 30,87 530,26 30 0
10 4 0,8 589,36 615,67 4 17,12 589,36 30 0
10 4 1,0 632,18 656,58 3 15,49 632,18 30 0
15 2 0,2 970,65 970,65 30 0 970,65 30 0
15 2 0,4 1033,86 1033,86 30 0 1033,86 30 0
15 2 0,6 1091,91 1091,91 30 0 1091,91 30 0
15 2 0,8 1108,79 1108,79 30 0 1108,79 30 0
15 2 1,0 1114,55 1114,55 30 0 1114,55 30 0
15 3 0,2 783,8 783,80 30 0 783,80 30 0
15 3 0,4 864,58 864,58 30 0 864,58 30 0
15 3 0,6 941,21 941,21 30 0 941,21 30 0
15 3 0,8 1012,04 1012,04 30 0 1012,04 30 0
15 3 1,0 1039,39 1039,39 30 0 1039,39 30 0
15 4 0,2 626,33 730,30 3 45,34 626,33 30 0
15 4 0,4 738,52 826,05 3 37,01 738,52 30 0
15 4 0,6 841,78 909,64 3 36,66 841,78 30 0
15 4 0,8 927,42 983,05 3 22,67 927,42 30 0
15 4 1,0 989,24 1023,81 2 14,84 989,24 30 0

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Tablo 3. CAB veri seti için karşılaştırma(b)

Standart Hızlı
npα optimum ortalama opt.
std ortalama opt. bulma std
bulma
20 2 0,2 972,25 972,25 30 0 972,25 30 0
20 2 0,4 1013,36 1013,36 30 0 1013,36 30 0
20 2 0,6 1046,89 1046,89 30 0 1046,89 30 0
20 2 0,8 1075,30 1075,30 30 0 1075,30 30 0
20 2 1,0 1090,63 1090,63 30 0 1090,63 30 0
*20 3 0,2 712,09 712,16 30 0 712,16 30 0
20 3 0,4 803,81 803,81 30 0 803,81 30 0
20 3 0,6 884,64 884,64 30 0 884,64 30 0
20 3 0,8 948,41 948,41 30 0 948,41 30 0
20 3 1,0 975,53 975,53 30 0 975,53 30 0
20 4 0,2 568,51 667,07 5 50,53 568,51 30 0
20 4 0,4 694,56 781,16 3 36,48 694,56 30 0
20 4 0,6 788,59 857,96 3 29,59 788,59 30 0
20 4 0,8 870,08 935,02 3 26,66 870,08 30 0
20 4 1,0 934,08 967,91 3 15,52 934,08 30 0
25 2 0,2 996,02 996,02 30 0 996,02 30 0
25 2 0,4 1072,49 1072,49 30 0 1072,49 30 0
25 2 0,6 1137,08 1137,08 30 0 1137,08 30 0
25 2 0,8 1180,02 1180,02 30 0 1180,02 30 0
25 2 1,0 1206,62 1206,62 30 0 1206,62 30 0
25 3 0,2 752,91 752,91 30 0 752,91 30 0
25 3 0,4 859,64 859,64 30 0 859,64 30 0
25 3 0,6 949,23 949,23 30 0 949,23 30 0
25 3 0,8 1020,04 1020,04 30 0 1020,04 30 0
25 3 1,0 1062,14 1062,14 30 0 1062,14 30 0
25 4 0,2 618,48 743,43 3 38,40 618,48 30 0
25 4 0,4 754,49 850,87 3 32,45 754,49 30 0
25 4 0,6 866,45 938,77 3 24,68 866,45 30 0
25 4 0,8 951,76 1011,03 3 21,06 951,76 30 0
25 4 1,0 1006,66 1125,46 3 35,43 1006,66 30 0
*Literatürde yer alan optimum çözümdeki belirlenen ana dağıtım üsleriyle, bu çalışmada
belirlenen ana dağıtım üsleri aynıdır. Bu nedenle toplam maliyetteki 0,07’lik fark göz ardı
edilerek çözüm optimum kabul edilmiştir.

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[Link]Ç
Bu çalışmada kapasite kısıtı olmayan p-ADÜ medyan problemi için hızlı yapay arı kolonisi
algoritması kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada, standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasından yola
çıkılarak geliştirilen ve gözcü arı fazındaki farklı komşuluk araması stratejisiyle en iyi
çözüme daha hızlı yakınsayan hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması kesikli bir problem olan p-
ana dağıtım üssü medyan problemine uygun hale getirilmiştir. Yine bu probleme uyarlandığı
şekli ile standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritması ile geliştirilen algoritmanın performansı
literatürde çok sık kullanılan CAB veri seti ile analiz edilmiştir. Bunun sonucunda her iki
algoritmanın da iyi performans gösterdiği, fakat standart yapay arı kolonisi algoritmasının 4
ana dağıtım üssü bulunduğu durumlarda en iyi çözümü sürekli olarak elde edemediği
gözlemlenmiştir. Buna karşın hızlı yapay arı kolonisi algoritması 4 ana dağıtım üssünün
bulunduğu durumlar için de tüm koşumlarda optimum çözümü elde edebilmiştir. Hızlı yapay
arı kolonisi algoritması gözcü arı fazında en iyi çözüme yakınsamayı arttıracak bir süreç
izlemektedir. Bu durumun algoritmanın performansını son derece arttırdığı görülmüştür.
Gelecek çalışmalarda, daha karmaşık problemlerin çözümü için hızlı yapay arı kolonisi
algoritması uygulanarak, algoritmanın performansı aynı problemlere uygulanmış diğer
algoritmaların performanslarıyla karşılaştırılabilir. Ayrıca ana dağıtım üssü yerleşim
problemlerinin farklı türleri için de yapay arı kolonisi algoritması farklı arama stratejileriyle
birlikte geliştirilebilir.

Teşekkür
Bu çalışma; Erciyes Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Birimi tarafından FYL-2019-
8596 kodlu proje ile desteklenmiştir. Erciyes Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri
Birimi’ne teşekkürlerimizi sunarız.

KAYNAKÇA
Akay, B. (2009). Nümerik optimizasyon problemlerinde yapay arı kolonisi
algoritmasının performans analizi, Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi,
Kayseri, (2009).
Akyol, S., Alataş, B. (2012). Güncel sürü zekâsı optimizasyon algoritmaları, Nevşehir
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1, 1, 36-50.
Alumur, S., Kara, B.Y. (2008). Network hub location problems: The state of the art,
European Journal of Operational Research, 190, 1, 1-21.
Boland, N., Krishnamoorty, M., Ernst, A. T., Ebery, J. (2004). Preprocessing and
cutting for multiple allocation hub location problems, European Journal of Operational
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Campbell, J. F. (1992). Location and allocation for distribution systems with
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Campbell, J. F. (1994). Integer programming formulations of discrete hub location
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Ernst, A. T., Krishnamoorty, M. (1998). Exact and heuristic algorithms for the
uncapacitated multiple allocation p-hub median problem, European Journal of Operational
Research, 104, 1,100-112.
Goldman, A.J. (1969). Optimal location for centers in a network, Transportation
Science, 3, 352-360.

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Karaboğa, D. (2004). Yapay zekâ optimizasyon algoritmaları, 205, Atlas Yayın

Dağıtım, İstanbul.
Karaboğa, D. (2005). An idea based on honey bee swarm for numerical optimization,
Technical Report TR06, Erciyes Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Bilgisayar Mühendisliği
Bölümü.
Karaboğa, D., Görkemli, B. (2014). A quick artificial bee colony (qABC) algorithm
and its performance on optimization problems, Applied Soft Computing, 23, 227-238.
Karaboğa, D., Görkemli, B. (2019). Solving Traveling Salesman Problem by Using
Combinatorial Artificial Bee Colony Algorithms, Internatıonal Journal On Artıfıcıal
Intellıgence Tools,28.
Karaboğa, D., Görkemli, B., Öztürk, C., Karaboğa, N. (2012).A comprehensive
survey: artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm, Artificial Intelligence Review, DOI:
10.1007/s10462-012-9328-0 1-37.
Kibiroğlu, Ç. Ö., Serarslan, M. N., Topcu, İ. Y. (2019). Particle swarm optimization
for uncapacitated multiple allocation hub location problem under congestion, Expert Systems
with Applications, 119, 1, 1-19.
Kratica, J. (2013). An elctromagnetism-like metaheuristic fort the uncapacitated
multiple allocation p-hub median problem, Computers & Industrial Engineering, 66, 4, 1015-
1024.
Milanovic, M. (2010). A newevolutionary based approach for solving the
uncapacitated multiple allocation p-hub median problem, Soft Computing in Industrial
Applications, 75, 81-88.
O’Kelly, m. E. (1986). The location of interacting hub facilities, Transportation
Science, 20, 2, 92-105.
Parvaresh, F., Hashemi Golpayegang, S. A., Moattar Husseini, S. M., Karimi, B.
(2013). Solving the p-hub median problem under intentional disruptions using simulated
annealing, Network Spatial Econ, 13, 4, 445-470.
Skorin- Kapov, D., Skorin-Kapov, J., O’Kelly, M. (1996). Tight linear programming
relaxations of uncapacitated p-hub median problems, European Journal of Operational
Research, 94, 3, 582-593.
Sohn, J., Park, S. (1998). Efficient solution procedure and reduced size formulations
for p-hub location problems, European Journal of Operational Research, 108, 1, 118-126.
Stanimirovic, Z. (2008). An efficient genetic algorithm for uncapacitated multiple
allocation p-hub median problem, Control and Cybernetics, 37, 3, 669-692.
Talbi, E., Todosijevic, R. (2017). The robust uncapacitated multiple allocation p-hub
median problem, Computers & Industrial Engineering, 110, 1, 322-332.
Tareq, R., Akter, N., & Azam, M. S. (2019). Biochars and biochar composites: low-
cost adsorbents for environmental remediation. In Biochar from biomass and waste (s. 169-
209). Elsevier.
Yıldırım B., Görkemli L. (2019). Solving p-Hub Median Problem via Artificial Bee
Colony Algorithm Considering Different Search Strategies. International Conference on
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Proceedings, 4(5):75-79.

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YAPAY SİNİR AĞLARI KULLANARAK AMORTİSÖR SATIŞ TAHMİNLEMESİ

Sena BALKIŞLI
Sakarya Üniversitesi, Endüstri Mühendisliği Bölümü Veri Madenciliği
ORCID: 0000-0001-9307-9886

Öğr. Üyesi Berrin DENİZHAN

Sakarya Üniversitesi, Endüstri Mühendisliği Bölümü, Tedarik Zinciri Yönetimi, Veri
Madenciliği
ORCID: 0000-0003-0785-2778

ÖZET
Günümüzde çevik yaklaşımla yönetilen birçok firma verilerini doğru şekilde değerlendirmek
ve karar verme sürecinde yardımcı kaynak olarak kullanmak durumundadır. Veri
madenciliğinin asıl hedefi ise bu verileri anlamlı hale getirmek ve yararlı bilgileri elde ederek
firmalara rekabet avantajı sağlamaktır. Covid-19 pandemisi ile birlikte birçok sektörde olduğu
gibi otomotiv endüstrisi de olumsuz etkilenmiştir.
Bu çalışmanın amacı bir amortisör firması için veri madenciliğinin optimum tahminlemede
nasıl kullanılabileceğini araştırmak ve yapay sinir ağlarının tahminlemesini değerlendirerek
firmanın pandemi döneminde yaşadığı kaybı hesaplamaktır. Amortisör firmasına ait 2016
Ocak-2020 Şubat arasındaki aylık satış adetleri kullanılmıştır ve bağımlı değişken satılan
amortisör adetleridir. Bağımsız değişkenler ise; hafif ticari aracın satışı, motorin fiyatı, döviz
kuru, aylık dış ticaret, taşıt kredileri toplamı, bankalarca açılan kredilere uygulanan ağırlıklı
ortalama faiz oranları, GSYİH, Sanayi Üretim Endeksi, TÜFE, Yi-ÜFE, Tüketici Güven
Endeksi, Reel Kesim Güven Endeksi, Ekonomik Güven Endeksi ve hane halkı maddi durum
beklentisi verilerinden oluşmaktadır. Bu değişkenler kullanılarak en iyi korelasyon
araştırılmış, Weka programında tahminleme yapılmış ve sonuçların tahmin doğruluğu
karşılaştırılmıştır.
Sonuç olarak, yapılan tahminler ile gerçekleşen satışlar kıyaslandığında amortisör satışlarının
pandemiden olumsuz etkilendiği gözlenmiştir. Weka programı kullanılarak yapılan yapay
sinir ağları tahminlemesinin gerçeğe yakınsayan verileri verdiği, satış tahmininde başarıyla
kullanılabileceği ve dönemsel değişikliklere duyarlı olduğu görülmüştür. Bu çalışmayı
amortisör firmasındaki yöneticiler pandeminin etkilerini anlama, ileriye yönelik karar alma ve
planlama çalışmalarında yardımcı birer kaynak olarak kullanabileceklerdir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Amortisör, Tahminleme, Veri Madenciliği, Yapay Sinir Ağları

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SALES FORECASTING OF SHOCK ABSORBER BY USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL

NETWORKS

ABSTRACT
Today, many companies managed with an agile approach have to evaluate their data correctly
and use it as an additional resource in the decision-making process. The main goal of data
mining is to make this data meaningful and provide companies with a competitive advantage
by obtaining useful information. With the Covid-19 pandemic, the automotive industry has
been adversely affected, as in many other sectors.
This study aims to investigate how data mining can be used in optimum forecasting for a
shock absorber company and to calculate the loss experienced by the company during the
pandemic period by evaluating the forecasting of artificial neural networks. Monthly sales
figures of the shock absorber company between January 2016 and February 2020 are used,
and the dependent variable is the number of shock absorbers sold. The independent variables
are; Sales of light commercial vehicles, diesel price, exchange rate, monthly foreign trade,
total vehicle loans, weighted average interest rates applied to loans extended by banks, GDP,
Industrial Production Index, CPI, Domestic-PPI, Consumer Confidence Index, Real Sector
Confidence Index, Economic Confidence Index and household financial situation expectation
data. The best correlation was searched, the Weka program made forecasting, and the
forecasting accuracy of the results compared.
As a result, when the forecasts and actual sales were compared, it was observed that the sales
of shock absorbers were adversely affected by the pandemic. It shows that the artificial neural
network forecasting using the Weka program gives data close to the truth, can be used
successfully in sales forecasting and is sensitive to periodic changes. Managers in the shock
absorber company will be able to use this study as an additional resource in understanding the
effects of the pandemic, making future decisions, and planning.
Keywords: Shock Absorber, Forecasting, Data Mining, Artificial Neural Networks

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BİYOMİMETİK TABANLI HAVA ARACI KONMA KIZAKLARI

SÖNÜMLEME MEKANİZMASI

Cebrail CUDRİ
Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Endüstriyel Tasarım Mühendisliği Ana Bilim Dalı, Gazi Üniversitesi
ORCID: 0000-0002-3721-792X

Hüdayim BAŞAK
Endüstriyel Tasarım Mühendisliği Ana Bilim Dalı, Gazi Üniversitesi
ORCID: 0000-0001-8066-5384

ÖZET
Doğanın insan ihtiyaçlarına cevap verme şeklini model alan biyomimikri birçok alanda
kullanılabilir. Tarih boyunca yapılan tasarımlara ilham olarak yenilikçi ve geliştirilmiş
yöntemler kullanılmıştır. Havacılık, uzay, savunma sanayi gibi endüstrilerde tasarlanan ve
üretilen kompozit yapılar başta olmak üzere hava araçlarında kullanılan ana uçak parçaları
son derece önem arz etmektedir. Uzun ve hassas üretim süreçlerinden geçerek hava araçlarına
monte edilen bu uçak parçalarının fiziki yapısının ve özelliklerinin korunması çok önemlidir.
Hasar alan bir uçak parçasının tamiratı ve yeniden üretilmesi uzun bir süreç gerektirecektir.
Bundan dolayı helikopterde bulunan konma kızakları; özellikle zemine konma aşamasında
helikopteri oluşturan ana kompozit parçalar ve hareketli mekanizmalar başta olmak üzere tüm
helikopter için kritik bir öneme sahiptir. Bu çalışmada konma kızakları üzerine doğrudan iniş
yapan helikopterin aerodinamik yapısına, kompozit yapıdaki ana hava aracı parçalarına ve
hareketli mekanizmalara zarar vermesini önlemek için biyomimetik tabanlı sönümleme
sistemi tasarım çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Öncelikle doğada bulunan canlıların yapısı
sönümleme mekanizmaları göz önünde bulundurularak incelenmiş, sonrasında ise özellikle
kirpilerin boyun ve sırt kısımlarında bulunan dikenlerin sönümleme yetenekleri ve özellikleri
detaylandırılarak helikopterlerin konma kızakları üzerinde kullanılabilecek şekilde
tasarlanmış ve modelleme çalışmaları yapılmıştır. Çeşitli analiz yöntemleri üzerinde
çalışılarak sönümleme mekanizması için uygun model belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı;
hava aracının zemine konma anında oluşması muhtemel olan kuvvet ve salınımı sönümlemek,
bu sayede hava aracında ve ana kompozit parçalarında meydana gelecek zararları engellemek
olarak belirlenmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Biyomimetik, Havacılık, Sönümleme Mekanizması

BIOMIMETIC BASED AIRCRAFT LANDING SKIDS ABSORPTION MECHANISM

ABSTRACT
Modeling the way nature responds to human needs, biomimicry can be used in many fields.
Innovative and improved methods have been used to inspire designs made throughout history.
The main aircraft parts used in aircraft, especially the composite structures designed and
produced in industries such as aerospace, defense industry, are extremely important. It is very
important to preserve the physical structure and properties of these aircraft parts, which are
mounted on aircraft through long and sensitive production processes. Repairing and
rebuilding a damaged aircraft part will take a long time.

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Therefore, the landing skids on the helicopter; It has a critical importance for the whole
helicopter, especially the main composite parts and moving mechanisms that make up the
helicopter during the landing phase. In this study, biomimetic-based absorption system design
studies were carried out in order to prevent the helicopter landing directly on the landing skids
from damaging the aerodynamic structure, the main aircraft parts in composite structure and
the moving mechanisms. First of all, the structure of living things in nature was examined by
taking into account the absorption mechanisms, then the absorb abilities and properties of the
spines on the neck and back parts of hedgehogs were detailed and modeling studies were
carried out to be used on the landing skids of helicopters. A suitable model for the absorption
mechanism was determined by working on various analysis methods. The aim of this study; It
is determined to absorb the force and oscillation that may occur at the moment of landing of
the aircraft, thus preventing the damages that may occur in the aircraft and its main composite
parts.
Keywords: Biomimetics, Aviation, Absorption Mechanism

1. GİRİŞ
Havacılık ve uzay sanayi başta olmak üzere günümüzde birçok sanayi alanında da
biyomimikri kavramı etkin bir şekilde tasarımsal yapılara dahil edilmeye başlanmıştır. Uçak
kanatları yapılırken yusufçuklardan ilham alınması ve yarasalardan esinlenerek savunma
alanında radarların geliştirilmesi gibi birçok tasarım buna örnek gösterilebilir [1] [2].
Havacılık ve uzay sanayinde kullanılacak olan uçak kanatları, gövdeleri, iç tasarımda
kullanılan kompozit yapılar ve yine helikopter pervaneleri gibi ana malzemeler doğrudan
doğadan esinlenerek tasarlanabilirler. Doğadan esinlenirken sıfırdan bir tasarım
yapabileceğimiz gibi yine doğanın taklit edilmesi ile var olan tasarımlarımızda kritik
geliştirmeler ve güncellemeler yapmamız mümkün hale gelmektedir. Buna örnek olarak;
doğadan esinlenerek tasarlamış olduğumuz uçak gövde veya kanatlarının üzerlerinde
yapılacak olan artı bir üretim yöntemi için tasarlanan aparat veya sistemlerde de yine
biyomimikri kavramı kullanılarak daha sağlıklı ve hassas işlemler yapılabilir [3] [4].
Havacılık ve uzay sanayi başta olmak üzere birçok sektörde kullanılan kritik ve önemli
sistemler mevcuttur. Havacılık sektöründe ise bu önemli sistemler darbe ve çeşitli etkilere
maruz kaldığında zararı en aza indirmek oldukça önemlidir. Bu darbe etkilere karşı yapılan
sistem ve tasarımlar ne kadar sağlam ve katı yapıda olursa olsun yapının tamamına
bakıldığında olumsuz etkileri olacaktır. Bunlar; Bağlantı noktalarının hasar görmesi ve
dağılması, ana sistem ve parçaların hasar görmesi ve yapıların aerodinamik yapısına kadar
zarar verebilecek etkenlerdir [5].
Bu çalışmanın amacı; Helikopter ve drone helikopter gibi konma kızaklarına sahip hava
araçlarının zeminden kalkış ve özellikle iniş anlarındaki oluşan zararları en aza indirmektir.
Böylece hava araçlarında bulunan hareketli bağlantı sistemleri, hava aracı fiziki yapısı ve ana
parçalarına gelecek olan darbe ve etkiler azaltılarak sisteme zarar vermesi engellenecektir.
Öncelikle doğada bulunan ve tezimize örnek teşkil edecek yapılardan armadillo ve özellikle
kirpilerin doğal yapısı incelenecektir. Daha sonra kirpi ve armadillo yapısında bulunan
sönümleme mekanizmaları catia programına aktarılarak tasarıma eklenecektir. Alüminyum
malzeme ve sert köpük arasına yerleştirilen biyomimetik sönümleme sistemi tasarlanıp
üretilecektir. Ve bu yapı yük ve yapışma analizleri ile test edilip yorumlanacaktır.

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2. MATERYAL VE METOD
Hava araçlarının ana kompozit parçalarının havada doğal veya mekanik sebeblerden dolayı
alacağı hasar hava aracı için çok tehlikelidir. Böyle bir durumda uçağın bakıma alınması ve
hasar alan kompozit parçanın tamiratının yapılması eğer tamirat ile kurtarılamayacak ise
yeniden imal edilmesi gerekmektedir. Tüm bu tamirat ve imalat süreçleri pahalı, hassas ve
uzun süreçler gerektirdiği için hava araçlarında hasara neden olacak yapılar ortadan
kaldırılmalı veya tehlikeler en aza indirilmelidir.
Hava araçlarında meydana gelecek bu tehlikelerden biride bu darbelerdir. Hava aracının
konma aşamasında araçta meydana gelen bu darbeler doğrudan hava aracına etki ettiğinde
özellikle uçağı oluşturan ana parçalar olmak üzere birçok yapıya hasar vermektedir [11]. Bu
hasarlardan bazıları gözle görüldüğü gibi bazılarıda kompozit yapıların içinde [12] [13] küçük
hasarlar olarak meydana gelir. Özellikle kompozit yapıların iç kısmında ve gözle
görülemeyen bu hasarlar çok ölümcül sonuçlar doğurabilir [14]. Bu nedenle üretilecek olan
sönümleme mekanizması ile helikopterin konma aşamasındaki salınım ve darbeyi
sönümleyerek olası hasarları ortadan kaldırması amaçlanmıştır.

2.1 Doğada Bulunan Bazı Sönümleme Yapıları

Her alanda doğanın gücünü kullanarak üretilen tasarımlar tüm sistemlerde yenilikçi
yaklaşımları arttırmaktadır. Sönümleme mekanizması için doğayı incelediğimizde birçok
yapıya ulaşmamız mümkündür. Greyfurt meyvesi bunlardan bir tanesidir. Sahip olduğu kalın
kabuklu yapısı enerji sönümleme özelliğine sahiptir ve mühendislik alanında kullanılan
kompozit yapılı köpükler bu yapı yardımı ile geliştirilmiştir. (şekil 2.1 ve 2.2) [15] [16].

Şekil 2.1 Greyfurt kesit görüntüsü

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Şekil 2.2 Greyfurt kesit görüntüsü

Lotus yaprağının sahip olduğu iç kinetik enerji sayesinde darbeleri çevirerek sönümle etkisi
yine doğanın sahip olduğu mucizeler arasındadır (şekil 2.3) [17].

Şekil 2.3 Lotus yaprağına su düşüş anı

Eğilme ve yük testlerine tabi tutulan kirpi dikenleri çok sağlam yapılarda olduğu görülmüştür.
Çeşitli analizler sonucu bir kirpi dikeni aynı çaptaki paslanmaz çelikten çok daha sağlam ve
esnek olduğu görülmüştür (şekil 2.4) [7] [10].

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Şekil 2.4 Kirpi diken modelleri

Yapılan çalışmalarda armodillo ve kirpi dikenlerinin dayanıklı yapılar ve malzemeler için en

önemli model olduğu kanıtlanmıştır. Kirpilerden alınan gerçek diken numuneleri sarkaç kollar
yardımı ile tekrarlı çarpma testlerine tabi tutulmuştur. Ve kirpi dikenlerinin dayanıklılığı
sonuçlarla ortaya konmuştur (şekil 2.5) [6] [9].

Şekil 2.5 Kirpi diken numuneleri

2.2 Sönümleme Mekanizması Tasarımı

Kirpi ve kirpi dikenleri ve kirpi tüyleri mekanik anlamda birbirlerinden farklı bir yapıda inşa
edilmiştir. Basit bir ifadeyle, kirpi tüyleri, bir kuvvetle yüklendiğinde çok kolay bükülmeden
mümkün olduğunca uzun olacak şekilde orantılı olduğu görülmektedir. Buna karşılık, kirpi
dikenleri, eksenel olarak yüklendiğinde hala bükülebilirken mümkün olduğunca kısadır.
Ayrıca, kirpideki dikenler, kuvvete maruz kaldıklarında eğilmenin ve burkulmanın
başlamasını geciktirir, böylece dikenlerin daha büyük miktarlarda mekanik enerjiyi emmesini
sağlayan bir yapıya sahiptir.

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Bu nedenle, kirpinin tüyleri düşmanı korkutmak ve uzak tutmak için olduğu düşünülse de ana
işlevlerinin, hayvan bir yükseklikten düştüğünde bir amortisör veya darbeyi sönümlemesi
daha muhtemeldir, bunun davranışsal bir özellik olduğu bildirilmektedir [6] [7].
Sönümleme mekanizmamızın çalışma prensibi şu şekilde olmalıdır. Helikopterin zemin ile
temas edecek olan bölümü alüminyum U profil malzemeden yapılacaktır. Malzeme
kalınlığımız ve ölçülerimiz analiz programından elde ettiğimiz değerlere göre tasarlanmıştır.
Tasarlanacak olan ikinci parçamız ise doğrudan konma kızakarına temas edecek olan sert
köpük malzemeden tasarlanacaktır. BM5055 olarak bilinen bu özel malzemede daha çok
havacılık sektöründe kullanılan bir malzemedir. Bazı karmaşık yapılı ana hava aracı
parçalarının üretimi yapılırken bu sert köpük malzeme kalıp yapımında kullanılır. Ayrıca
çeşitli köpük malzemeler aynı zamanda sönümleme parçaları olarak [8] tasarımlarda
kullanılırlar.
Sönümleme mekanizmamız için asıl ve en önemli malzememiz ise alüminyum ve sert köpük
arasına yerleştireceğimiz ve modelinin biyomimetik tabanlı olarak kirpi diken yapısından
örnek alarak geliştirdiğimiz termoplastik poliüretan (TPU) malzemeden üretilecek olan
parçadır (şekil 2.6) [7]. Çalışmamızda sönümleme mekanizmasının tasarımı için havacılık ve
savunma sanayinde yaygın olarak kullanılan Catia 3 boyutlu modelleme program’ı
kullanılmıştır. Analiz uygulamaları için ise Ansys program’ı kullanılmıştır.

Şekil 2.6 Sönümleme mekanizması

Doğada bulunan kirpi diken yapıları incelenerek sönümleme mekanizma tasarımına

aktarılmıştır. İç içe geçerek oluşan kirpi dikenleri üzerine gelen yükü eşit bir şekilde
paylaşarak diken yapılarından dolayı üst üste binerek darbeyi sönümlerler. Sönümleme
mekanizmasını oluşturan detay parçalar ve kirpi diken numunesi (şekil 2.7)’de gösterilmiştir
[6] [7].

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Şekil 2.7 Sönümleme mekanizması detay parçaları

Sönümleme mekanizma tasarımı analizleri gerçekleştirilmiş ve güvenlik faktörünün uygun

olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ansys program yapısına göre yük analizi sonuçlarında güvenlik
faktörü değeri 0 ile 15 arasında değişir. Güvenlik faktör değeri 1’in altında olması durumunda
tasarım güvensiz olarak adlandırılır 5 ve üzeri değerlerde ise tasarım yüksek güvenilirlik
olarak sınıflandırılır (şekil 2.9) [18]. Yapışma analizi sonuçları yorumlanırken tasarım
tamamen yüklendiğinde pembe ve kahverengi renkler arasındaki durumlar incelenir. Yapışma
analizinde çakışma durumu yani pembe renk asla istenmeyen durumdur. Tasarımın sağlıklı
çalışması için yapışma analiz sonuçlarının kahverengi yapıda olması istenir (şekil 2.8).

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Şekil 2.8 Yük ve yapışma analizi

Şekil 2.9 Güvenlik faktörü

3 SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER
Analiz sonuçlarına göre tasarımı yapılan detay parçaların ölçüleri güncellenerek model
tasarımın nihai hali tamamlanmış oldu. Hava aracımızın taşıma kapasitesi ve kendi ağırlığı da
göz önüne alınarak modelimize sırasıyla yük ve yapışma analizi yapılmıştır. Bu analizler
sonucunda taban malzemesi ve üst köpük malzemelerinde hedeflenen sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.
Kirpi diken modeli için ise yapışma analiz sonuçları incelenerek her bir dikenin iç içe
geçmeden kirpi yapısında olduğu gibi hep birlikte ve aynı anda hareket ederek uygulanan yük
üzerinde başarılı bir sonuç verdiği görülmüştür.
Yapılan çalışmamız havacılık ve savunma sanayi hava araçları başta olmak üzere bir çok yapı
ve sistem korumasında kullanılması hedeflenmiştir. Sönümleme mekanizması aynı zamanda
kask, bileklik ve dirsek koruma ve benzeri insansı sistemlerde kullanılması için geliştirilebilir
bir yapıya sahiptir.

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KAYNAKÇA
[1] Sivasankaran, Praveena Nair; Ward, Thomas Arthur; Salami, Erfan; Viyapuri,
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Joanna McKittrick; Marc A. Meyers (2011). Armadillo armor: Mechanical testing and
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[12] Zhang, X (1998). Impact damage in composite aircraft structures-experimental
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[13] Capriotti, Margherita; Kim, Hyungsuk E.; Scalea, Francesco Lanza di; Kim,
Hyonny (2017). Non-Destructive Inspection of Impact Damage in Composite Aircraft Panels
by Ultrasonic Guided Waves and Statistical Processing. Materials, 10(6), 616–.
doi:10.3390/ma10060616
[14] Russell, A. J., Bowers, C. P., & Moss, A. J. (1991). Repair of Delaminations and
Impact Damage in Composite Aircraft Structures. Composite Structures, 145–
159. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-3662-4_11
[15] Thielen, M; Schmitt, C N Z; Eckert, S; Speck, T; Seidel, R (2013). Structure–
function relationship of the foam-like pomelo peel (Citrus maxima )—an inspiration for the
development of biomimetic damping materials with high energy dissipation. Bioinspiration &
Biomimetics, 8(2), 025001–. doi: 10.1088/1748-3182/8/2/025001
[16] Sebastian F. Fischer; Marc Thielen; Ruth R. Loprang; Robin Seidel; Claudia
Fleck; Thomas Speck; Andreas Bührig-Polaczek (2010). Pummelos as Concept Generators
for Biomimetically Inspired Low Weight Structures with Excellent Damping Properties.,
12(12), 0–0. doi:10.1002/adem.201080065
[17] Vassilia Zorba; Emmanuel Stratakis; Marios Barberoglou; Emmanuel Spanakis;
Panagiotis Tzanetakis; Spiros H. Anastasiadis; Costas Fotakis (2008). Biomimetic Artificial
Surfaces Quantitatively Reproduce the Water Repellency of a Lotus Leaf. , 20(21), 4049–
4054. doi:10.1002/adma.200800651
[18] Kaveh Mollazade, Ali Jafari, Ebrahim Ebrahimi (2010). Application of
Dynamical Analysis to Choose Best Subsoiler’s Shape using ANSYS, New York Science
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PROBING THE PHYSICS OF THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM IN SPIRAL

GALAXIES FROM DIFFERENT ACTIVITY TYPES

Hülya ESER SULU

Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Science, Department of Physics
ORCID: 0000-0002-3187-4208

Assist. Prof. Dr. Selçuk TOPAL

Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Science, Department of Physics
ORCID: 0000-0003-2132-5632

ABSTRACT
One of the ways of probing the physics of the interstellar medium (ISM) in galaxies is to
study molecular emission lines. In this study, we targeted two galaxies. NGC 5055 is a normal
spiral galaxy, while NGC 3627 is also a spiral galaxy but hosting an active galactic nucleus
(AGN). AGNs are the key to understand the role of the supermassive black hole in the physics

CO lines available for both galaxies, i.e. 12CO(1-0, 2-1, 3-2) and 13CO(1-0), along with 24hi
of the central molecular zone and the evolution of galaxies. Using the literature data of four

and FUV emission properties, we investigated the line ratios across the disk of the galaxies.
Our main results are summarized as follows. 12CO(1-0) is the most extensive and the brightest

intensity, molecular gas mass (jkl ) and CO line ratios [i.e. 12CO(1-0)/13CO(1-0), 12CO(2-
gas over the disc of both galaxies compared to the other three CO lines. Integrated CO line

1)/12CO(1-0) and 12CO(3-2)/12CO(1-0)] decrease as a function of distance from the center in

both galaxies, although NGC 3627 shows more fluctuations, possibly because of its bar
nature, i.e. more positions across the major axis of the galaxy coincide with the inter-arms
regions compared to the non-barred disc of NGC 5055. Although the line ratios show a

present in NGC 3627. jkl shows a positive correlation with 24hi and FUV flux (mnop ), i.e.
negative correlation with the distance from the center in NGC 5055, there is no such negative

with a higher scatter in NGC 3627. The line ratios and the ratio of 24h/mnop (i.e. the
both increase with respect to each other, in both galaxies, but the correlation is much weaker

extinction) also have a positive correlation over the disc of both galaxies but the correlation is
much stronger in NGC 5055 (except the ratio of 12CO(3-2)/12CO(1-0)) compared to NGC
3627. Our results indicate that each galaxy shows some differences in the physical properties
across its disk, possibly because of having different morphology and star formation histories.
Keywords: Spiral Galaxies, Active Galactic Nuclei, Molecular Gas, Dust, Ultra-violet
Radiation

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DEBYE TEMPERATURE AND HEAT CAPATICY OF 5D TRANSITION METAL

DIBORIDES MB2

Melek GOKBULUT
Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Erbaa Vocational School, Tokat
Gaziosmanpasa University
ORCID: 0000-0002-2737-805X

ABSTRACT
It is known that transition metals diborides are powerful candidates for ultra-hard materials.
The structural, elastic, and electronic properties of 5d transition metal diborides have been
extensively investigated by first principles calculations. These transition metals, which have
been shown as candidates for superhard materials possess high bulk modulus, high shear
modulus, and high shear strength. In this study, the thermodynamic properties of 5d
transition-metal diborides MB2 (M=Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os) are investigated. It has been reported
that HfB2, TaB2 , ReB2 and WB2 have hexagonal structure with P63/mmc space group and,
and OsB2 has orthorhombic structure space group Pmmn. Debye temperature, which describes
the properties resulting from atomic vibrations, is one of the important parameters used to
investigate the thermodynamic properties of solids. In this context, Debye temperatures are
calculated by finding bulk and shear modules according to the Voight-Reuss-Hill approach
using elastic constants. Among the 5d transition metal diborides, hexagonal ReB2 was
determined to have the highest Debye temperature. In addition, the heat capacities of
diborides MB2 were calculated analytically with considering of the Debye functions. Also, a
new analytical expression for the Debye function based on the gamma function and binomial
expansion is presented and the obtained results were compared with the experimental data
available in the literature.
Keywords: Debye function, Debye temperature, Heat capacity, Metal Diborides

INTRODUCTION
Hard and super hard materials are widely used in industrial applications to prevent wear from
abrasives and cutting tools. Hardness, which is a complex parameter involving elasticity and
plasticity, depends on intrinsic properties such as bond strength, cohesive energy, and crystal
structure, as well as extrinsic properties such as defects, stress fields and morphology (Chung
et al., 2008). Some of these materials are compounds that form strong covalent bonds with
elements C, B and N, such as diamond and cubic boron nitride (Wentorf Jr., 1957). However,
such materials can be synthesized under extremely high pressure and high temperature
(Solozhenko et al., 2001 ; Kaner et al., 2005). For this reason, some of the super hard
materials are produced by incorporating light elements forming strong covalent bonds, such as
C, B, N, and O into transition metals that have high elastic moduli. Several transition metal
diborides were synthesized using hard transition metals, such as W, Re, Os, Ru (Cumberland
et al., 2005; Chung et al., 2007; 2008) and their structural, elastic and electronic properties
were investigated by first principle calculations (Chiodo et al., 2006; Wang, 2007; Zhang et
al., 2007; Liang and Zhang, 2007; Zhou et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008; Wang and Wang,

which effectively resists plastic deformation, and the strong hybridization of the metal q
2009). The reason for the ultra incompressibility of this MB2 is the strong covalent B-B bond,

electron with the boron r and S electrons.

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These transition metals, which are among the superhard materials, have high bulk modulus,
high shear modulus and high shear strength. Super hard materials, which usually have a
microhardness exceeding 40 GPa (Chung et al., 2008). Resistance to plastic deformation is
proportional to the elastic shear modulus (G) for metals at all temperatures below one-third of
the melting point, while for all pure metals the fracture strength is proportional to the bulk
modulus (B). The ability of a material to resist deformation under applied stress is therefore
characterized by its bulk modulus. Similarly, shear modulus is a measure of a material's
ability to resist shear deformation under shear stress. Materials with a high bulk modulus have
a higher resistance to deformation. A large shear modulus value indicates how strong the
resistance to shear deformation is (Pugh, 1954). The quotient, B/G used to understand the
brittle and ductile behavior of materials, so that the higher the value of B/G is the better the
ductility. In this context, bulk and shear modulus are obtained using elastic constants
according to the Voigt-Reuss-Hill approach (Voight, 1889; Reuss, 1929; Hill, 1952).
Another important parameter for solids is the Debye temperature, which describes properties
arise from atomic vibrations. It is important to study the Debye temperature of materials, as
different materials have different Debye temperatures. In addition, a large Debye temperature
indicates a strong covalent bond (Anderson, 1963). In the studies, it has been reported that
HfB2, TaB2 (Chen, et al., 2008), ReB2 (Chung, et al., 2007) and WB2 (Hao, et al., 2006) have
hexagonal structure with P63/mmc space group and, and OsB2 (Cumberland et al., 2005) has
orthorhombic structure space group Pmmn. In this work, Debye temperature and heat capacity
of five 5d transition metal diborides are calculated using elastic constants according to first-
principles method. The obtained results were evaluated by comparing with the theoretical and
available experimental values.

METHOD
Debye Temperature

relationship there are only five elastic constants are described D33 , D3 , D3s , Dss , Dtt and Duu
Crystals of the hexagonal class have six independent elastic constants, while due to the added

(Mouhat and Coudert, 2014).

Duu = (D33 − D3 )⁄2 (1)

According to the Voigt approximation for hexzagonal structure, the bulk modulus wp and the
shear modulus xp are expressed as below (Kanoun et al., 2009) :

wp = y z2(D33 + D3 ) + 4D3s + Dss {

3
(2)

xp = (D33 + D3 + 2Dss − 4D3s + 12Dtt + 12Duu )

3
s|
(3)

In the Reuss model the bulk modulus w} and shear modulus x} are given by (Kanoun et al.,
2009) :

w} = ~
(~aa •~al )~€€ > ~a€
l

aa •~al • ~€€ >t~a€

(4)

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5 z(D33 + D3 )Dss − 2D3s {Dtt Duu

x} =
2 ‚3ƒ„ Dtt Duu + …(D33 + D3 )Dss − 2D3s †(Dtt + Duu )‡
(5)

Orthorhombic crystals have nine independent elastic constants; D33 , D , Dss , Dtt , Dˆˆ , Duu ,
D3 , D3s and D s . According to the Voigt and Reuss approach, the bulk modulus and the shear
modulus are given as (Aydin and Simsek, 2011).

wp = 1⁄9 zD33 + D + Dss + 2(D3 + D3s + D s ){ (6)

xp = 1⁄15zD33 + D + Dss + 3(Dtt + Dˆˆ + Duu ) − (D3 + D3s + D s ){ (7)

D33 (D + Dss − 2D s ) + D (Dss − 2D3s )

>3

w} = ∆ ‹−2Dss D3 + D3 (2D s − D3 ) + D3s (2D3 − D3s )Œ

+ D s (2D3s − D s )
(8)

D33 (D + Dss + D s ) + D (Dss + D3s ) + Dss D3 − D3 (D + D3 )

>3
⎧ s
⎫
4‹ −D3s (D3 • D3s ) Œ•∆
x} = 5
⎨ −D s (D3s + D s ) ⎬
(9)
⎩ +3z(1⁄Dtt ) + (1⁄Dˆˆ ) + (1⁄Duu ){ ⎭

∆= D3s (D3 D s − D3s D ) + D s (D3 D3s − D s D33 ) + Dss (D33 D − D3 ) (10)

lower limits of the true polycrystalline constants. In this context, the mean bulk (w) and shear
It was proved by Hill (Hill, 1952) that the Voigt and Reuss equations represent the upper and

(x ) modulus are defined as (Anderson, 1963):

w = 1⁄2 (wp + w} ) (11)

x = 1⁄2 (xp + x} ) (12)

The Debye temperature (”• ), which is proportional to the sound velocity (–1 ) obtained using
elastic constants, is expressed as follow :

ℎ 3™ 7› œ 3⁄s
”• = ˜ • –1
I— 4š j
(13)

where ℎ is the Planck’s constant, I— is the Boltzmann’s constant, 7› is the Avogadro’s

number, œ is the density, j is the molecular weight, ™ is the number of atoms in the molecule.
The average sound velocity (–1 ) can be calculated on the basis of the following formula :

>3⁄s
–1 = ˜s ž„ € + „ € ¡•
3 3
(14)
Ÿ

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where –¢ and –M are the shear and longitudinal sound velocities, respectively. The probable
values of the shear and longitudinal sound velocities are computed as follows (Anderson,
1963)

x 3⁄
–¢ = ž ¡
œ
(15)

4 3⁄
–M = ˜žw + x¡£œ•
3
(16)

Heat Capacity
The Debye function may be used to evaluate the heat capacities of solids. Defining the heat
capacity with the Debye function is following form:

Dp = 37› I— ¤p ("• ) (16)

where ¤p ("• ) is auxiliary function and it is expressed as (Kubo, 1967):

¤p ("• ) = (C + 1)VR (1, "• ) − ¥§ ¨¦ >3©
RX¦
(17)

X¦
Integer and non-integer of n for Debye function is written following form (Mason, 1965).
C «R
VR ( , ") = R ª [ q«
"• (% − 1)¬
(18)
|

Here "• = ”• ⁄-, ”• is Debye temperature and - is temperature. In this study, the binomial
expansion theory is used to calculate the n-dimensional Debye function. The binomial
expansion theory is expressed following as
°

(" ± ¯) = +(±1)E mE (C)" R>E ¯ E

R
(19)
E2|
where mE (C) is binomial coefficient (Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, 1980). Considering Eq. (19) in
Eq. (18), the analytical expression for the integer Debye function is ontsined as follows
¸
²
±² (³, ´) = ² µ¶· + (−º)»>¼²>º ½» (−³)(³ + »)>²>º (−²(² − º)! + Г(² + º, ´± (³ + »)))
´± ¸→°
»2À

Here, Г( , ") is incomplete gamma function and 7 is the upper limit of series. The heat
capacity can be calculated by using the obtained analytical expression for the integer Debye
function into Eq. (17).

In this work, the –[ , –M and ”• values obtained by considering the finding bulk and shear
NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DICCUSSION

for metal diborides HfB , TaB , WB , ReB and OsB . The obtained results for Debye
modules according to the Voight-Reuss-Hill approach using elastic constants are calculated

temperatures are given Table 1.

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Table 1. Mass density (ρ), molar mass (M), bulk modulus (B), shear modulus (G), sound
velocity (vÎ ) and Debye temperature (θÐ ) of 5d transition-metal diborides MB2 (M=Hf, Ta
W, Re, Os).
ρ (g⁄cms ) M(g⁄mol) B(GPa) G (GPa) vÎ (m⁄s) θÐ (K)
Crystal
system
HfB2 Hekzagonal 11.12 200.11 250.999 242.218 5118.60 708.274
TaB2 Hekzagonal 12.12 202.57 302.108 199.458 4493.09 637.223
WB2 Hekzagonal 12.27 205.46 321.333 223.982 4725.63 669.787
ReB2 Hekzagonal 12.48 207.827 337.538 269.876 5125.29 727.769
OsB2 Orthorhombic 12.65 211.85 311.298 166.173 4035.02 571.879

As seen from Table 1 ReB2 , has the largest bulk and shear values while it is seen that HfB2

has the largest –1 and ”• value and OsB2 has the smallest –1 and ”• value.
has the smallest bulk value, OsB2 has the smallest shear value. Besides, it is seen that ReB2

To show that the obtained ”• is accurate, we calculated heat capacity using Debye functions.
The calculations were made in the Mathematica 7.0 software program. As can be seen in

experimental data for C = 3 at low temperatures and C = 2 at high temperatures.

Table 2, the heat capacity values calculated for HfB2 are more consistent with the

Table 2. Heat capacity Dp (* i.J >3 ƒ >3 ) of HfB2 .

”• = 708.274(ƒ)
- (ƒ)
(Mallik et al.,
Eq.[16]
C=3 C=2
2012)

60 6.45501 8.56682 5.95

71,8 8.96221 10.9846 8.36
80,6 10.6923 12.5923 10.5
92,5 12.7622 14.4700 13.0
107 14.8532 16.3279 15.5
122 16.5756 17.8347 17.4
134 17.6887 18.7989 19.0
152 19.0148 19.9390 20.0
207 21.4635 22.0227 21.9
255 22.5676 22.9541 22.9
382 23.8427 23.2973 23.9
455 24.1602 24.2894 24.2
658 24.5645 24.6267 24.6
840 24.7100 24.7476 24.7

highest heat capacity values are calculated for OsB while the lowest heat capacity values are
The results of heat capacity for MB2 are given in Table 3. As can be seen from Table 3, the

calculated for ReB .

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Table 3. Heat capacity Dp (* i.J >3 ƒ >3 ) of transition-metal diborides MB2

”• = 637.223(ƒ) ”• = 669.787(ƒ) ”• = 727.769(ƒ) ”• = 571.879(ƒ)

-(ƒ)
TaB2 WB2 ReB2 OsB2

C=3 C=2 C=3 C=2 C=3 C=2 C=3 C=2

Eq.(16) Eq.(16) Eq.(16) Eq.(16)

60 1.59346 3.1726 1.37984 2.87686 1.08224 2.44134 2.16298 3.9127

70 2.45391 4.27059 2.13981 3.88369 1.69357 3.30731 3.2672 5.22134
100 5.85624 7.96819 5.25833 7.35951 4.34755 6.40652 7.27054 9.36736
120 8.31479 10.3717 7.60694 9.69324 6.48436 8.59591 9.91109 11.8713
150 11.6456 13.4625 10.8928 12.7762 9.64279 11.6219 13.2572 14.913
170 13.5049 15.1338 12.7729 14.4796 11.5295 15.5145 15.0335 16.4865
200 15.7614 17.1248 15.0947 16.5403 13.933 19.8467 17.1162 18.3038
300 20.1115 20.8755 19.6846 20.5117 18.907 21.8484 20.9399 21.5793
400 22.0443 22.5132 21.7687 22.2806 21.2575 22.8878 22.5692 22.9554
500 23.0297 23.3425 22.8414 23.1843 22.4888 23.4861 23.3852 23.6408
600 23.5915 23.8137 23.4559 23.7 23.2008 23.8591 23.8462 24.0269
700 23.9398 24.1052 23.838 24.02 23.6458 24.1063 24.1305 24.2646
800 24.1698 24.2974 24.0907 24.2313 23.9411 24.1063 24.3176 24.4209

The change of heat capcities of MB2 to temperature are given Figs. 1-5.

30

25

20
CV(J/mol K)

15

10
n=3
n=2
5 (Mallik et al., 2012)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Figure 1. The dependence of temperature to heat capacity of HfB .

T(K)

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30

25

20
CV(J/mol K)

15

10

TaB2
5 WB2
ReB2
OsB2
0

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Figure 2. The dependence of temperature to heat capacity of MB2 for C = 3.

T(K)

30

25

20
CV(J/mol K)

15

10 TaB2
WB2
ReB2
5 OsB2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Figure 3. The dependence of temperature to heat capacity of MB2 for C = 2.

T(K)

CONCLUSION

using first principles calculations. In this context, the Bulk modulus (w), shear modulus (x )
In this study, thermodynamic properties of 5d transition metal diborides MB2 are examined

and Debye temperatures (”• ) for 5d transition metal diborides MB2 are calculated according
to Voight-Reiss-Hill approach. Since the ability of a material to resist deformation under
applied stress is proportional to its mass modulus, it was concluded that ReB2 , which has the
highest bulk modulus value, has better ability to resist deformation than the others.

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It was also predicted that ReB2 might have a stronger covalent bond as it has the highest

a confident method to calculate the heat capacity of 5d transition metal diborides HfB , TaB ,
Debye temperature among the other 5d metal diborides. The Debye temperature calculated is

WB , ReB and OsB . It is determined that the heat capacity values of each 5d transition
metal diborides are different from each other. From here it is concluded that the contribution
of each element of (Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os)-B2 to the heat capacity of pure B2 is different.
Therefore, the results of calculations will be useful for different aspects of industry and
technology. The use of MB2 increases the efficiency of the Hard and super hard materials that
are widely used in industrial applications to prevent wear from abrasives and cutting tools and
help to drive down costs. Therefore, this paper can be useful to calculate the thermodynamic
properties of MB2 used in this goal.

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Kubo, R. (1967). Statistical mechanics: an advanced course with problems and

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BİNDİRME BAĞLANTILI KOMPOZİTLERİN HASAR DAVRANIŞLARI

ÜZERİNDE FARKLI SICAKLIKLARIN ETKİSİ

Gurbet ÖRÇEN
Dicle Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Makina Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-8329-8142

Özet
Bu çalışmada, yapıştırma yoluyla elde edilen kompozit bağlantıların hasar davranışları
üzerinde sıcaklığın etkisi deneysel olarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmada cam fiber takviyeli örgülü
epoksi kompozit levhalar kullanılmıştır. Bu levhalardan bindirme mesafeleri 25 mm, 30 mm
ve 35 mm olmak üzere tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı numuneler hazırlanmış ve üç grupta
incelenmiştir. Bu numunelerde yapıştırıcı kalınlıkları her grup için 0.2 mm ve 0.3 mm olmak
üzere iki şekilde belirlenmiştir. Hazırlanan numuneler üzerinde sıcaklık etkisini araştırmak
için 50 oC ve 150 oC sıcaklık değerlerinde 2 saat süre ile elektrikli fırın içerisinde
bekletilmişlerdir. Bekleme süresi sonunda fırından çıkarılan numuneler, soğumaya bırakılmış
ve daha sonra çekme testine tabi tutulmuşlardır. Test sonunda elde edilen veriler, oda
sıcaklığında bekletilen numunelerden elde edilen verilerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Aynı zamanda
bu numunelerin hasar tipleri de elde edilerek, kendi aralarında karşılaştırılması yapılmıştır.
Çalışmada, yapıştırıcı kalınlığı arttıkça numunelerin dayanımlarının düştüğü tespit edilmiştir.
Oda sıcaklığında bekletilen numunelerden elde edilen dayanım değerlerinin her iki sıcaklığa
maruz kalan numunelerden elde edilen dayanım değerlerinden daha düşük olduğu
görülmüştür. Ayrıca numunelerden genel olarak karma hasar tipi elde edilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bindirme bağlantı, kompozit malzeme, sıcaklık, hasar yükü, hasar tipi.

THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES ON FAILURE BEHAVIOR OF

LAP JOINT COMPOSITES

Summary
In this study, the effect of temperature on the failure behavior of composite joints obtained by
bonding was experimentally investigated. Glass fiber reinforced woven epoxy composite
plates were used in the study. Single-lap bonded specimens with overlapping distances of 25
mm, 30 mm and 35 mm were prepared from these plates and examined in three groups. The
adhesive thicknesses in these specimens were determined in two ways, 0.2 mm and 0.3 mm
for each group. In order to investigate the effect of temperature on the prepared specimens,
they were kept in an electric oven at temperatures of 50 oC and 150 oC for 2 hours. At the end
of the waiting period, the specimens removed from the oven were allowed to cool and then
subjected to the tensile test. The data obtained at the end of the test were compared with the
data obtained from the specimens kept at room temperature. At the same time, the failure
modes of these specimens were obtained and compared among themselves.
In the study, it was determined that the strength of the specimens decreased as the adhesive
thickness increased. It was observed that the strength values obtained from the specimens kept
at room temperature were lower than the strength values obtained from the specimens
exposed to both temperatures. In addition, generally mixed failure modes were obtained from
the specimens.
Keywords: Lap joint, composite material, temperature, failure load, failure mode

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GİRİŞ
Kompozit malzemeler hafiflik, mukavemet vb. özelliklerinden dolayı birçok uygulama
alanında kullanımları gün geçtikçe artmaktadır. Özellikle kompozit birleştirme
yöntemlerinden biri olan (pim, civata vb.) çözülebilen bağlantılarda meydana gelen gerilme
yığılmaları, ek ağırlık artışı gibi özellikler istenmeyen durumlardır. Yapışma bağlantısı
yoluyla elde edilen bağlantılar ise bu uygulama alanlarında çözülebilen bağlantılarına göre
avantajlarından dolayı daha çok tercih edilmektedirler. Çevresel şartların bu bağlantı tipi
üzerindeki etkileri ise önemli alanlardan biridir. Bu çevresel şartlardan biri olan sıcaklığın
tasarlanan yapışma bağlantıları üzerindeki etkisi ve uygulama süresi incelenmesi gereken
önemli parametreler arasındadır.
Literatürde bu alanda birçok çalışma yapılmıştır [1-20]. Leveque ve arkadaşları [1], polimer-
matris bileşikleri üzerinde termal yaşlanmanın mekanik davranışlara etkisini incelemişlerdir.

kullanmışlardır. Termal yaşlanmaya maruz bıraktıkları numunelere (120℃) statik çekme testi
Kompozit malzeme olarak karbon fiber takviyeli epoksi matris reçineli levhalar

uygulamışlardır. Sınmazçelik ve arkadaşları [2], termal yaşlanmanın kısa fiber takviyeli

PEEK ve kompozitleri üzerindeki etkilerini deneysel olarak incelemişlerdir. Yaptıkları
çalışmada termal yaşlanmanın malzemenin eğilme dayanımını arttırdığını belirtmişlerdir.
Bunun yanında elastisite modülünü ve hasar yükünü azalttığını da belirtmişlerdir. Aydın ve
arkadaşları [3], tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı numunelerin mukavemetleri üzerinde kürleşme
boyunca uygulanan basınçla değişimini deneysel olarak araştırmışlardır. Esnek karakterli
yapıştırıcılar için kürleşme esnasında uygulanan basınçta meydana gelen artışın bağlantının
dayanımında artışa neden olduğu, yapıştırılan malzeme kalınlığındaki artışın ise tek tesirli
bindirme bağlantılarının dayanımını ve hasarı üzerindeki kayma gerilmelerinin etkisini
artırdığını belirtmişlerdir. Silva ve Adams [4], düşük ve yüksek sıcaklıklarda iyi bir
mukavemet sağlamak için kullanılan iki farklı yapıştırıcıyı karıştırarak her sıcaklıkta
kullanılabilen bir bağlantının mukavemetini araştırmışlardır. En iyi tasarımı bulmak ve karma
bir birleştirmede gerilme dağılımını araştırmak için Sonlu Elemanlar Metodu ile
modellemişlerdir. Sonuçta iki yapıştırıcının birleşimi ile yapılan bağlantıların çalışma
sıcaklığı aralığının diğerine göre daha iyi bir performans gösterdiğini belirtmişlerdir. Turan ve
Kaman [5], iki kompozit levhayı yapıştırıcı ile birleştirip elde ettikleri tek tesirli yapışma
bağlantısının hasar analizini deneysel ve sayısal metodlar kullanarak incelemişlerdir.
Yapıştırıcı kalınlık artışının hasar yükleri üzerinde fazla bir etki yaratmadığını belirtmişlerdir.
Aldaş ve arkadaşları [7], pim ve yapıştırıcı yardımıyla elde edilen karma bağlantılı iki
kompozit levhaya uygulanan farklı sıcaklıkların meydana getirdiği gerilmeleri analiz
etmişlerdir. Karma bağlantıda oluşacak hasarın delik çevresinden başlayacağını ve
gerilmelerinde delik etrafında yoğunlaştığını belirtmişlerdir. Okba ve arkadaşları [8],
sıcaklığın polimer yapıştırıcıların mekanik özelliklerine etkisini deneysel olarak
araştırmışlardır. Yüksek sıcaklığa maruz kalan numunelerin mukavemetlerinin düştüğünü
belirtmişlerdir. Akderya ve arkadaşları [9], tek tesirli olarak birleştirilmiş kompozit

Epoksi yapıştırıcıyla birleştirilen kompozit malzemeler -18 ℃, 25 ℃ ve 70 ℃’ de uygulamaya

malzemelerin mekanik özellikleri üzerinde sıcaklığın etkisini deneysel olarak incelemişlerdir.

alınmışlardır. -18 ℃’ de termal yaşlandırılmaya maruz kalan numunenin çekme testi

sonucunda dayanımında artış olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Turan ve arkadaşları [10], termal
yaşlanmanın v çentikli cam/epoksi tabakalı kompozit levhaların hasar yükleri üzerinde
etkisini deneysel olarak araştırmışlardır. Termal yaşlanmanın, kompozit malzemeler için
mukavemeti azaltacak bir etki yarattığını belirtmişlerdir.

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Banea ve arkadaşları [11], sıcaklığın yüksek sıcaklıklı bir epoksi yapıştırıcının yapışma
mukavemeti ve kırılma tokluğu üzerindeki etkisini değerlendirmek için deneysel bir çalışma
yapmışlardır. Bu sıcaklık aralığında yapıştırıcının mukavemet profilini elde etmek için,
kürlenmiş yapıştırıcının toplu numunelerini üretmiş ve oda sıcaklığında 100, 150 ve 200 °C'
de gerilim altında test etmişlerdir. Sıcaklık arttıkça yapıştırıcının çekme mukavemetinin
azaldığını ancak sünekliğin arttığını belirtmişlerdir. Alcock ve arkadaşları [12], Polipropilen
kompozitlerin mekanik özelliklerini statik ve dinamik test yöntemleriyle bir dizi sıcaklıkta
ölçerek, bu sıcaklıkların kompozit malzemelerin mukavemeti üzerindeki etkilerini
araştırmışlardır. Cao ve arkadaşları [13], karbon elyaf takviyeli polimer (CFRP) levhaların,
hibrit karbon/cam elyaf takviyeli polimer (C/GFRP) levhaların ve hibrit karbon/bazalt elyaf
takviyeli polimer (C/BFRP) levhaların farklı sıcaklıklardaki çekme özellikleri üzerine
deneysel bir çalışma yapmışlardır. FRP levhalarındaki karbon fiberlerin gerilme
mukavemetinin artan sıcaklıkla önemli ölçüde azaldığını belirtmişlerdir. Agarwal ve
arkadaşları [14], çelik-CFRP tek bindirmeli bağlantıların ıslak ve kuru şartlar altında termo-
mekanik yüklemeler yapılarak, etkilerini deneysel olarak araştırmışlardır. Çalışma sonucunda
ısıl yüklemenin ve nemin artmasının artık gerilmeleri azalttığını belirtmişlerdir. Zhang ve
arkadaşları [15], çift bindirme bağlantılı pultrude cam elyaf kompozitlerin 35 oC ile 60 oC
arasında bağlantı mukavemetinin değişimini araştırmışlardır. Düşük sıcaklıklarda çatlak
ilerlemesinin daha hızlı olduğunu ayrıca sıcaklık artışına bağlı olarak bağlantı mukavemetinin
%80 oranında azaldığını belirtmişlerdir. Hu ve arkadaşları [16], farklı sıcaklıklara maruz
bırakılan yapışma bağlantıların statik mekanik performansını araştırmışlardır. Maruz kalma
sıcaklığının, yapışma bağlantı mukavemeti üzerindeki etkilerini analiz etmek için MATLAB
programlamından yararlanmışlardır. Çalışmada uzun süreli sıcaklığa maruz kalan bağlantı
mukavemetinde bozulmanın oluştuğunu belirtmişlerdir. Liu ve arkadaşları [17], termal
yaşlanmanın karbon/epoksi kompozitlerin ve SY 14 film yapıştırıcı ile birleştirilen çift
bindirme bağlantıların dayanımları üzerindeki etkilerini araştırmışlardır. 95 oC' de suda 60
saat yaşlandırılan numunelerin elastisite modülünün %24 ve bağlantı mukavemetinin %27-54
oranında azaldığını belirtmişlerdir. Shawaf ve arkadaşları [18], yüksek sıcaklık altında
karbon fiber takviyeli polimer (CFRP) ile çelik levhalar arasındaki bağlanma özelliklerini
deneysel olarak araştırmışlardır. En düşük camsı geçiş sıcaklığına sahip numunelerin hasar
yüklerinin camsı geçiş sıcaklığı değerine yaklaşıldığında diğerlerine göre daha fazla
düştüğünü belirlemişlerdir. Machado ve arkadaşları [19], yarı statik ve darbe koşulları altında
karışık yapışma bağlantıları üzerinde düşük ve yüksek sıcaklıkların etkilerini araştırmışlardır.
Esnek yapıştırıcı, sert yapıştırıcı ve karışık (sert+esnek) yapıştırıcılar kullanmışlardır.
Çalışmaları sonucunda sırasıyla düşük sıcaklık (30 oC) koşulları, oda sıcaklığı koşulları ve
yüksek (80 oC) sıcaklık koşulları altında esnek yapıştırıcı, karışık yapıştırıcı ve sert yapıştırıcı
için maksimum hasar yükleri elde edildiğini belirtmişlerdir. Marchione ve arkadaşları [20],
cam ve alüminyum yapıştırıcılar arasında çift bindirmeli yapışma bağlantılarında üzerinde
deneysel bir çalışma yapmışlardır. Dört farklı ticari yapısal yapıştırıcı (üç epoksi ve bir
üretan) için farklı yükleme koşullarına (yani yarı statik ve döngüsel) ve yüksek sıcaklıklara
(85 °C) maruz kalan yapışma bağlantıları üzerinde testler yapmışlardır. Yüksek sıcaklıklara
uzun süre maruz kalmanın, bağlantıların hasar tipleri üzerinde olumsuz bir etkiye sahip
olduğunu ve yapışma hasarı yüzdesinde bir artışa neden olduğunu belirtmişlerdir.
Bu çalışmada; tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı cam fiber takviyeli epoksi kompozit numuneler
üzerinde sıcaklığın etkisi ve buna bağlı olarak hasar yükleri, hasar tipleri deneysel olarak
araştırılmıştır.

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Farklı bindirme mesafelerine sahip tek tesirli yapışma bağlantılı numuneler 50 oC ve 150 oC
sıcaklıkta 2 saat süre ile elektrikli fırında bekletilmişlerdir. Farklı yapıştırıcı kalınlıkları da ele
alınarak yapılan deneysel çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlar birbirleriyle ve kuru haldeki
sonuçları ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Elde edilen hasar tiplerininde karşılaştırılması yapılmıştır.

2. DENEYSEL ÇALIŞMA
Çalışmada örgülü cam fiber takviyeli epoksi kompozit levha kullanılmıştır. Kompozit levha
İzoreel Tic. San. Şirketinden elde edilmiştir. Levha kalınlığı bütün numunelerde 1.6 mm
olarak alınmıştır.

2.1. Numunelerin Hazırlanması

Çalışmada kullanılan numuneler yapıştırma yoluyla elde edilmiştir. Cam fiber takviyeli
kompozit levhadan Şekil 1’de geometrik ölçüleri belirtilen tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı
numuneler hazırlanmıştır. Bu numunelerde bindirme mesafeleri (lb) 25 mm, 30 mm ve 35 mm
olarak üç grupta incelenmiştir. Numunelerin boyları (L) 80 mm, genişlikleri (w) 25 mm
olarak alınmıştır. Her numuneden 3’er adet hazırlanmıştır.

Şekil 1. Tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı numune geometrisi (lb: 25, 30, 35 mm)

Numuneler belirtilen geometrilerde kesildikten sonra yapıştırma yapılacak bağlantı yüzeyleri

zımparalanmış, daha sonra da asetonlu bez yardımıyla silinmiştir. Numunelerin geometrileri
ve ölçüleri gözönüne alınarak 3D printerde üretilen özel kalıplarda yapıştırma işlemleri
gerçekleştirilmiştir (Şekil 2). Yapıştırıcı olarak Loctite EA 9466 tipindeki ticari yapıştırıcı
kullanılmıştır. Bütün numunelerde yapıştırıcı kalınlığı (th) 0,2 mm ve 0,3 mm olmak üzere iki
şekilde hazırlanmıştır. Yapıştırma işleminden sonra numuneler kurumaya bırakılmıştır.

Şekil 2. 3D printerde üretilen kalıplar

Kuruyan numunelerin bir kısmı çekme testine tabi tutulmuşlardır. Diğerleri ise 50 oC ve 150
o
C sıcaklıkta 2 saat süre ile elektrikli fırın içerisinde bekletilmişlerdir. Süre sonunda fırından
çıkarılan numuneler soğumaya bırakılmış ve 1 hafta sonra çekme testine tabi tutulmuşlardır.

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Çekme testi Instron marka 100 kN kapasitesindeki test cihazında 1 mm/dak hızında
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Her numuneden 3’ er adet test edilmiş ve elde edilen sonuçların
ortalaması alınarak grafik ve tablolara aktarılmıştır.

2.2. Elde Edilen Hasar Yükleri

Termal sıcaklığa maruz bırakılan numunelerden elde edilen veriler, oda sıcaklığındaki
numunelerden elde edilen veriler ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Tablo 1‘ de deneye tabi tutulan
numunelerin çekme testi sonucu elde edilen verileri yer almaktadır.

Tablo 1. Elde edilen hasar yükleri

Bindirme Bağlantısı (N)

Sıcaklık/ Yapıştırıcı
zaman kalınlığı
(mm) B25 B30 B35

Kuru (Oda 0,2 9439.002 10363.48 11172.43

sıcaklığı)
0,3 8427.093 9147.45 9696.31

0,2 10553.45 12648.40 13633.65

50 oC/2saat 0,3 10488.07 12371.63 13006,27

0,2 10184.94 11955.73 13204.22

150 oC/2saat 0,3 10256.43 11038.03 12930.24

Aynı zamanda Şekil 3, Şekil 4, Şekil 5’ te numunelerin yük-uzama grafikleri yer almaktadır.

Şekil 3. Kuru (Oda sıcaklığında) numunelerinin yük-uzama grafikleri

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Şekil 4. 50 oC- 2 saat maruz kalan numunelerinin yük-uzama grafikleri

Şekil 5. 150 oC- 2 saat maruz kalan numunelerinin yük-uzama grafikleri

Şekil 6 ‘da ise sonuçlar grafik şeklinde karşılaştırmalı olarak verilmiştir. Tablo 1
incelendiğinde kuru haldeki (Oda sıcaklığında bekletilen) numunelerde bağlantıların bindirme
mesafesi artıkça dayanımlarının arttığı görülmektedir. Bu durum literatürdeki çalışmalarla
uyumlu olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak yapışma kalınlığı arttıkça numunelerin dayanımının
genel olarak düştüğü görülmektedir. Şöyle ki Oda sıcaklığında th=0.2 mm olan B35 (bindirme
mesafesi 35 mm) bağlantılı numunenin dayanımının; B30 (bindirme mesafesi 30 mm)
bağlantılı numuneye göre %7,81, B25 (bindirme mesafesi 25 mm) bağlantılı numuneye göre
ise %18,36 oranında daha fazla olduğu tespit edilmiştir. th=0.3 mm olan B35 bağlantılı
numunenin dayanımının B30‘a göre %5.99, B25 ‘ e göre ise %15.06 oranında artış sağladığı
tespit edilmiştir (Tablo 1).
Ancak yine oda sıcaklığında bekletilen th= 0.3 mm olan B35 bağlantılı numunenin
dayanımının, th= 0.2 mm olan B35 bağlantılı numuneye gore %13.21 oranında düştüğü tespit
edilmiştir. Benzer şekilde th=0.3 mm olan B30 ve B25 bağlantılı numunelerin; th=0.2 mm
olan B30 ve B25 bağlantılı numunelere göre sırasıyla; %11.73 ve %10.72 oranında düştüğü
tespit edilmiştir (Şekil 6, Tablo 1).

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Kuru-th:0.2 Kuru-th:0.3 50 C-2 saat- th:0.2

50 C-2 saat-th:0.3 150 C-2 saat-th:0.2 150 C-2saat-th:0.3
13.900
13.400
12.900
12.400
11.900
11.400
10.900
10.400
9.900
9.400
8.900
8.400
B25 B30 B35
Şekil 6. Bindirme bağlantılarının yük değişimleri toplu grafiği

50 oC’ de 2 saat boyunca sıcaklığa maruz bırakılan numunelerden elde edilen dayanımların;
her iki yapıştırıcı kalınlığına sahip oda sıcaklığında bekletilen numunelerden elde edilen
değerlerden daha fazla olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ancak 150 oC’ de 2 saat boyunca sıcaklığa
maruz bırakılan numunelerden elde edilen değerlerin ise 50 oC’ de 2 saat boyunca maruz
bırakılan numunelerden elde edilen değerlere göre daha düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir (Tablo
1, Şekil 6).
Grafiklerde de görüldüğü gibi en iyi mukavemet değerlerinin 0.2 mm yapıştırıcı kalınlığı olan
numunelerden elde edilmiştir. th=0.3 mm kalınlığa sahip numunelerin mukavemet
değerlerinin, th= 0.2 mm kalınlığa sahip numunelere göre düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu
durum th=0.3 mm olan 50 oC’de 2 saat süre ile maruz bırakılan B25 ve B35 numunelerden
elde edilen dayanım değerlerinin, th=0.2 mm olan aynı sıcaklık ve aynı geometrilerdeki
numunelerden elde edilen dayanım değerlerine göre sırasıyla %0.62 ve %4.60 oranlarında
düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir (Şekil 4, Şekil 6, Tablo 1).

2.3. Hasar Tipleri

Çekme testine tabi tutulan her gruptaki geometrilere ait numunelerden hasar tipleri tespit
edilerek Tablo 2’ de verilmiştir. Tabloda elde edilen hasarlar; M.H: Kompozit malzeme
hasarı, Y.H: Yapıştırıcı hasarı, F.H: Fiber hasarı, Y. H+F.H= Yapıştırıcı hasarı+fiber hasarı
olarak tanımlanmıştır.
Numunelerden genel olarak karma hasar tipi olan Y.H + F.H hasar tipi elde edilmiştir.
Çalışmada numunelerden elde edilen hasar tiplerine ait örneklerden bazıları Şekil 7, Şekil 8
ve Şekil 9 ‘da verilmiştir.

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Tablo 2: Bindirme bağlantı mesafelerine ve yapıştırıcı kalınlığına göre numunelerden elde

edilen hasar tipleri

Tablo 2 incelendiğinde oda sıcaklığında bekletilen B25 numunelerinde, th= 0.2 mm ve 0.3
mm kalınlıklarında ve her iki sıcaklık aralığında da genel olarak karma hasar tipi oluştuğu
gözlenmiştir. Hasar tipi; bağlantı bölgesinde hem yapıştırıcı hemde fiber hasarı olarak
meydana gelmiştir (Şekil 7, Tablo 2).

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Şekil 7. B25 bağlantısından elde edilen hasar tip fotoğrafları

B30 bağlantı geometrisine ait numunelerden M.H ve karma hasar tipi (Y.H+ F.H) elde
edilmiştir. Bu numunelerde bağlantı bölgesi zarar görmemiş ve hasar bağlantı bölgesi
bitiminde meydana gelerek malzeme hasar (M.H) tipini oluşturmuştur.

Şekil 8. B30 bağlantısından elde edilen hasar tip fotoğrafları

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B35 bağlantı geometrisine ait numunelerden de genellikle M.H hasar tipi elde edilmiştir. Bu
hasar tipinin özellikle yapıştırıcı kalınlığı 0.3 mm ve sıcaklığın 150 oC olduğu zaman elde
edildiği görülmüştür.

Şekil 9. B35 bağlantısından elde edilen hasar tip fotoğrafları

3. Değerlendirme ve Tartışma
Yapılan çalışmada numunelerin dayanımlarının 50 oC ve 150 oC’de 2 saat süre ile
bekletildiğinde oda sıcaklığında bekletilen numunelerden elde edilen dayanım değerlerinden
daha yüksek olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yine özellikle sıcaklığın, yapıştırıcı kalınlığı arasındaki
kimyasal ilişkinin; numunelerde malzeme hasarına yol açacak bir etkiye sahip olduğu
düşünülmektedir. Yapışma bağlantılı kompozit malzemelerde; camsı geçiş sıcaklığını aşan
sıcaklık değerlerine ulaşıldığında kompozit levha yüzeyindeki yapıştırıcı ve epoksinin jel
formuna dönüştüğü kabul edilmektedir. Bunun sonucunda yapıştırıcı ve epoksi reçine birlikte
karışır ve numune oda sıcaklığında soğutulduğunda yeni bir arayüz elde edilmektedir. Yine
bağlantı mukavemetindeki artışın bu karışım sonucu oluşan ara yüzeyden dolayı oluştuğu
kabul edilmektedir [6]. Çalışmamızda elde edilen hasar tiplerinden biri olan malzeme
hasarının; arayüz ile bağlantı mukavemetini arttırdığını ve bağlantı bölgesi dışında hasara yol
açtığını göstermektedir. Aynı zamanda bu arayüz sonucunda oda sıcaklığında bekletilen
numune dayanımlarının, sıcaklığa maruz bırakılan numunelerin dayanımlarından daha düşük
olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yine th=0.3 mm olan numunelerin dayanımlarının, th=0.2 mm olan
numunelerin dayanımlarından daha düşük olduğuda tespit edilmiştir.

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4. Sonuç
Bu çalışmada; bindirme mesafeleri 25, 30, 35 mm ve yapıştırıcı kalınlığı 0.2 mm, 0.3 mm
olan tek tesirli bindirme bağlantılı cam fiber takviyeli epoksi kompozit numunelerin 50 oC ve
150 oC ‘de 2 saat süre ile bekletilmeleri sonucu dayanımları ve hasar tipleri deneysel olarak
incelenmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda aşağıdaki sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.
- Yapıştırıcı kalınlığı 0.3 mm olan numunelerin dayanımları, yapıştırıcı kalınlığı 0.2 mm olan
numunelerden daha düşük olarak elde edilmiştir.
- 50 oC ve 150 oC ‘de 2 saat süre ile bekletilen numunelerin dayanımları kuru haldeki
numunelerin dayanımlarından daha yüksek elde edilmiştir.
- Numunelerden genel olarak karma hasar tipi elde edilmiştir. Ancak 150 oC ‘de 2 saat süre ile
bekletilen numunelerden genel olarak malzeme hasarı (M.H) elde edilmiştir.
- Bu çalışma camsı geçiş sıcaklığı tespitleri, SEM görüntüleri ve farklı bir sıcaklık artışı
uygulanarak geliştirilebilinir.

Referanslar
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how thermal aging a ects the long-term mechanical behavior and strength of polymer–matrix
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[2] Sınmazçelik, T., Yılmaz, T., 2005. Thermal aging eects on mechanical and
tribological. Composites Science and Technology, 67:186-198.
[3] Aydın, M.D., Temiz, Ş. ve Özel, A. 2007. Yapıştırma Bağlantılarının Dayanımı
Üzerine Kürleşme Basıncının Etkisi. 8. Uluslararası Kırılma Konferansı, 7–9 Kasım 2007,
İstanbul, Türkiye.
[4] Silva, L.F.M, and Adams, R.D, 2007. Joint Strength Predictions for Adhesive
Joints to be Used over a Wide Temperature Range. International Journal of Adhesion &
Adhesives, 27:362-379.
[5] Turan, K., Kaman, M. O., 2010. Tek Tesirli Yapıştırma Bağlantılarında İlerlemeli
Hasar Analizi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 16,Sayı:3,Sayfa
375-323.
[6] Turan, K., 2019. Thermal aging effect on the failure loads of adhesively strap
joints, Journal of Composite Materials, Vol. 53(26–27) 3701–3713.
[7] Aldaş K., Şen F. 2012. Karma Bağlantılı Kompozit Plaklarda Farklı Sıcaklıklar
Etkisiyle Oluşan Gerilmelerin Analizi. KSU. Journal of Engineering Sciences, 15 (1).
[8] Okba, S.H. , El-Sayed, A. N., Helmy, A.I.I., Yousef, I.A.L, 2017. Effect of thermal
exposure on the mechanical properties of polymer adhesives. Construction and Building
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[9] Akderya, T., Kemiklioğlu, U. , Sayman, O., 2016. Effects of thermal ageing and impact
loading on tensile properties of adhesively bonded fibre/epoxy composite joints, Composites
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[10] Turan, K., ve Kaman, M.O., Tosun. N., 2016. Thermal Aging Effect On The Failure
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[11]Banea MD, Silva LFM and Campilho RDSG. 2012. Effect of temperature on tensile
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[12] Alcock B, Cabrera NO, Barkoula M, et al. 2007. The effect of temperature and strain rate
on the mechanical properties of highly oriented polypropylene tapes and all-polypropylene
composites. Compos Sci Technol; 67: 2061–2070.
[13] Cao S, Wu Z, Wang X. 2009. Tensile properties of CFRP and hybrid FRP composites at
elevated temperatures. J Compos Mater; 43: 315–330.
[14] Agarval A, Foster S , Hamed E. [Link] of new adhesive and CFRP laminate for
steel-CFRP joints under sustained loading and temperature cycles. Compos Part B; 99: 235–
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[15] Zhang Y, Vassillopoulos AP, Keller T. 2010. Effects of low and high temperatures on
tensile behavior of adhesively 3712 Journal of Composite Materials 53(26–27) bonded GFRP
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[16] Hu P., Han X., Li, W.D., Li L., Shao Q., 2013. Research on the static strength
performance of adhesive single lap joints subjected to extreme temperature environment for
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[17] Liu S, Cheng X, Zhang Q, 2016. An investigation of hygrothermal effects on adhesive
materials and double lap shear joints of cfrp composite laminates. Compos Part B; 91: 431–
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[18] Shawaf A, Mahaidi R, Zhao XL. 2015. Effect of elevated temperature on bond behavior
of high modulus cfrp/steel double strap joints. Aust J Struct Eng; 10: 63–74.
[19] Machado J, Marques E,Silva LFM. 2018. Influence of low and high temperature on
mixed adhesive joints under quasi-static and impact conditions. Compos Struct; 194: 68–79.
[20] Marchione, F., Placido Munafò, P., 2021. Influence of high temperature exposure on the
mechanical performance of double-lap adhesive joints between glass and aluminium
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VAN GÖLÜ HAVZASI BÖLGESEL TAŞKIN ANALİZİ VE ÖNLEMLERİ

Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Pınar MEMİŞ DEMİRHAN

Kocaeli Üniversitesi Fen bilimleri Enstitüsü İnşaat Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı
ORCID: 0000-0002-1873-5051

Prof. Dr. Mücahit OPAN

Kocaeli Üniversitesi Fen bilimleri Enstitüsü İnşaat Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı
ORCID: 0000-0002-5778-389X

ÖZET
Taşkın; bir akarsuyun bazı sebeplerden dolayı yatağından çıkıp yerleşim yerleri, tarım
arazileri, alt yapı ve çeşitli canlılara zarar vererek taşmasına denir. Taşkının birden çok nedeni
vardır. Fakat ülkemizde aşırı ani yağış ve toplu kar erimeleri taşkının en büyük
sebeplerindendir. Taşkın ülkemizde depremden sonra en çok maddi zarara neden olan doğal
afettir. Bazı verilere göre her yıl ülkemizde taşkından dolayı kayıp ortalama 100.000.000
Amerikan doları olarak ifade edilmektedir. Taşkınların azaltılması ve kontrol altına alınması
için ülkemizde tüm bölgelerde projeli çalışmalar yürütülmektedir. Van Gölü Havzası Doğu
Anadolu’nun güneyinde yer almakta olup Türkiyenin ikinci büyük içe akışlı havzasıdır.
Havza 37°55´-39°24´ kuzey ve 42°05'-44°22' doğu enlem ve boylam dereceleri arasındadır.
Yıllık su potansiyeli 3,5 milyar m3 olarak belirlenmiştir. Van ili yıllık yağış miktarı 400mm-
700mm arasındadır. Yağışlı gün sayısı 80-90 arasında değişmektedir. İlkbaharda sıcaklıkların
yükselmesi nedeniyle dağlardaki karlar eriyerek taşkınlara sebep olmaktadır.
Havzaya en az yağış ağustos ayındadır bu değer ortalama 7,9 mm’dir, en fazla yağış ise nisan
ayındadır ortalama 70 mm’dir. Van gölü havzasındaki nehirler kat ettikleri mesafe ve
taşıdıkları su ile büyük sayılan akarsulardır. Van Gölü Havzasındaki ana akarsular 11 adettir.
Van Gölü Havzasında 1988 yılından günümüze kadar 28 büyük taşkın olayı gerçekleşmiştir.
Bu taşkınlarda birçok can ve mal kaybı yaşanmıştır. Bu çalışma Van Gölü Havzasının geçmiş
taşkınlarını ve bu taşkınlarda yaşanan can ve mal kaybını, derelerin karakteristik özellikleri ve
iklim olayları göz önünde bulundurarak, bu havzada yer alan tüm derelerde yapılması gereken
çalışmaları ortaya koymuştur. Bu çalışmada öncelikle taşkından önce yapılması gereken tüm
tedbirler anlatılmış ardından Van Gölü Havzasının yağış durumu, hangi mevsimlerde taşkın
olma olasılığının yüksek olduğu ve geçmiş yıllarda yaşanılan taşkınların hasarları
anlatılmıştır. Ayrıca Van Gölü Havzasında bulunan tüm derelerde yapılması gerekenler
fotoğraflarla gösterilmiş ve anlatılmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Rüsubat Kontrolü, Taşkın, Van Gölü Havzası

VAN LAKE BASIN REGIONAL FLOOD ANALYSIS AND MEASURES

ABSTRACT
Flood; it is called the overflow of a stream by leaving its bed for some reasons damaging
settlements, agricultural lands infrastructure and various living things. Floods have multiple
causes. However, in our country, excessive sudden precipitation and mass snow melts are the
biggest causes of flooding. Flood is the natural disastet that causes the most material damage
after the eartquake in our country. According to some data, the loss due to flooding in our
country is expressed as an average of 100,000,000 US dollart each year.

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Projected studies are carried out in all regions of our country in order to reduce and control
floods. Lake Van Basin is located in the South of Eastern Anatolia and is the second largest
inflow basin in Turkey. The basin is between 37°55´-39°24´ North and 42°05'-44°22' east
latitude and longitude. The annual water potential has been determined as 3,5 bilion m3. The
annual precipitation in Van is between 400 mm – 700 mm. The number of rainy days varies
between 80-90. Due to the rise in temperatures in the spring, the snow on the mountains melts
causing floods. The least precipitation in the basin is in August, this value is 7.9 mm on
average, and the highest precipitation is in April, with an average of 70 mm. The rivers in the
Van Lake basin are big rivers with the distance they cover and the water they carry.
There are 11 main streams in the Van Lake Basin. 28 major flood events have occurred in the
Van lake Basin since 1988. Many lives and property were lost in these floods.
This study revealed the work to be done in all streams in this basin, considering the past
floods of the Lake Van Bain and the loss of life and property in these floods, the
characteristics of the streams and the climatic events. In this study, firstly, all the precautions
to be taken before the flood are explained, and then the rainfall of the Van Lake Basin, the
seasons in which flood probability is high and the damages of the floods experienced in the
past years are explained. In addition, the things to be done in all the streams in the Lake Van
Basin are shown and described with photographs.
Keywords: Sage Control, Flood, Lake Van Basin

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DETERMINATION OF KARAMANOGLU MEHMETBEY UNIVERSITY

BUILDINGS BY UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)

Lecturer Yusuf DOĞAN

Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Map and
Cadastre Program
ORCID: 0000-0001-8564-7839

Asst. Prof. Dr. Fuat BAŞÇİFTÇİ

Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Map and
Cadastre Program
ORCID: 0000-0002-5791-0676

ABSTRACT
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), which is one of the most important gains of developing
technology, was first used for military purposes, but soon became an important part of our
daily life. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) are unmanned aerial vehicles that have their
power system, carry payloads, and are flown automatically or with a remote control system.
In addition to producing three-dimensional spatial information with UAV, it provides less
labor, time, and cost advantages compared to classical measurement methods, playing an
important role in the widespread use of UAVs. UAV systems, the use of which are becoming
more and more widespread day by day, are in continuous development to meet the high
accuracy requirement, especially for cartography activities. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are
also preferred for small areas thanks to their low cost, speed, high resolution, and repetitive
flight capability. In addition, unmanned aerial vehicles are preferred because they allow easy
measurement in many areas where it is dangerous for people to enter and where precision is
required. In this study, aerial photographs of Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University campus
were taken with an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and an orthophoto of the campus area
was obtained using these photographs. It has been concluded that compared to other terrestrial
surveying techniques, baseline maps of small areas, digital terrain models and orthophoto
maps used by many disciplines can be produced in a shorter time and more economically by
using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
Keywords: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University,
Orthophoto

1. INTRODUCTION
Recent advances in technology have brought some innovations into people's lives. New
studies in the field of aviation have led to the development of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs), which are used for different purposes in civil and military fields, with the combined
use of electronic, communication, and navigation technologies (Yıldırım et al., 2016).
Today, UAV and its systems are increasingly used by consumer organizations, commercial
enterprises, and academic circles to obtain geographical data of natural or artificial spatial
objects. Geographical data are data containing spatial information with projection and datum
information in a coordinate system (Yılmaz et al., 2018).

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The increase in population, the valuation of lands, the decrease in natural resources, and the
pressure of human activities on soil, water, and air have made it important to measure and
monitor the environment today. In parallel with the increase in the use, management, and
monitoring of natural resources, the need for spatially referenced information is constantly
increasing. By using modern terrestrial, air and satellite-based technologies, the data needed
together with geographic information systems are collected and analyzed more quickly and
accurately than ever before, and the results can be presented in various ways (Döner et al.,
2014; Yılmaz et al., 2018).
There are various methods such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS), terrestrial geodetic
surveys, LIDAR, terrestrial laser scanners, traditional aerial vehicles, photogrammetry, and
remote sensing that produce location-based data. It is a technology that can produce accurate
and sensitive data based on location in UAVs. UAVs will be the most important data source
that produces data for many disciplines in the future (Tahar, 2012).
The rapid development of technology has also affected the geomatics industry closely. With
the development of photogrammetric techniques, digital measurement tools such as computers
with high technical equipment, total stations, GPS, and images taken from satellite
photographs, images taken from cameras mounted on manned aerial vehicles, and images
taken with the help of cameras mounted on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), which is the
latest product of technology, maps of the earth can be produced. With these measurement
tools and production techniques, the mapping of the earth and the interpretation of the
changes in the land show that the geomatics industry has transitioned from line geomatics to
digital geomatics (Çoşkun, 2020).
This study, it is aimed to determine the usability of the data obtained by evaluating the
possibilities and limitations offered for data acquisition and mapping with the application
carried out with the UAV at the Yunus Emre Campus of Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey
University.

2. UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES (UAV)

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are called unmanned or Unpiloted powered aerial vehicles. The
control mechanism of UAVs consists of remote, semi-automatic, automatic, or a combination
of these. When UAVs are compared with other aerial vehicles, the most important difference
is that UAVs do not have a physical pilot (Eisenbeiss, 2004; Rawat and Lawrence, 2014).
UAVs are one of the most important technologies in many aviation applications, especially in
civil and military applications, due to their low cost and high performance (Jung, 2004).
UAV system; GPS receivers, microprocessors, gyroscopes used in direction finding and
measurement processes, micro-scale sensors and electronic communication elements
constitute equipment. Thanks to these equipment, low cost, high spatial and temporal
resolution data can be produced (Eisenbeiss, 2004).
Today, although UAVs continue to be used for military, security, and intelligence purposes,
they are also used for civilian purposes. It is possible to summarize the applications used for
civilian purposes as follows (Yaşar, 2018):
 In the current map production,
 In agricultural areas
 Following the construction sites
 3D modeling works
 Environmental and marine pollution measurement

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 Obtaining orthophoto maps with aerial photographs

 Measurement and modeling of archaeological sites
 In cubage calculation
 Measurements of pasture and marshy areas
 Traffic control
 Erosion determination
 Scientific research
 Fire detection and monitoring

UAVs are designed to fly from low altitudes to observe objects in the field. However, flying
from a very low height increases the probability of an accident for the UAV. Therefore, it
needs powerful and accurate autopilot systems to increase performance at low altitudes (Chao
et al., 2010).
UAVs can be integrated with various imaging devices with sensors such as thermal, infrared,
hyperspectral, radar, chemical, and biological, providing the opportunity to take images day
and night. With the real-time data transfer feature to the ground station, UAVs can transfer
important information such as fire, flood, weather conditions to the ground station (Rawat and
Lawrence, 2014). With the real-time GPS integrated on the UAVs, it can work with the
ground control station to observe and direct the images it collects and when it flies, so the
systems that work in this way are also called fully automatic navigation systems. The
resulting image can be processed in the laboratory as well as instantly at the ground control
station. UAVs can record all their movements and transmit them to ground control points for
use in image processing (Samad et al., 2013).
3D data obtained with UAV systems provide sufficient accuracy and precision in many
disciplines. Although UAVs have many advantages, they also have disadvantages. Short
flight times, limited opportunity to apply in windy weather, problems experienced during
landing, take-off, and flight, problems encountered in providing high tilt angles and overlap
ratios, due to the large number of images taken in very wide and long areas, the complexity in
the balancing process can be counted as the disadvantage of UAV systems (Tercan, 2017).

3. APPLICATION
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Yunus Emre Campus was chosen as the study area. The
application was made in two parts as land and office work. In land work; A total of 11 Ground
Control Points (GCP) were established by marking the ground with red paint to be able to
detect the necessary places in the study area and frequently enough in aerial photographs
(Figure 1)

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Figure 1. Ground Control Point (GCP) Used in the Study

The coordinates of the ground control points established were obtained by connecting the
TOPCON HiPer SR GNSS receiver to the TUSAGA-Aktif (CORS-TR) network in the
ITRF96 coordinate system (Figure 2). Measurements were carried out in two sessions, before
and after noon, and in 10 epochs.

Figure 2. HiPer SR GNSS Receiver Used in the Study

In the study, DJI Mavic Air 2 brand and model UAV was used to obtain images of the campus
area (Figure 3). First of all, the flight plan was prepared in the DroneHarmony mobile
application (Figure 4).

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As the campus area is approximately 1.80 km2, 8 different flight sessions were planned. Since
the DJI Mavic Air 2 brand UAV used has a flight time of approximately 25 minutes, blocks
are needed to cover such large areas.

Figure 3. DJI Mavic Air 2

Figure 4. Flight plan

All flight plans have the same parameters and these parameters are given in Table 1. The
features of the camera integrated with the UAV are given in Table 2.

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Table 1. Parameters used in the preparation of the flight plan

Ground Sampling Interval 4.50 cm/piksel
Flight Height 120 m
Horizontal Overlay Ratio %70
Vertical Overlay Ratio %70
Camera angle 90°

Table 2. Camera specifications

Camera Model FC3170
Resolution 4000x3000 / 8000x6000 (max)
Focal Length 4.5 mm
Pixel Size 1.62 x 1.62 μm
Sensor CMOS
Field of View (FOV) 84°

A total of 914 images of the campus area were obtained by performing the flights in order. At
the end of these operations, the land work was completed.
In office work; Coordinate and height adjustment of 11 GCPs that were installed in the land
and read with a GNSS receiver were made (Table 3).

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Table 3. Adjustment of Ground Control Points (GCP)

Raw Values obtained with GNSS
Adjustment Values
receiver
Point No
Ellipsoid Ellipsoid
Y X Y X
Height Height
522356,113 4116329,533 1077,820
YKN.1 522356,119 4116329,527 1077,806
522356,124 4116329,520 1077,792
521956,488 4116496,551 1072,361
YKN.2 521956,492 4116496,554 1072,371
521956,496 4116496,556 1072,381
522127,932 4116074,750 1095,148
YKN.3 522127,923 4116074,749 1095,143
522127,914 4116074,748 1095,138
522500,323 4116141,850 1084,055
YKN.4 522500,317 4116141,858 1084,061
522500,310 4116141,866 1084,066
522712,438 4115408,477 1119,423
YKN.5 522712,444 4115408,487 1119,426
522712,449 4115408,496 1119,429
523196,862 4114883,224 1138,254
YKN.6 523196,848 4114883,211 1138,202
523196,834 4114883,198 1138,149
522940,374 4115236,144 1127,160
YKN.7 522940,373 4115236,148 1127,153
522940,372 4115236,151 1127,146
522791,532 4116020,352 1079,323
YKN.8 522791,521 4116020,363 1079,327
522791,510 4116020,373 1079,330
523133,064 4116016,064 1084,034
YKN.9 523133,062 4116016,073 1084,013
523133,060 4116016,082 1083,991
522660,218 4116546,588 1067,705
YKN.10 522660,229 4116546,580 1067,696
522660,240 4116546,572 1067,686
523036,841 4116491,784 1072,660
YKN.11 523036,845 4116491,802 1072,628
523036,849 4116491,819 1072,595

Then, the photographs obtained by the UAV belonging to the study area were evaluated in
Agisoft Metashape software. Agisoft Metashape is an independent software product that
performs photogrammetric processing of digital images and generates 3D spatial data for use
in GIS applications, cultural heritage documentation, and visual effects production, as well as
indirect measurements of objects of various scales (Agisoft, 2021). In the program, products
such as 3D point cloud, digital surface model, orthophoto are produced as a result of a series
of simple processes. First, photos were transferred to the program and automatic photo
stabilization was performed. At this stage, the estimated positions of the photographs and
camera calibration values were determined with the SfM (Structure from Motion) algorithm.
As a result of the process, 1,061,958 tie points were produced (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Sparse point cloud of tie points

So far, the program has assigned an approximate location to the point cloud using the GNSS
coordinates tagged in the photos. However, since this location information is not accurate and
sensitive enough, location improvement was made with GCP coordinates taken from the land.
It is marked on the photographs containing the GCP coordinates transferred to the program
(Figure 6).

Figure 6. Marking of GCPs on the photograph

After the marking process, the point cloud is optimized with GCP coordinates. The total mean
square error of the dots was calculated as 4.08 cm. The error values of the points are given in
Table 4. As a result, the ground was prepared to produce a 3D model with high positional
accuracy. Then, a dense point cloud was obtained by producing 100,332,556 points by
performing the point compaction process (Figure 7).

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Using the dense point cloud data, a Digital Surface Model was created and finally, an
orthophoto was produced (Figure 8). Table 5 gives information about these outputs.

Table 4. Error values of GCPs

Point No X (cm) Y (cm) Z (cm) Total (cm)
1 0.469911 -3.567469 -7.721273 8.518557
2 -4.169053 2.121972 3.680844 5.957229
3 5.66735 3.39474 -2.68196 7.12994
4 0.343934 -0.557139 0.76091 1.00383
5 0.355743 -0.597669 0.000562531 0.695529
6 -0.265861 0.0531222 -0.0397139 0.27401
7 -1.36418 -1.92485 6.72469 7.12653
8 -0.911981 0.680556 -0.691729 1.33167
9 0.0617553 0.560524 0.270669 0.62551
10 -1.00549 -0.0788476 -0.770915 1.26946
11 0.803657 -0.152457 0.468231 0.942522
Total 2.04649 1.6157 3.13205 4.07534

Table 5. Information on Digital Surface Model (DSM) and Orthophoto

DSM ground sampling interval 17.9 cm/pix
DSM point density 31.2 nokta/m2
DSM size 16,540 x 16,200
Orthophoto ground sampling interval 4.48 cm/pix
Orthophoto size 45,719 x 45,107

Figure 7. Dense point cloud

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Figure 8. Orthophoto and Digital Surface Model

The orthophoto file was transferred to the AutoCAD Civil 3D program for the identification
and drawing of the buildings on the university campus. The buildings on the campus were
drawn in 2D over the orthophoto (Figure 9). While drawing, aerial photographs and point
clouds were used for accuracy control.

Figure 9. 2D drawing over orthophoto in AutoCad program

The study was completed in 7 days in total, 4 days in the land, 2 days in total for image
processing in the office, and 1 day for drawing. The UAV used in the study is strong enough
to withstand wind speeds up to 10 m/s. For this reason, flights were delayed when the wind
was blowing at high speeds. In addition, flights could not be carried out in snowy and rainy
weather. In order for the model to be created to represent the topography more accurately, it
was expected that the snow cover would be removed from the land surface.

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Computer hardware used in office work is important in terms of time and quality. In this
study, Intel(R) Core (TM) i7-7700 CPU @ 3.60GHz processor and NVIDIA 630M GPU
Graphics Card were used. Although this hardware is old technology as of today, the necessary
processes have been successfully completed.

4. CONCLUSION
As a result of our study, the 3D model of Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Yunus Emre
Campus was obtained by photogrammetry techniques. Aerial photographs were obtained with
a rotary-wing UAV and it was observed that the use of UAVs for this purpose had a positive
effect on accuracy. Position accuracy is enhanced by the GNSS system. As a result,
orthophoto production with a ground sampling interval of 4.48 cm/pixel was realized. It is
used as a base for orthophoto building detection and drawing. There are limitations due to
weather conditions in the field studies, and the studies were carried out under suitable wind
and precipitation conditions. The importance of the processor and graphics card in office
work has been experienced and it has been seen that it is not possible to process images
without a GPU. As in this study, a high-performance graphics card and processor are needed
to process large graphics data in a short time and with high quality. As a result of the study, it
has been seen that UAVs can be used effectively in the production of maps of small-scale
areas. By obtaining outputs with high location accuracy, maps that comply with regulations
can be created quickly and practically. It can be concluded that compared to conventional
aerial photogrammetry, it is in an advantageous position in terms of rapid and economical
production of current maps, orthophotos and digital elevation models.

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UAV Systems for Agricultural Purposes. Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Gaziosmanpasa
University, 33 (3), 111-120, [Link]
Yılmaz, H., Mutluoğlu, Ö., Ulvi, A., Yaman, A., Bilgilioğlu, S., 2018. İnsansız Hava
Aracı İle Ortofoto Üretimi Ve Aksaray Üniversitesi Kampüsü Örneği. Geomatik, 3 (2), 129-
136. [Link]

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SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS IN LIQUEFIABLE SOIL CONTAINING DIFFERENT

SOIL PROFILES

Burak DEDEOĞLU
Yıldız Technical University
ORCID: 0000-0001-7503-3729

Asst. Prof. Murat Ergenokon SELÇUK

Yıldız Technical University
ORCID: 0000-0003-1890-7965

ABSTRACT
An important aspect of earthquake engineering is site response analysis, which evaluates the
impact of local soil conditions on ground motions in order to properly characterize the seismic
hazard. A precise forecast of site response for soil deposits is crucial for seismic evaluation of
existing geotechnical structures and design of new ones. The results of one-dimensional site
response evaluations based on work done for several soil profiles comprising liquefiable soil
are presented in this paper. We can differ the profiles as effect of shear wave velocity, effect
of ground water table, effect of clay layer which is below the loose sand, effect of clay layer
which is above the loose sand and effect of dense sand layer. The nonlinear method was
adopted, which was based on effective stress modeling in the time domain. This study uses
GMP for cohesionless models and Matasovic & Vucetic for clay models. DEEPSOIL
software, a one-dimensional site response analysis program, was used to calculate the ground
response of profiles. Results under eleven earthquake motions are given in terms of Peak
Ground Accelerations (PGA) and Spectral Accelerations. The data comes from the PEER
Ground Motion Database. The compatibility of the records are done by using Seismomatch
2021 program. The overall analysis results revealed that for all soil profiles, the Peak Ground
Acceleration (PGA) and maximum Spectral Acceleration (SA) values on the ground surface
decrease when we compare the surface motion to the input motion.
Keywords: Site response, liquefiable soil, DEEPSOIL, nonlinear analysis, earthquake

INTRODUCTION
Destructive earthquakes in Turkey in recent decades, such as the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake, the
2011 Van earthquake, the 2014 Gokceada earthquake, the 2017 Bodrum earthquake and 2020
Aegean Sea earthquake have shown the impact of local geology variables on seismic site
responses. Significant damage and loss of life are discovered to be dependent on the effects of
local site circumstances. Site response analyses which entail the propagation of earthquake
motions from the bedrock, through the overlying soil layers, to the ground surface are an
significant phase in the seismic evaluation of many geotechnical structures. In the soil profile
and liquefaction hazard analyses, these analyses are utilized to quantify ground surface
motions for the generation of design response spectra, dynamic stresses, strains, and
displacements. In both study and practice, one-dimensional site response analysis is
commonly employed to measure the effect of soil deposits on propagated ground motions.
Changes in the intensity and frequency content of motion caused by seismic waves
propagating through soil deposits have a direct impact on structures during earthquakes.

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The methods can be classified into two main categories: (1) time domain analysis (including
linear and nonlinear analysis) and (2) frequency domain analysis (including linear and
equivalent linear methods). The main aim of this study is to estimate the ground response of
different soil profiles containing liquefiable soil. A series of site reaction assessments are
carried out in this study under eleven different earthquake movements. DEEPSOIL, a one-
dimensional site response analysis tool, was used to compare the seismic response of the
different profiles. Nonlinear analysis were used in this investigation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eleven earthquake records were taken from PEER Ground Motion Database. The chosen
eleven earthquake records are shown in Figure 2.6. The compatibility of the records are done
by using Seismomatch 2021 program.

Figure 1 Chosen Eleven Earthquake Records Compatible with Spectrum

Soil Models
DEEPSOIL analyses can be performed using a variety of models. a) Equivalent Linear, b)
Hyperbolic (MR, MRD, DC), c) a Non-Masing Hyperbolic model (MRDF), and d) Porewater
Pressure Generation and Dissipation are some of the models available.(Y. M. A. Hashash,
2020)
To characterize the soil backbone characteristic and cyclic loading-unloading behavior, non-
Masing criteria were combined with the modified Kondner and Zelasko (MKZ) model
(Matasovi 1993), which is a commonly used nonlinear soil model. Darendeli's (2001) shear
modulus reduction and damping ratio curves were utilized to determine the dynamic
characteristics of the cyclically loaded soil profile in this work. In the fitting procedure of
equivalent dynamic properties to nonlinear hysteretic behavior, the MRDF-Darandeli
reduction factor was applied.
Excess pore water pressure generation models and needed parameters are shown in Figure
3.1. This study uses GMP for cohesionless models and Matasovic & Vucetic for clay models.

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Figure 2 Available Excess Pore Water Pressure Generation Models and Parameters(Y. M. A.
Hashash, 2020)

Soil Profile
Figure 3-6 shows the different soil profiles which obtain liquefiable soil (loose sand). Profiles
were generated considering the effect of shear wave velocity, ground water table, thickness
and location of clay layer and dense sand.

Figure 3 Profile 1

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Figure 4 Profie 2

Figure 5 Profile 3

Figure 6 Profile 4

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Figure 7 Profile 5

LIQUEFACTION
Material that is ordinarily a solid behaves like a liquid when a saturated or partially saturated
soil loses strength and stiffness as a result of an applied stress, such as shaking during an
earthquake or another unexpected change in stress situation. If the water pressure in the pores
is high enough to carry the entire load, the particles will be held apart, creating a state similar
to quicksand... The phenomena is particularly common in sandy soils that are wet and loose
(low density or uncompacted). This is due to the fact that when a load is applied to loose sand,
it tends to compress.

SITE RESPONSE ANALYSIS

The findings of site response analysis for various soil profiles can be shown in Figure 8-12.
The influence of shear wave velocity is depicted in Figure 8. Other figures are for including
the loose sand with Vs=120 m/s. Other profiles and results including Vs=150 m/s and Vs=180
m/s are seen in Figure 13 in terms of PGA values. Also, Table 1 summarizes all situations
comparing the surface PGA and PSA period in terms of increase and decrease.

Vs=120 m/s Vs=150 m/s Vs=180 m/s

Figure 8 Response Spectra Under Effect of Shear Wave Velocity

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GWT=0 m GWT=8 m GWT=16 m

Figure 9 Response Spectra Under Effect of Ground Water Table

Hclay = 12 m Hclay = 8 m Hclay = 4 m

Figure 10 Response Spectra Under Effect of Clay Layer Below

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Hclay = 12 m Hclay = 8 m Hclay = 4 m

Figure 11 Response Spectra Under Effect of Clay Layer Above

Hd,sand = 8 m Hd,sand = 8 m Hd,sand = 4 m

Figure 12 Response Spectra Under Effect of Dense Sand Layer

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Table 1 Summary of Surface PGA Values For a) Vs=120 m/s, b) Vs=150

a m/s, c) Vs=180 m/s

b)

c)

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CONCLUSIONS
The site responses of various soil profiles comprising liquefiable soil are studied under eleven
seismic motions. The effects of shear wave velocity, ground water table, clay and dense sand
are observed. The following conclusions can be formed based on the main findings:
 For all soil profiles, the PGA and maximum SA values on the ground surface decrease when
we compare the surface motion to the input motion.
 If shear wave velocity increases, PGA and maximum SA values on the ground surface
increase for all situations as can be seen from the figures
 When the GWT is lowered, PGA and maximum SA values on the ground surface increases.
 If clay thickness below the loose sand is decreased, PGA and maximum SA values on the
ground surface decrease. It has same effect for clay above the loose sand but PGA and
maximum SA values on the ground surface for the case where the clay is under the loose sand
are larger than the case where the clay is above the loose sand.
 When the thickness of dense sand which is under the loose sand is decreased, PGA and
maximum SA values on the ground surface are reduced.
 When you look at the figure, it appears that clay and dense sand have almost the same effect
for PGA and maximum SA values on the ground surface.
 In the summary table, comparisons of the results by taking into account the PGA and Period
of maximum SA of ground surface to input motions are summarized. According to results, it
is seen that mostly period increased by 186% according to input motion. In some profiles,
period is reduced according to input motion.

REFERENCES
[1] Kramer, S. L. (1996). Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Pearson Education
India.
[2] Hashash, Y., Phillips, C., & Groholski, D. R. (2010). Recent advances in non-
linear site response analysis.
[3] EDİNÇLİLER, A., & ÇALIKOĞLU, M. (2018) Nonlinear Site Response Analysis
for the Izmir Region: A Case Study. Eurasian Journal of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, 2(2), 51-58.
[4] Demir, S., Özener, P., & Aydin, C. (2019). The influence of improved soil zone on
liquefaction response.
[5] TBEC. (2018). Turkish Building Earthquake Code.
[6] Darendeli, M. B. (2001). Development of a new family of normalized modulus
reduction and material damping curves. The university of Texas at Austin.
[7] Hashash, Y.M.A., Musgrove, M.I., Harmon, J.A., Ilhan, O., Xing, G., Numanoglu,
O., Groholski, D.R., Phillips, C.A., and Park, D. (2020). "DEEPSOIL 7, User Manual".
Urbana, IL, Board of Trustees of University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
[8] Hashash, Y. M., & Park, D. (2001). Non-linear one-dimensional seismic ground
motion propagation in the Mississippi embayment. Engineering Geology, 62(1-3), 185-206.
[9] Matasović, N., & Vucetic, M. (1995). Generalized cyclic-degradation-pore-
pressure generation model for clays. Journal of geotechnical engineering, 121(1), 33-42.
[10] Green, R. A., Mitchell, J. K., & Polito, C. P. (2000, November). An energy-based
excess pore pressure generation model for cohesionless soils. In Proc.: Developments in
Theoretical Geomechanics–The John Booker Memorial Symposium (pp. 16-17). Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia, Nov.

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[11] Yu, H., Ntambakwa, E., Mendes, B., & Rogers, M. (2020, February). Comparison
of 1-D Seismic Site Response Analysis Tools for Layered Liquefiable Deposits. In Geo-
Congress 2020: Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Special Topics (pp. 215-224).
Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

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ERZİNCAN ELMA KÖY KIRMATAŞ AGREGASI KULLANARAK YÜKSEK

DAYANIMLI BETON ÜRETİLEBİLİRLİGİNİN ARASTIRILMASI

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi İsmet ULUSU

ORCID: 0000-0002-2616

Mohammad ALHASSN ALHAMAD

ORCID: 0000-0003-3025-3343

ÖZET
Bu çalışmads Erzincan Elma köy kırmataşı kullanarak yüksek dayanımlı beton üretilebilirligi
arastırılmıstır. Çalışmada farklı S/Ç, dozaj ve uçucu kül kullanılmıştır. Bunların sonuç
üzerimdeki etkileri araştırılmıştır. Taze betonun işlene bilirliği, birim hacim ağırlığı
belirlenerek yukarıda belirtilen faktörlere göre değişimleri belirlenmiştir. Kirece doygun
kürtankında bakıma tabi tutulan numunelerin 7, 28, 56 ve 90 günlük basınç dayanım testleri
ve 90 günlük numuneler üzerinde su emme ve kılcallık deneyleri yapılarak dayanım ve su
emme ve kılcallık üzerinde etkin olan parametreler belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada 0.35-0.4 S/Ç
arasında değişen farklı su çimento oranları kullanılmıştır. 0.35 su çimento oranında
işlenebilirlik 16-21 cm arasında değişirken 0.4 su çimento oranında çökme değeri 25cm ve
üzerinde tespit edilmiştir. Basınç dayanımında iki su/çimento oranı arasında %10’luk bir fark
oluşmuştur. Karışımda çimento oranı arttıkça çökme değeri de artmıştır. Çalışmada
çimentonun bir kısmının yerine %5 , %10 ve %15 uçucu kül ikame edilmiştir. Uçucu kül
oranı arttıkça dayanım azalmış ve dayanım farkı %10 civarında kalmıştır. Betonun su emme
ve kılcallık değeri çimento miktarı arttıkça artmış, azaldıkça azalmıştır. Maksimum basınç
dayanımına 60MPa ile 600 kilogramlık dozajda ulaşılmıştır. Betonun kırılma yüzeyi
incelendiğinde kırılmanın agreganın kırılması ile oluştuğu görülmüştür. Bunun nedeni de
kırılma sırasında agregada oluşan keskin çıkıntılardır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Yüksek dayanımlı beton, Uçucu kül, kırmataş . işlenebilirlik

RESEARCHING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE USING

ERZINCAN ELMA VILLAGE CRUSHED AGGREGATE

ABSTRACT
In this study, the producibility of high strength concrete was investigated using Erzincan Elma
village crushed stone. Different W/C, dosage and fly ash were used in the study. Their effects
on the outcome have been investigated. The workability of fresh concrete was determined by
determining the unit volume weight and its changes according to the factors mentioned above.
7, 28, 56 and 90-day compressive strength tests of the samples that were treated in lime-
saturated fur, and water absorption and capillarity tests on 90-day samples were performed to
determine the parameters effective on strength, water absorption and capillarity. In this study,
different water cement ratios varying between 0.35-0.4 W/C were used. While the workability
at 0.35 water cement ratio varies between 16-21 cm, the slump value at 0.4 water cement ratio
was determined as 25 cm and above. There was a 10% difference in compressive strength
between the two water/cement ratios. As the cement ratio in the mixture increased, the slump
value also increased. In the study, 5%, 10% and 15% fly ash was substituted for some of the
cement.

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As the fly ash ratio increased, the strength decreased and the strength difference remained
around 10%. The water absorption and capillarity value of concrete increased as the cement
amount increased and decreased as it decreased. The maximum compressive strength was
reached with 60MPa at a dosage of 600 kilograms. When the fracture surface of the concrete
was examined, it was seen that the fracture occurred with the breaking of the aggregate. The
reason for this is the sharp protrusions that occur in the aggregate during fracture.
Keywords: High strength concrete, Fly ash, Crushed stone ,Workability

1-GİRİŞ
Yüksek dayanımlı betonu tanımı; inşaat sektöründeki gelişmelere bağlı olarak zamana ve
bölgeye göre değişmektedir [1]. ACI, dayanımları 40 MPa'nın üzerinde olan betonları YDB
olarak kabul etmektedir. YDB için üst sınır olarak 80 MPa kullanılabilir [1]. YDB’nun
karışımında iki temel parametre vardır, bunlardan biri basınç dayanımı diğeri ise
işlenebilirliktir [2]. Bu betonların yüksek işlene bilirliğe sahip olması istenmektedir [2].
Yüksek performans kriterleri, belirli şartlara bağlıdır ve yüksek dayanımı, yüksek
performanslı betonun temel bir özelliği olarak kabul edilir [3] Şu anda birçok ülkede 50-
60MPa aralığındaki beton, ticari olarak üretilmektedir [4]. 1992 Erzincan depreminde
beklenilenin üzerinde hasar ve göçme olmasının nedeni, yapılardaki mevcut beton
dayanımının oldukça düşük olmasıdır. Türkiye genelinde oluşan depremlerde aynı
sebeplerden dolayı yapılar beklenen davranışı gösteremeyerek ağır hasar almışlar veya
göçmüşlerdir. 1999 Marmara depremi sonrası beton üretimi, yerleştirilmesi ve bakımı
konusunda denetim ve kontroller artmakla birlikte henüz istenilen seviyeye ulaşmamıştır.
2018 yılına kadar Erzincan’da beton üretiminde sadece Fırat agregası kullanılmaktaydı.
Erzincan havzası ofiyolit serpantin grubu kayaçlardan oluşmaktadır [5]. 2018 yılından sonra
ÇED Raporu doğrultusunda Fırat nehrinden agrega alınması yasaklanmıştır. Bazı beton
firmaları daha önceden Fırat nehrinden alıp stokladığı agregaları kullanılırken, bazı beton
firmalarda şehrin güney batısında bulunan taş ocaklarında konkasörlerden elde etikleri kırma
taş agregaları kullanmaktadır. Taş ocağı işletmecileriyle yapmış olduğumuz iletişimde,
kayaçların analizlerinin yapılmamış olduğunu öğrendik. Bu çalışmanın amacı; sürekli şiddetli
depremlere maruz kalan bir yerleşim yeri olan Erzincan’da kırma taş kullanarak ve mevcut
imkanlar ile YDB üretilebilirliginin araştırılmasıdır. Aynı zamanda kontrolsüz ve denetimsiz
kullanılan Kırma taş agregaları ile üretilecek betonlar hakkında temel bilgiler elde etmektir.

2- MATERİAL VE YÖNTEM
2.1-Materyal
Çimento olarak bu bölgede yaygın olarak kullanılan C 42.5 R kullanıldı. Süper
akışkanlaştırıcı olarak polikarboksilik eter esaslı süper akışkanlaştırıcı kullanılmıştır. Bu
akışkanlaştırıcılar yüksek dozda kullanıldığında hem iyi performans vermekteler hem de
yüksek sıcaklıklarda priz geciktirici etkisi göstermekteler. Agrega olarak Erzincan Elma Köy
agregası kullanılmıştır. İşlenebilirlik, dayanım ve kolay elde edilebilirlik dikkate alınarak
Dmax 16 kullanılmıştır. Uçucu kül olarak Sivas-Kangal Termik santralından temin edilen F
sınıfı uçucu kül kullanılmıştır. Su olarak çeşme suyu kullanılmıştır.

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2.2-Yöntem
Yüksek performanslı betonun (YPB) tasarımı, aşağıdaki nedenlerden dolayı normal betondan
farklıdır.
• Su-bağlayıcı oranının çok düşük olması.
• Taze ve sertleşmiş betonun özelliklerini büyük ölçüde değiştiren çimentonun ikame
malzemesi içermesi.
Dayanımın çimento miktarına bağlı değişimini görmek için bu çalışmada 400 kg/m3, 450
kg/m3, 500 kg/m3, 550 ve 600 olmak üzere beş farklı dozaj kullanılmıştır. Agrega olarak
maksimum dane boyutu 16 mm ve Fuller bağıntısını sağlayan granülometri kullanılmıştır.
Süper akışkanlaştırıcı olarak polikarboksilik eter esaslı yüksek oranda su azaltıcı katkı
baglayıcının %0,8- %1.3 oranlarında kullanılmıştır. Miksere sırasıyla agrega, çimento ve
suyla birlikte Süper akışkanlaştırıcı eklenip mikser 3 dakika çalıştırıldıktan sonra durdurulup,
2 dakika beklendikten sonra mikser 5 dakika daha çalıştırılarak beton karışım işlemi
tamamlanmaktadır. Çimentolu malzemeler için reolojik parametreler; hareketlilik,
yerleştirilebilirlik, sıkıştırılabilirlik, pompalanabilirlik ve perdahlanabilirlik taze betonun
işlenebilirliğini tanımlamaya yardımcı olur [6] . Üretilecek betonda istenilen işlenebilirliği ve
dayanımı belirleye bilmek için üç farklı (0,35/0,40 ve 0,45) S/Ç kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen
taze ve sertleşmiş betonların fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri belirlemek için Slump testi
yapılmış ve mekanik özellikleri belirleyebilmek için numuneler alınmıştır. Numuneler kirece
doygun 22-23 derecedeki suda, deney gününe kadar bakıma tabi tutulmuştur. 7, 28, 56 ve 90
gün sonunda numuneler kürden çıkarılarak basınç testine tabi tutulmuşlardır. Uçucu külün
etkisini belirlemek için karışıma çimento miktarının %5, %10 ve %15 ile yerine uçucu kül
ikame edilmiştir.

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3-SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER
3.1-Sonuç

Tablo 1 : Elde edilen betonların bazı mekanik ve fiziksel özellikleri

Bağlayıcı
[Link] Basınıç Dayanımı Su Ultrs
S.A Slump
S/Ç 56 90 Uçucu Emme Değer
7 gün 28 gün çimento (%) (cm)
gün gün kül (%) (km/s)
1 0.40 44.5 49.5 54.7 59.0 600 60 1.5 2.31 4.74 28
2 0.40 41 48.6 50.9 54.0 600 60 1.1 2.61 4.70 23
3 0.30 47.7 54 61 61.0 600 60 1.1 2.42 4.85 11
4 0.40 42.25 50.0 52.7 53.6 400 40 1.4 2.78 5.15 22
5 0.35 42.7 49.6 55.5 55.9 450 45 1.4 2.25 4.97 19
6 0.40 43.8 48.1 51.7 53.2 500 50 1.4 2.35 4.76 25
7 0.40 45.4 47.5 54.2 54.2 550 55 1.4 2.60 4.73 26
8 0.4 40.2 46.9 54.9 55.2 360 40 1.4 2.45 4.93 17
9 0.4 41.4 48.5 51.3 53.0 405 45 1.4 1.65 5.41 19
10 0.4 41.8 45.4 50.2 54.2 450 50 1.4 1.49 5.244 20
11 0.4 42.9 45 49.7 50.0 495 55 1.4 2.03 5.26 24
12 0.4 37.9 48.1 48.5 54.8 425 75 1.4 2.04 5.26 24
13 0.4 40.5 45 47.15 51.4 450 50 1.4 2.43 5.00 25
14 0.4 43.1 50.2 53.3 54.1 475 25 1.4 1.99 5.17 26
15 0.4 45 52.5 55.6 57.0 600 0 1.4 2.5 5.08 26
16 0.4 44.3 49.6 55 55.2 550 0 1.4 1.95 5.04 25

Tablo-1 de görüldüğü gibi çimento miktarin arttıkça ve S/Ç oranı azaltıkça dayanımın arttığı
görülmektedir. Aitcin de yüksek dayanımlı betonlarda işlenebilirliği sağlamak şartıyla S/Ç
oranının düşük tutulmasını önermektedir. Uçucu külün, çimentonun bir kısmının yerine
ikame edilmesi durumunda normal duruma göre dayanımda %10 oranında bir azalmaya neden
olurken, eklenmesi durumunda
%10’luk bir artışa neden olmuştur. Betonda kırılma; çimento matriksinin agregadan
sıyrılması, matriksin dayanımını kaybetmesi ve agreganın kırılmasıyla oluşan 3 durumun
birinden oluşur[ 7]. Bu çalışmada ulaşılan maksimum dayanım olan 61 MPa değerine
ulaştığında, betondaki kırılmaya agreganın kırılmasıyla ulaşıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu durum
şekil 1 de görülmektedir

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Şekil 1- Betonun kırılma yüzeyi

Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, Erzincan Elma Köyü kırma taş agregası kullanılarak 60MPa kadar
olan yüksek dayanımlı betonun üretilebilineceği görülmüştür.

3.2- Öneriler
Agreganın elde edildiği kayacın mekanik dayanımı ve mineral yapısı belirlenerek, kayacın
beton üretiminde kullanılabilirliği hakkında daha kesin ifadeler kullanılabilir.

KAYNAKLAR
1-Mehta, P. K. (2004, May). High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete for
sustainable development. In Proceedings of the international workshop on sustainable
development and concrete technology (pp. 3-14). Ames, IA, USA: Iowa State University.

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2-(Aïtcin, P. C. (2007). Binders for durable and sustainable concrete. CRC Press.)
3- BESHAH, M. Y. (2019). EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE WITH PARTIAL
REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT BY FLY ASH (Doctoral dissertation, ADDIS ABABA
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY).
4- Saini, P., & Ashish, D. K. (2015). A review on recycled concrete aggregates. SSRG
International Journal of Civil Engineering. SSRG-IJCE) –EFES April.
5- Erzincan Çevresinin Jeolojisi ve Tektonik Evrimi. Ulusal Deprem Mühendisliği
[Link] Tüysüz 10-13 Mart 1993 Erzincan
6-Laskar AI, Talukdar S. Design of a new rheometer for concrete, Journal of
ASTM International, 2007, (In press).
7-Neville, A. M. (1995). Properties of concrete (Vol. 4). London: Longman.

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FARKLI YOĞUNLUKTAKI KÖPÜK BETONLARIN ÖZELLİKLERİNİN

ARAŞTIRILMASI

Murat GÖKÇE
Amasya Üniversitesi, Mimarlık Fakültesi, Mühendislik ve Yapı malzemeleri
ORCID: 0000-0002-8117-0866

ÖZET
Köpük beton istenilen yoğunlukta üretilebilme seçeneği ve kolay üretim tekniklerinin
geliştirilmesi ile yapı sektöründe gün geçtikçe daha fazla kullanım alanı bulmaktadır.
Bünyesinde bulunan bağımsız kapalı hücre boşluklar köpük betonun yalıtım özelliklerini
geliştirmesine katkıda bulunurak ısı iletkenlik katsayısını düşürmesine yardımcı olur. Köpük
beton üretiminde yanıcı özelliklere sahip hiçbir hammadde bulunmadığından yangın anında
hiç yanmaz özellik gösterir.
Bu çalışmada 300, 500,700 ve 900 kg/m3 yoğunlukta üretilen köpük betonların mekanik ve
fiziksel özellikleri araştırılmıştır. Bu amaçla hazırlanan köpük betonların 1,7 ve 28 gün
sonunda basınç dayanım testi ve ısı iletkenlik katsayısı değerleri test edilmiştir. Yapılan
çalışma sonuçlarına göre yoğunlukları 300,500,700 ve 900 kg/m3 olarak hazırlanan köpük
betonunların 28 gün sonunda basınç dayanımları sırasıyla 1.05, 2.78, 4.50 ve 9.65 MPa ve ısı
iletkenlik katsayısıları sırasıyla 0.090, 0.120, 0,188 ve 0,285 W/mK olarak bulunmuştur.
Köpük betonda en yüksek basınç dayanımı 900 kg/m3 yoğunlukta üretilen köpük betonda 9,65
MPa olarak saptanmıştır. En düşük ısıl iletkenlik katsayısı 300 kg/m3 yoğunluktaki köpük
betonda 0,090 W/mK olarak bulunmuştur.
Sonuç olarak köpük betonlarda yoğunluğun artması ile ısı iletkenlik katsayısı değeri artış
göstermiştir. Köpük betonların yoğunlukların azalması ile basınç dayanımlarında azalma
olmuştur. Köpük betonun teknik özelliklerinin geliştirilmesi ile ülkemizin öncelikli
hedeflerinden olan enerji verimliliği çerçevesinde yüksek ısıl dirence sahip yenilikçi inşaat
malzemesi olarak kullanılabilecektir.
Keywords: Köpük beton, ısıl iletkenlik değeri, basınç dayanımı

INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF FOAM CONCRETE WITH

DIFFERENT DENSITIES

ABSTRACT
With the option that foam concrete can be produced in the desired density and the
development of easy production techniques, its usage area in the construction sector is
increasing day by day.
In this study, the mechanical and physical properties of foam concrete produced at 300,
500,700 and 900 kg/m3 densities were investigated. For this purpose, the thermal conductivity
and 1-day, 7-day and 28-day compressive strength of the foam concretes prepared were
tested. According to the results of the study, the compressive strengths of the foam concretes
prepared as 300,500,700 and 900 kg/m3 at the end of 28 days were found to be 1.05, 2.78,
4.50 and 9.65 MPa and the thermal conductivity coefficients were 0.090, 0.120, 0.188 and
0.285 W/mK, respectively. The highest compressive strength in foam concrete was
determined as 9.65 MPa in foam concrete produced at a density of 900 kg/m3.

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The lowest thermal conductivity coefficient was found to be 0.090 W/mK in 300 kg/m3
density foam concrete. As a result, the thermal conductivity coefficient increased with the
increase of unit weights in foam concrete. In addition, the compressive strength of the foam
concretes decreased with the decrease in densities. With the development of the technical
properties of foam concrete, it can be used as an innovative construction material with high
thermal resistance within the framework of energy efficiency, which is one of the priority
targets of our country.
Keywords: Foam concrete, thermal conductivity coefficient, compressive strength

1. Giriş
Beton, yirminci yüzyılın en önemli yapı malzemesi olmasına karşın, hafif beton yirminci
yüzyılın ortalarından beri birçok farklı beton endüstrisi uygulamalarında başarı ile kullanılmış
bir yapı malzemesidir [1-5]. Ayrıca, modern yapı endüstrisinde hafif beton kullanımı son
yıllarda giderek artmaktadır [6]. Hafif beton üretmek için harç karışımı içerisinde düşük
ağırlığa sahip agrega veya köpük/gaz kullanılması gerekmektedir [7].
Köpük ajanı ve suyun köpük jeneratöründe basınçlı su ile karıştırılıp köpürtülmesi ile
meydana gelen köpüğün bulamaca (çimento pastası veya çimento harcı) eklenmesi ile oluşan
karışıma köpük beton denilmektedir [8]. Köpük betonun yapısında hacminin %75-80’i kadar
birbiri ile bağlantısı olmayan kapalı gözenekler mevcuttur [9]. Köpük betonlar yüksek
akışkanlık, mükemmel ısı ve akustik yalıtım özelliği, düşük yoğunluk, üretim kolaylığı,
yangın direnci, karışımı içerisinde az miktarda agrega kullanımı gibi birçok avantaja sahiptir
[10-13].
Köpük betonların genel olarak yoğunlukları ve basınç dayanımları sırası ile 400-1600 kg/m3,
1-15 MPa arasındadır [14]. Köpük betonların karışım dizaynı ve kalıba dökümünün kontrolü
taze yoğunluğuna bağlı iken, sertleşmiş köpük betonun mekanik özelliklerinin birçoğu ise
köpük betonun kuru yoğunluğuna bağlıdır [15,16]. Köpük betonun yoğunluğu yapısı
içerisinde bulunan gözenek miktarı ile ilişkilidir [17]. Düşük yoğunluğa sahip bir köpük beton
üstün yalıtım özelliği ve zayıf basınç dayanım gösterirken, yüksek yoğunluk değerlerine sahip
köpük betonlar ise düşük yalıtım özelliği ve yüksek basınç dayanımları gösterirler [17]. Hafif
betonlar yoğunluklarına göre sınıflandırılırsa 400 kg/m3 ile 600 kg/m3 arasında yoğunluk
değerlerine sahip hafif betonlar ısı ve ses yalıtımında, 600 kg/m3 ile 900 kg/m3 arasında
yoğunluk değerlerine sahip hafif betonlar blok ve panel üretiminde, 900 kg/m3 ile 1200 kg/m3
arasında yoğunluk değerlerine sahip hafif betonlar panel, blok, dış duvar, ara duvar
üretiminde, 1200 kg/m3 ile 1600 kg/m3 arasında yoğunluk değerlerine sahip hafif betonlar ise
taşıyıcı özelliğine sahip duvar, panel ve bloklarda kullanılmaktadır [18].
Bu çalışmada farklı yoğunluklara sahip köpük betonların özellikleri incelenmiştir. Bu amaçla
üretilen köpük betonların 1.7 ve 28 günlük basınç dayanımları, ısı iletkenlik değerleri test
edilmiştir.

2. Materyal ve Metot
2.1. Materyal
Köpük beton üretiminde kullanılan malzemelerin özellikleri aşağıda verilmiştir.

2.1.1. Çimento
Çalışmada Tablo 1’ de özellikleri verilen CEM I 52.5 R tipi çimento kullanılmıştır.

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Tablo 1. Çimentonun fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri

Kimyasal özellikler
Fiziksel özellikler
İçerik (%)
3)
Yoğunluk (g/cm 3.05 SO3 3.50
2
Blaine (cm /g) 4600 Cl 0,01
2 günlük dayanım (MPa) 36 SiO2 21.6
7 günlük dayanım (MPa) 51 Al2O3 4.05
28 günlük dayanım (MPa) 61 Fe2O3 0.26
Priz başı (dakika) 100 CaO 65.7
Priz sonu(dakika) 130 MgO 1.30
Hacim genleşmesi(mm) 1 Na2O 0.30
Kızdırma kaybı 3.5 K2 O 0.35

Çözünmeyen kalıntı (%) 0.18

2.1.2. Kimyasal Katkı

Kimyasal katkı olarak sentetik esaslı köpük katkısı karışımlarda kullanılmış ve özellikleri
Tablo 2’ de verilmiştir.

Tablo 2. Kimyasal katkıya ait özellikler

Yoğunluk
Renk pH
(g/cm3)
1.25 Açık kahve 6

2.1.3. Su
Şebeke suyu karışım suyu olarak kullanılmıştır.

2.2. Method
Köpük beton üretiminde önce bulamaç (çimento ve su) 90 saniye helezon tipi karıştırıcıda
karıştırılmıştır. Daha sonra köpük jeneratöründe hazırlanan köpük, hedeflenen yoğunluklar
için hesaplanan hacim oranlarında bulamaçlara ilave edilmiştir (Tablo 3). Bulamaçlara köpük
ilavesinden sonra 90 saniye daha helezon tipi mikserde karıştırılmıştır. Bulamaçlara ilave
edilen köpüğün karışım esnasında sönümlenmesinin az olması için karıştırıcının hız ayarı
dakikada 30-40 devir olacak şekilde ayarlanmıştır [19].

2.2.1. Köpük üretimi

Köpük üretilirken su ve köpük katkısı köpük jeneratöründeki tanka konulmuştur (Şekil 1).
Köpük katkısı / su oranı 1/50 olarak alınmıştır. Daha sonra köpük jeneratöründe bulunan
kompresör ile bu karışıma 2.5 bar hava verilerek köpük üretimi yapılmıştır. Üretilen bu köpük
daha sonra hazırlanan bulamaçlara hesaplanan hacim oranlarında ilave edilmiştir.

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Tablo 3. Farklı yoğunluklardaki 1 m3 köpük beton için karışım oranları

hacim ağırlık (kuru)

Su/ Çimento oranı

Hedeflenen birim
Köpük hacmi (lt)

Köpük karışım
Çimento

(kg/m3 )
oranları
Su

1 litre köpük
250 125 0.50 792 50 Litre su 300
katkısı
1 litre köpük
386 193 0.50 678 50 Litre su 500
katkısı
1 litre köpük
550 275 0.50 542 50 Litre su 700
katkısı
1 litre köpük
680 340 0.50 433 50 Litre su 900
katkısı

Şekil 1. Köpük jeneratöründe köpük üretimi

Üretilen köpük helezon tipi miksere hesaplanan hacimlerde ilave edilerek 90 saniye
karıştırılmıştır (Şekil 2).

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Şekil 2. Helezon tipi mikserde köpük betonun karıştırılması

2.2.2. Basınç dayanım testi

100×100×100 mm boyutlarına sahip numunelerin 1,7 ve 28. günlerde TS EN 12390-3 [20]
standardına uygun olarak basınç dayanım testleri yapılmıştır.

2.2.3. Isıl iletkenlik katsayısı ölçüm deneyi

300x300x50 mm boyutlarındaki köpük beton numunelerinin ısıl iletkenlik katsayıları,
özellikleri Tablo 4’ te verilen Thermtest HFM-100 test aleti (Şekil 3) ile ölçülmüştür.

Tablo 4. Isıl iletkenlik cihazının özellikleri (Thermtest HFM-100)

Özellikler Değerler

Plaka Sıcaklık Aralığı -20 to 70oC

En Büyük Numune Boyutu 300x300x100 mm

Maksimum Termal İletkenlik 2.5 W/m•K

Doğruluk %3
Ölçüm Zamanı
30 - 60 dakika

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Şekil 3. Isıl iletkenlik değeri ölçümünde kullanılan deney cihazı (Thermtest HFM-100)

3. Bulgular ve Tartışmalar
Köpük beton üretiminde karşılaşılan en önemli sorunlarından biride, yoğunluğu düşük köpük
betonlarda (≤ 400 kg/m3) zaman içerisinde kalıpta beklerken çökme oluşmasıdır. Katı
malzeme miktarının (çimento) azalması ve hava hacminin artması neticesinde taze haldeki
köpük betonlarda çökme riski en çok karşılaşılan durumların başında gelmektedir. Özellikle
300 kg/m3 yoğunluktaki köpük betonda boşluk hacmi doğal olarak daha fazla olacağından en
büyük risk bu yoğunlukta ki betonda olacaktır. Taze haldeki köpük betonlarda ki çökme riski
kullanılan sentetik esaslı köpük katkısının taşıma kapasitesinin yüksek olması işe çözülmüştür
(Şekil 4).

Şekil 4. 30x30x5 cm kalıplara alınan köpük beton

Tablo 5’de köpük betonların basınç dayanım ve ısı iletkenlik katsayısı deney sonuçları
verilmiştir. Beklenildiği üzere yoğunluğu 900 kg/m3 olan köpük betonun basunç dayanım
sonucu yüksek çıkmıştır (9,65 MPa).

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Yoğunluk artıkça köpük beton daki hava boşluk miktarı azalmakta ve daha çok bağlayıcı
betonun matriksinde olduğundan basınç dayanımı yüksek çıkmıştır. Isı iletkenlik katsayısı en
düşük 0,090 W/mK ile 300 kg/m3 yoğunlukta ki köpük betonda bulunmuştur.

Tablo 5. Taze ve sertleşmiş köpük betonun test analizleri

Basınç dayanımı
Taze birim Sertleşmiş birim
Isı iletkenlik (MPa)
hacim ağırlık hacim ağırlık
katsayısı (W/mK) 1 7 28
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
gün gün gün
385 300 0,090 0,20 0,75 1,05
590 500 0.120 0,65 1,88 2,78
835 700 0.188 1,40 3,20 4,50
1030 900 0.285 1,85 6,80 9,65

Sonuç
Köpük betonun fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri geliştirildikçe ve ekonomik olarak avantaj
sağlayacak alt yapısı oluştukça yapı sektöründe daha fazla kullanım alanı bulacaktır.
Ülkemizde köpük beton üretimi ve tüketimi yeterince hak ettiği yeri henüz bulamamıştır.
Özellikle hafif malzemeler kullanılarak üretilen yapı malzemeleri kullanılmakta fakat köpük
ve çimento bulamacından oluşan köpük beton kullanımı ve uygulama alanı yeterince
genişlememiştir.
Bu çalışmada farklı yoğunluktaki köpük betonların mekanik ve fiziksel özellikleri
araştırılmıştır. Beklenildiği üzere köpük betonun yoğunluğu artıkça basınç dayanımı artmış ve
yoğunluk azaldıkça ısı iletkenlik değerleri düşmüştür.

Kaynaklar
1. Chandra, S., & Berntsson, L. (2002). Lightweight aggregate concrete: Science,
Technology and Applications. Noyes Publications/William Andrew Publishing, Norwich,
UK, USA.
2. Thomas, M., & Bremner, T. (2012). Performance of lightweight aggregate concrete
containing slag after 25 years in a harsh marine environment. Cement and concrete
research, 42(2), 358-364.
3. Bogas, J. A., Gomes, A., & Pereira, M. F. C. (2012). Self-compacting lightweight
concrete produced with expanded clay aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, 35,
1013-1022.
4. Sales, A., De Souza, F. R., Dos Santos, W. N., Zimer, A. M., & Almeida, F. D. C.
R. (2010). Lightweight composite concrete produced with water treatment sludge and
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materials, 24(12), 2446-2453.
[Link], H. P., Patel, S. K., & Nayak, A. N. (2019). Development of sustainable
lightweight concrete using fly ash cenosphere and sintered fly ash aggregate. Construction
and Building Materials, 202, 636-655.

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6. Li, Y., Liu, N., & Chen, B. (2015). Properties of lightweight concrete composed of
magnesia phosphate cement and expanded polystyrene aggregates. Materials and
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7. Liu, N., & Chen, B. (2014). Experimental study of the influence of EPS particle size
on the mechanical properties of EPS lightweight concrete. Construction and Building
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Kalsiyum Aluminat Çimentosu Kullanımı, 9. Ulusal Beton Kongresi, 16-18 Nisan, Antalya,
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concrete exposed to high temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 26(1), 638-654.
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T. (2021). Effect of waste marble powder and rice husk ash on the microstructural, physico-
mechanical and transport properties of foam concretes exposed to high temperatures and
freeze–thaw cycles. Construction and Building Materials, 291, 123374.
13. Gencel, O., Bayraktar, O. Y., Kaplan, G., Benli, A., Martínez-Barrera, G.,
Brostow, W., ... & Bodur, B. (2021). Characteristics of hemp fibre reinforced foam concretes
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14. Kılınçarslan, Ş., & Tuzlak, F. Uçucu Kül Katkılı Köpük Betonların Termo-
Mekanik Özelliklerinin İncelenmesi. Uluslararası Sürdürülebilir Mühendislik ve Teknoloji
Dergisi, 2(1), 1-5.
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Lisans Tezi. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İnşaat Mühendisliği
Anabilim Dalı, Afyonkarahisar.
17. Kocakerimoğlu, F. (2020). Köpük beton üretiminde farklı mineral katkıların
fiziksel ve mekanik özelliklere etkisinin araştırılması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Afyon Kocatepe
Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İnşaat Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, Afyonkarahisar.
18. Bekaroğlu, M. (2012). Kompozit yapıda pomza agregası içeren köpük betonun
özellikleri ve teknik parametrelerinin irdelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Süleyman Demirel
Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Maden Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, Isparta.
19. Gökçe M., Şeker B., “Foam concrete”. Journal of New Results in Science. 2020;
9(1): 18-9.
20. TS EN 12390-3 (2019) Testing hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength
of test specimens. Turkish Standard, Ankara.

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KAZIK BOYU DEĞİŞİMİNİN KAZIKLI RADYE TEMELLER ÜZERİNDEKİ

ETKİSİNİN 2 BOYUTLU NÜMERİK ANALİZİ

Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi Gaye Ennur YÜCE

Fırat Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0003-1498-1914

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Mesut GÖR

Fırat Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü
ORCID: 0000-0002-5463-9278

ÖZET
Teknolojinin hızla ilerlemesiyle birlikte, yüksek katlı ve ağır yapıların inşaatı gün geçtikçe
önem kazanmaktadır. Zemin parametrelerinin uygun olmadığı, zayıf zeminler üzerinde inşaat
yapılmasının mecburi olduğu durumlarda ya radye temellerin ya da kazıklı radye temellerin
kullanılması gerekmektedir. Geoteknik mühendisliğinde seçilecek temel tipinin mevcut
olumsuz durumları karşılamasının yanında ekonomik olması da büyük önem arz etmektedir.
Radye ve kazıkların yük taşıma kapasitelerinin birleşimi ile ortaya çıkan kazıklı radye temel
sistemlerinin kullanımı gittikçe artmaktadır. Kazıklı temellerin yapımı yüzeysel temellere
göre oldukça pahalıdır. Bu sebeple kazıklı temellerin tasarımında optimum ekonomik
maliyetler göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. Tasarımı etkileyen parametrelerin farklı
kombinasyonları kullanılarak bilgisayar programları yardımı ile analizler yapılıp zamandan ve
iş gücünden tasarruf sağlanabilmektedir. Elde edilen nümerik analiz sonuçları birbirleri ile
karşılaştırılmalıdır. Bu karşılaştırmalardan sonra daha gerçekçi ve ekonomik tasarımlar ve de
uygulamalar yapılabilecektir. Bu çalışmada, kazıklı radye temellerin kenar kazık boylarının
farklı uzunluklara (15 cm, 25 cm ve 30 cm) sahip olduğu durumlar için 2 boyutlu nümerik
analizler iki farklı rölatif zemin sıkılığında (Dr=%10 ve Dr=%40) ayrı ayrı yapılmıştır.
PLAXIS 2D paket programının 8.2 versiyonu ile yapılan nümerik analizler sonucunda kazıklı
radye temellerin taşıma gücü ve oturma değerleri incelenmiştir. Yapılan nümerik analizler
sonucunda, kenar kazık boylarının 30 cm’den 25 cm’ye azaltılması durumunda taşıma gücü
değerlerinin %2-7 ve 30 cm’den 15 cm’ye azaltılması durumunda ise %5-10 azaldığı
görülmüştür. Bunun yanında oturma değerlerinin, kenar kazık boylarının 30 cm’den 25 cm’ye
azaltılması durumunda %3-7 ve 30 cm’den 15 cm’ye azaltılması durumunda ise %8-11 arttığı
gözlemlenmiştir. Ayrıca, zeminin rölatif sıkılığının (Dr) %10‘dan %40‘a artması sonucu
taşıma gücünün arttığı ve oturma değerlerinin azaldığı belirlenmiştir. Kenar kazık boyları ve
rölatif sıkılık değişiminden elde edilen taşıma güçleri ve oturma değerleri incelendiğinde bu
değerlerin kabul edilebilir güvenli sınırlar içerisinde kaldığı görülmüştür. Tüm bu hususlar
göz önüne alındığında, kenar kazık boylarının belirtilen sınırlar içerisinde azaltılması ile daha
ekonomik tasarımlar yapılabileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kazıklı Radye Temeller, Plaxis 2D, Kazık Boyutlandırma, Sonlu
Elamanlar Metodu

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2D NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF PILE LENGTH VARIATION

ON PILED RAFT FOUNDATIONS

ABSTRACT
The construction of high-rise and heavy structures is gaining more and more importance with
the rapidly advancing technology. In cases where it is necessary to build on weak soils where
soil parameters are not suitable, either raft foundations or piled raft foundations should be
used. In geotechnical engineering, it is of great importance that the foundation type to be
chosen is economical as well as meets the current negative conditions. Piled raft foundation
systems, which emerged with the combination of the load carrying capacities of rafts and
piles, are being used more and more with each passing day. The construction of piled raft
foundations is quite expensive compared to shallow foundations. Therefore, optimum
economic costs should be considered in the design of piled raft foundations. By using
different combinations of parameters affecting the design, analyzes are made with the help of
computer programs, thus saving time and labor. The results obtained from the numerical
analyzes should be compared with each other. After these comparisons, more realistic and
economical designs and applications can be made. In this study, 2D numerical analyzes were
carried out separately in two different relative soil densities (Dr=10% and Dr=40%) for the
cases where piled raft foundations have different lengths of side piles (15 cm, 25 cm, and 30
cm). As a result of the numerical analyzes made with the 8.2 version of the PLAXIS 2D
package program, the bearing capacity and settlement values of piled raft foundations were
examined. As a result of the numerical analyzes carried out, it was seen that the bearing
capacity values were decreased by 2-7% in case the side pile lengths were reduced from 30
cm to 25 cm, and by 5-10% in the case they are reduced from 30 cm to 15 cm. On the other
hand, it was seen that the settlement values increased by 3-7% when the side pile lengths were
reduced from 30 cm to 25 cm, and by 8-11% when they are reduced from 30 cm to 15 cm. In
addition, it was determined that the bearing capacity increased and the settlement values
decreased as a result of the increase in the relative density (Dr) of the soil from 10% to 40%.
When the bearing forces and settlement values obtained from the side pile lengths and relative
density changes were examined, it was seen that these values remained within acceptable safe
limits. Considering all these issues, it was concluded that more economical designs can be
made by reducing the side pile lengths within the specified limits.
Keywords: Piled Raft Foundations, Plaxis 2D, Pile Sizing, Finite Elements Method

1.GİRİŞ
Temellerin ana fonksiyonu mevcut yapı yüklerini güvenli ve ekonomik bir şekilde zemine
aktarmaktır. Özellikle zayıf zeminlerde inşa edilmesi gereken yüksek katlı ve bina önem
katsayısı yüksek binalarda bu sistemlerin tasarımı oldukça önemlidir. Zeminin mevcut yapı
yüklerini taşıyamadığı durumlarda, mevcut yapı ağırlığı ve zemin koşulları dikkate alınarak
radye temel veya kazıklı radye temel tasarımları gerçekleştirilmektedir. Kazıklı radye temel
sisteminde bina yükleri kazıklar tarafından taşınırken radye temel ise kazıkların beraber
çalışmasını sağlayan rijit bir diyafram başlık olarak tasarlanmaktadır. Kazıklı radye temeller,
yapı güvenliğinden ödün vermeden düşey yükler altındaki zeminde meydana gelebilecek
oturmaları azaltmaktadır. Ayrıca bu sistemler, farklı oturmaların önüne geçilmesinde önemli
bir rol oynamaktadır (Morsy vd., 2007, Sinha vd., 2007; Nguyen vd., 2013). Kazıklı radye
temeller, sağladığı faydalarla beraber inşaat maliyetlerini önemli ölçüde arttırmaktadır.

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Bu sebeple bu sistemlerin ekonomik tasarımları üzerine farklı çalışmalar yapılmıştır (El-

Mossallamy, 2004; Nguyen vd., 2014; Rabiei ve Choobbasti, 2018). Ayrıca, kazıklı radye
temellerin, yük taşıma mekanizmaları, kazık grupları, kazık malzemeleri, kazık ile radye
arasındaki ilişkiler, yük taşıma kapasiteleri ve oturma değerleri gibi çalışmalar gün geçtikçe
artmaktadır. Bu çalışmalardan elde edilen veriler ile daha sağlıklı ve ekonomik çözümler
yapılabilmektedir. Söylemez ve Güler (2019) yaptıkları çalışmada kazı ile radye arasındaki
ilişkiyi ele alarak kazık boyu değişiminin kazık ile radye arasındaki yük paylaşımını
incelemişlerdir. Çalışmalar sonucunda statik yüklemeye maruz bırakılmış kazıkların boyları
arttıkça radye plakanın taşıdığı yükün azaldığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Farklı kazık
malzemelerinin kullanımını günümüzde gittikçe artmaktadır. Cam takviyeli plastik (Fiber-
Reinforced Plastic-FRP) ve çelik malzemelerinden imal edilmiş kazık gruplarının statik
yükler etkisi altındaki davranışları deneysel ve nümerik olarak incelendiğinde FRP ile imal
edilmiş kazıkların çelik kazıklardan daha fazla yük taşıdığı ve bu kazık gruplarında oturma
değerlerinin daha az olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca zemin sıkılığı artıkça taşıma gücünün artığı
ve oturma değerlerinin azaldığı sonucuna varılmıştır (Gör, 2019). Kum zeminde yapılan
taşıma gücü çalışmalarında kazık aralığı (S) artıkça taşıma gücünde büyük oranda artışlar
olduğu görülmüştür. Fakat kazık aralığının kazık çapının (D) dört katına ulaştıktan sonra
taşıma gücünde azalma görülmüştür. Bunun sonucunda optimum kazık aralığının kazık
çapının dört katı (S=4D) olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır (Ateş, 2019). Aynı yüke maruz kalan
zeminde farklı derinlik, uzunluk ve çaptaki kazıklardan oluşan kazık gruplarının Plaxis 3D ve
SAP 2000 bilgisayar programlarıyla yardımı ile incelendiği başka bir çalışmada ise kazık
çapının artmasıyla kazıklar arasındaki uzaklığın azaldığı ve bunun sonucunda gruptaki
verimliliğin düştüğü, benzer şekilde kazık sayısının artması durumunda da verimliliğin
düştüğü sonucunda varılmıştır (Yeğit, 2017). Sürtünme kazıklarıyla yapılan çalışmada taşıma
kapasitesi ve kazıklar arası minimum uzaklık şartlarına uyulduğu durumda kazık sayısının
artmasının düşey şekil değiştirmeyi azalttığı sonucuna varılmıştır (Avcı, 2008). Gök (2007)
kazık grubunun radyedeki oturma değerine etkisini incelemiş ve oturmaların azaldığı
sonucuna varmıştır. Literatür çalışmaları incelendiğinde, genel olarak kazık boyu, kazık çapı,
kazıklar arası mesafe, kazık malzemesi, kazık-radye etkileşimi, zemin etkileri gibi
parametrelerin değişimi konuları incelenerek kazıklı radye temellerin yük taşıma ve oturma
mekanizmalarının daha fazla anlaşılması hedeflenmiştir. Yapılan çalışmalar, hem deneysel
hem de bilgisayar programları yardımı ile nümerik olarak yapılmıştır. Deneysel olarak kazıklı
radye temellerin incelenmesi büyük uğraşlar ve ekonomi gerektirmektedir. Ayrıca deneysel
olarak büyük ölçeklerde bu çalışmaların yapılması oldukça zordur. Bu sebeple kazıklı
temellerin tasarımına etki eden parametrelerin laboratuvar ortamında daha küçük modellerle
veya geliştirilen bilgisayar yazılımlarıyla numerik olarak incelenmesi daha çok tercih
edilmektedir.
Bu çalışmada, kazıklı radye temellerde kenar kazık boylarındaki değişimlerin kazıklı radye
temeldeki taşıma gücü ve oturma değerleri üzerindeki etkisi 2 boyutlu nümerik analizler
(PLAXIS 2D v8.2) ile farklı rölatif zemin sıkılıklarında ayrı ayrı incelenmiştir. Çalışma
sonucunda kenar kazık boylarının belirtilen sınırlar içerisinde azaltılması ile daha ekonomik
tasarımlar yapılabileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

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2. MATERYAL METOD

ve iki farklı sıkılıktaki (DÚ =%10 ve DÚ = %40) zeminde düşey olarak yüklenmiş olup taşıma
Bu çalışmada, 9x9 kazıktan oluşan kazık grubunda kenar kazıkları farklı boylarda tasarlanmış

güçleri ve oturma değerleri nümerik olarak incelenmiştir. Yapılan nümerik analizlerde

PLAXIS 2D v8.2 paket programı kullanılmıştır.

2.1. Sonlu Elemanlar Yöntemi

Sonlu elemanlar yöntemi matematiksel ifadeler ile tanımlanan sürekli sistemler için genel
çözüm yöntemi olarak tanımlanmıştır (Zeinkiewicz, 1977). Sonlu elemanlar yöntemi,
parçadan bütüne esasıyla sürekli bir sistemi matematiksel olarak modellemeyi mümkün
kılmaktadır. Bu yöntem ile sürekli bir sistem, kendi içerisinde çok sayıda sonlu ve birbirine
bağlı elemanlardan oluşmaktadır (Keskin, 2009). Sınır koşul ve denklemlerin tanımlanmasıyla
yaklaşık sonuçlar bulunmaktadır.

2.2. PLAXIS Programı

PLAXIS (Finite Element Code for Soil and Rock Analysis), çeşitli geoteknik mühendisliği
problemleri için sonlu elemanlar yönteminden yararlanarak nümerik analiz için geliştirilmiş
bir bilgisayar paket programıdır. Program gerekli bilgilerin girildiği input programı,
analizlerin yapıldığı calculation programı, analiz sonuçlarını grafik olarak gösteren output
programı ve istenilen grafiğin oluşturulmasını sağlayan curve programından oluşmaktadır
(Osmanoğlu, 2007).

3. YAPILAN ÇALIŞMALAR VE BULGULAR

3.1. Geometrik Model
PLAXIS bilgisayar programında geometrik modeli, iki boyutlu ve düzlem şekil değiştirme
koşullarında oluşturulmuştur. Zemin ortamı daha doğru bir çözüm elde etmek amacıyla 15
düğüm noktalı üçgen elemanlarla modellenmiştir. Geometrik modelin genişliği 750mm ve
toplam zemin yüksekliği 900mm’dir. Analizlerde farklı boy kazık grupları ve sıkılıklar için
geometri yeniden oluşturulmuştur. Şekil 1-3’te farklı kenar kazık boyları ile oluşturulan
modellerin geometrisi görülmektedir.

Şekil 1. Geometrik model-1 (kenar kazık boyları 30 cm)

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Şekil 2. Geometrik model-2 (kenar kazık boyları 25 cm)

Şekil 3. Geometrik model-3 (kenar kazık boyları 15 cm)

3.2. Malzeme Özellikleri

3.2.1. Model Zemin
Yapılan çalışmalar, Mohr-Coulomb (MC) modeli ile modellenmiştir. Poisson oranı ve
elastisite modülü literatürden belirlenmiştir (Lambe ve Whitman, 1969). Kohezyon değeri c=0
alınması halinde programda formülasyon kaynaklı bazı sıkıntılar olabileceği için c=0.5 kN/m2
değeri kullanılmıştır. MC modeli parametrelerinden bir diğeri olan dilatasyon açısı ()
özellikle sıkı kumlarda gözlenen ve plastik hacim artışlarını ifade eden bir parametredir.
Dilatasyon açısı kumlarda sıkılığa ve içsel sürtünme açısına bağlıdır (Bolton, 1986).

edilmektedir. Model zeminler (DÚ =%10-40) için MC model parametreleri Tablo 1-2’de
Programda dilatasyon açısı, içsel sürtünme açısının 30 eksiği olarak (=-30) ifade

verilmiştir (Gör, 2019).

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Tablo 1. Model zemin için MC model parametreleri (DÚ =%10)

Parametre Adı Simge Birim Değeri
Birim hacim ağırlığı  kN/m³ 14,5
Kohezyon c kN/m² 0,20
İçsel sürtünme açısı  (°) 42,5
Dilitasyon açısı  (°) 12,5
Poisson oranı  - 0,25
Elastisite modülü E kN/m² 3000

Tablo 2. Model zemin için MC model parametreleri (DÚ =%40)

Parametre Adı Simge Birim Değeri
Birim hacim ağırlığı  kN/m³ 15,4
Kohezyon c kN/m² 0,50
İçsel sürtünme açısı  (°) 45,4
Dilitasyon açısı  (°) 15,4
Poisson oranı  - 0,25
Elastisite modülü E kN/m² 7500

3.2.2. Model Temel

Model temel, kiriş eleman ile modellenmiştir. Kiriş elemanın genişliği 255mm ve kalınlığı
25mm olup üniform olarak yüklenmiştir. Analizlerde temel için çeliğin elastisite modülü
(E=210 GPa) kullanılmıştır (Gör, 2019). Model temel parametreleri Tablo 3’te verilmiştir.

Tablo 3. Model temel parametreleri

Parametre Adı Simge Birim Değeri
Eksenel rijitlik EA kN/m 700000
Eğilme rijitliği EI kN/m 36,46
Kalınlık d m 0,025

3.2.3. Model Kazıklar

Kazıklar kiriş eleman olarak modellenmiştir. Kiriş eleman özellikleri olarak çelik malzeme
elastisite modülü girilmiştir (E=210 GPa). Kazık elemanların çapı 10mm seçilmiştir.
Analizlerde çelik malzeme için ara yüzey eleman kullanılmış ve interface değeri için PLAXIS
tarafından önerilen Rint=2/3 değeri kullanılmıştır. Model kazık parametreleri Tablo 4’te
verilmiştir.

Tablo 4. Model kazık parametreleri

Parametre Adı Simge Birim Değeri
Eksenel rijitlik EA kN/m 28000
Eğilme rijitliği EI kN/m 0,250
Kalınlık d m 0,010

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3.2.4. Sonlu Elemanlar Ağı

PLAXIS’ de sonlu elemanlara bölme işlemi programda otomatik olarak gerçekleştirmekle
birlikte manuel olarak da istenilen bölgelerde ağ sıkılaştırılması yapılabilmektedir.
PLAXIS’de çok kaba (very coarse), kaba (coarse), orta (medium), hassas (fine) ve çok hassas
(very fine) sonlu eleman ağ yapısı seçenekleri bulunmaktadır (Keskin, 2009). Bu çalışmada
analizlerde hassas (fine) sonlu elemanlar ağı seçilmiştir (Şekil 4).

Şekil 4. Sonlu elemanlar ağı

3.3. İki Boyutlu (2D) Nümerik Analizler

Analizlerde çözüm iki aşamalı yapılmıştır. İlk aşamada zemin ağırlığından oluşan başlangıç
gerilmeleri oluşturulmuş, ikinci aşamada ise kazık ve yük aktif hale getirilmiştir. Plastik
çözüm yapılmıştır. Analizlerde, önceden tanımlı deplasman yöntemi uygulanmış ve kazık
grubu ile radye plakaya 50 mm uzunluğunda önceden tanımlı deplasman uygulanmıştır.

3.3.1. Plaxis Sonlu Elemanlar Programı Analiz Sonuçları

Malzeme parametreleri ve açıklanan yöntemler ile bütün düşey yükleme deneyleri Plaxis 2D
bilgisayar programında modellenmiş olup elde edilen analizlerin sonuçları Tablo 5 – 8 ve
Şekil 5-7’de verilmiştir. Bu sonuçlar incelendiğinde, kenar kazıklarının boyu ve zemin sıkılığı
arttıkça taşıma gücünün arttığı görülmüştür. Belirli bir oturma değerine karşılık gelen taşıma
gücü değerleri incelendiğinde, zemin rölatif sıkılığı arttıkça taşıma gücü değerinin de arttığı
görülmüştür. Bu durum herhangi bir sabit yük değeri ele alınarak incelendiğinde kazık boyu
ve zemin sıkılığı arttıkça oturmaların azaldığı görülmektedir.

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Tablo 5. Dr=%10 için kazıklı radye temellerin taşıma gücü değerleri

Taşıma Gücü (kN)
Oturma
Kenar Kazık Kenar kazık Kenar Kazık
Değeri (mm)
Boyları 15cm boyları 25cm Boyları 30cm
0,5 1,61 1,65 1,78
1,5 4,09 4,37 4,49
3,0 7,71 7,92 8,21
4,0 12,29 12,83 12,96

Tablo 6. Dr=%40 için kazıklı radye temellerin taşıma gücü değerleri

Taşıma Gücü (kN)
Oturma
Kenar Kazık Kenar Kazık Kenar Kazık
Değeri (mm)
Boyları 15cm Boyları 25cm Boyları 30cm
0,5 3,4 3,6 4,0
1,5 9,9 10,2 10,6
3,0 18,8 19,6 20,3
4,0 30,8 31,7 32,7

Tablo 7. Dr=%10 için kazıklı radye temellerin oturma değerleri

Dr=%10 için Belirli Yüklerdeki Oturma Değerleri (mm)
Kenar
Kazık
1,5
Boyları 3,0 kN 5,0 kN 7,5 kN 10,0 kN 15,0 kN 20,0 kN
kN
(cm)
15 0,48 1,07 1,90 2,95 4,10 6,20 8,40
25 0,46 1,03 1,82 2,81 3,86 5,90 8,16
30 0,43 0,99 1,74 2,74 3,76 5,72 7,90

Tablo 8. Dr=%40 için kazıklı radye temellerin oturma değerleri

Dr=%40 için Belirli Yüklerdeki Oturma Değerleri (mm)
Kenar
Kazık
1,5
Boyları 3,0 kN 5,0 kN 7,5 kN 10,0 kN 15,0 kN 20,0 kN
kN
(cm)
15 0,20 0,43 0,75 1,16 1,55 2,36 3,15
25 0,18 0,37 0,71 1,12 1,49 2,28 3,03
30 0,16 0,33 0,65 1,08 1,46 2,19 2,90

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Şekil 5. Deforme olmuş sonlu elemanlar ağı

Şekil 6. Toplam gerilmeler

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Şekil 7. Toplam deplasman dağılımları

4. SONUÇLAR VE ÖNERİLER
Kazıklı radye temellerde daha ekonomik tasarımlarının yapılabilmesi için yapılmış olan bu
çalışmada, 9x9 kazık grubu farklı kenar kazık boyları (15cm, 25cm ve 30cm) ve rölatif zemin
sıkılıklarında (Dr=%10 ve Dr=%40) düşey yükler etkisinde ayrı ayrı anali edilmiştir. Yapılan
2 boyutlu nümerik analizlerde PLAXIS 2D v8.2 paket programı kullanılmış olup kazıklı radye
temellerin taşıma gücü ve oturma değerleri belirlenmiştir. Yapılan tüm analizler neticesinde
aşağıdaki sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır.
- Analizler sonucunda kenar kazık boyunun arttırılmasının kazıklı radye temelin taşıma
gücünü arttırdığını ve oturmaları azalttığı gözlemlenmiştir. Kazık boyunun 15’ten 30’a
artması ile kazık grubunun taşıma gücünün %5-15’ e kadar arttığı, oturma değerinin ise %5-
10 ‘a kadar azaldığı belirlenmiştir.
- Aynı kazık malzemesi ve kazık boyunun kullanıldığı kazıklı radye temellerde zemin sıkılığı
arttıkça kazıklı radye temelin taşıma gücünün arttığı gözlemlenmiştir. Rölatif sıkılığın
%10’dan %40’e artması ile kazık grubunun taşıma gücünün %120-155’e kadar arttığı
belirlenmiştir.
- Kenar kazık boyunun 30 cm’den 25 cm’ye azaltılması durumunda %11, 30 cm’den 15
cm’ye azaltılması durumunda %36 oranında daha az kazık malzemesi kullanılabileceği
belirlenmiştir.
- Kenar kazık boyları ve rölatif sıkılık değişiminden elde edilen taşıma güçleri ve oturma
değerleri incelendiğinde bu değerlerin kabul edilebilir güvenli sınırlar içerisinde kaldığı
görülmüştür. Tüm bu hususlar göz önüne alındığında, kenar kazık boylarının belirtilen sınırlar
içerisinde azaltılması ile daha ekonomik tasarımlar yapılabileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
- İleride yapılacak çalışmalarda daha farklı kazık boyları, sayıları ve zemin kombinasyonları
ile daha büyük ölçekli deneysel ve nümerik çalışmalar ile kazıklı radye temellerin taşıma gücü
ve oturma mekanizmaları birçok yönden daha detaylı olarak incelenebilir.

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Tüm bunlar neticesinde kazıklı radye temellerin tasarımlarında ve uygulamalarında daha

gerçekçi ve ekonomik sonuçlara ulaşılabilir.

KAYNAKLAR
Ateş, B. (2019). Kum Zemindeki Kazıklı Radye Temellerin Davranışlarının Deneysel
ve Nümerik Yöntemlerle Araştırılması, Doktora Tezi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
Avcı, G. (2015). Kazıklı Temellere Etki Eden Dinamik Yüklerin Statik Yükler
Cinsinden Uygulanabilirliğinin Araştırılması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
Bolton, M. D. (1986). The strength and dilatancy of sands. Géo-technique 36, No. 1,
65-78.
El-Mossallamy, Y. (2004). Economic Design of Piled Raft Foundations for high-rise
buildings and bridge foundations. In Proceedings of the International Conference On
Geotechnical Engineering-Geo-Beyrouth 2004-Held Beirut, May 2004.
Gök, S. (2007). Kazıklı Radye Temellerin Tasarımı, Doktora Tezi, İstanbul Teknik
Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
Gör, M. (2019). Kazıklı Radye Temellerin Statik Düşey Yükler Etkisi Altında
Modellenmesi, Doktora Tezi, Fırat Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
Keskin, M.S. (2009). Güçlendirilmiş Kumlu Şevlere Oturan Yüzeysel Temellerin
Deneysel ve Teorik Analizi. Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,
Adana.
Lambe, T. W., and Whitman, R. V., (1969). Soil mechanics, 553 pp.
Morsy, M., El-Sayed, S. M., and Mohamed, M. (2007). Numerical Analysis For
Deformational Behaviour of Different Length Piled Raft in Cohesive Soils.
Nguyen, D. D. C., Jo, S. B., and Kim, D. S. (2013). Design method of piled-raft
foundations under vertical load considering interaction effects. Computers and Geotechnics,
47, 16-27.)
Nguyen, D. D. C., Kim, D. S., and Jo, S. B. (2014). Parametric study for optimal
design of large piled raft foundations on sand. Computers and Geotechnics, 55, 14-26.
Osmanoğlu., D. (2007). Tünellerde Zemin İyileştirilmesi ve Stabilitenin Sonlu
Elemanlar Yöntemi ile Plaxis Programında Analiz Edilmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul
Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
PLAXIS, (2002). User Manual. 2D version8, (Edited by Brinkgreeve, R.J.B.), Delft
University of Technology&PLAXIS b.v., The Netherlands.
Rabiei, M., and Choobbasti, A. J. (2018). Economic design optimization of piled raft
foundations. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 3(1), 1-8.
Sinha, A., and Hanna, A. M. (2017). 3D numerical model for piled raft foundation.
International Journal of Geomechanics, 17(2).
Söylemez, Ş., ve Güler, E. (2019). Kazıklı Radye Temelellerin Dinamik ve Statik
Yükler Altındaki Davranışı ve Tasarımı, 8. Uluslararası Geoteknik Sempozyumu 13 - 15
Kasım 2019, İTÜ Süleyman Demirel Kültür Merkezi, İstanbul.
Yeğit, M. (2017). Farklı Çapta, Derinlikte ve Sayıdaki Kazıkların Grup Davranışı,
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1977). The Finite-Element Method. 3rd ed., New York, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., 787p.

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PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PDMS/TiO2 NANOCOMPOSITE

MEMBRANES FOR CO2 SEPARATION

Emine KESKIN
Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical, Department of Chemical
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-8501-9717

Yavuz SALT
Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical, Department of Chemical
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0002-1375-6953

Onder YARGI
Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Department of Physics
ORCID: 0000-0001-6343-0057

ABSTRACT
CO2 is the main combustion product of fossil fuels, and it is also a component of natural gas,
biogas and landfill gas. The CO2 in the flue gas, which is generally emitted into the
atmosphere, is one of the most important greenhouse gases causing global warming and
climate change. Membrane technologies, which have been widely used in various industrial
separation applications for many years, are an important alternative to other separation
processes for CO2 separation.
Inorganic-organic composite membranes prepared by adding inorganic fillers into the organic
polymer matrix have the potential to improve the properties and separation performance of
polymeric membranes. It is known that in addition to polymer matrix properties, inorganic
phase properties also affect the morphology and separation performance of noncomposite
membranes. Nano-sized materials such as TiO2, SiO2, ZnO, ZrO2, and graphene oxide can be
used to improve the membrane performance and the thermal, physical and chemical
resistance. Among these inorganic materials, TiO2 is used in a wide variety of applications
due to its physicochemical properties such as non-toxicity and stability. Polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS) is also one of the most important membrane materials due to its high gas
permeability, hydrophobicity, durability and ease of application. In this study, PDMS/TiO2
nanocomposite membranes for CO2 separation were prepared using the solution casting
method. The obtained nanocomposite membranes were characterized by SEM, FTIR and
TG/DTA analysis.
Keywords: Gas Separation, Carbondioxide, Nanocomposite membranes,
Polydimethylsiloxane, Titaniumdioxide

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MONOTONICITY FORMULEA AND F-STRESS ENERGY

Nour Elhouda DJAA

Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Relizane University

MOHAMED CHERIF
Department of Mathematics, Mascara University

Kaddour ZEGGA
Department of Mathematics, Mascara University

ABSTRACT
In 1980, Baird and Eells introduced the stress-energy tensor for maps between Riemannian
manifolds, which unifies various results on harmonic maps. Sealey introduced the stress-
energy tensor for p-forms with values in vector bundles and established some vanishing
theorems for harmonic p-forms. Since then, the stress-energy tensors have become a useful
tool for investigating the energy behavior of vector bundle valued p-forms in various
problems. the authors presented a unified method to establish monotonicity formulae for p-
forms with values in vector bundles by means of the stress-energy tensors of various energy
functional in geometry and physics. Recently in 2010, M. Djaa and all introduced the notion
of f-harmonic and f-stress energy and studied by many authors Chiang, Y.L. Ou, S. Feng ,
W.J. Lu and others.
The goal of this work is the application of the f-stress energy of differential forms to study the

generalized monotonicity formulas for p-formsω ∈ AÞ (ξ), which satisfy the generalized f-
generalized monotonocity formula and generalized vanishing theorems. We obtain some

conservation laws, with f ∈ C° (M × R) satisfying some conditions.

Keywords: f-stress energy, f-conservation law, vanishing theorem, harmonic maps, energy
functional

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HEAT TRANSFER IN A THERMALLY STRATIFIED MARANGONI

CONVECTIVE NANOFLUID IN PRESENCE OF ALIGNED MAGNETIC FIELD

D R V S R K Sastry
Department of Mathematics, SASTRA Deemed to be University

Sachin Shaw
Department of Mathematics and Statistical Sciences, Botswana International University of
Science and Technology

ABSTRACT
Heat transfer over a Marangoni mixed convective nanofluid flow across a thermally stratified
inclined plate is studied. The fluid is experiencing an aligned magnetic field of uniform
strength. The analysis is carried out over Copper – water nanofluid, Silica – water nanofluid,
and Diamond – water nanofluid. The objective of this paper is to examine the behaviour of
velocity, temperature, and heat transfer of the fluid with respect to some sundry parameters.
The momentum, energy equations are converted to a set of ordinary differential equations (1)
– (2) along with boundary conditions (3) through similarity transformation.

f '''  12 (f '2  ff '' )  1 Ha 2f ' sin 2  12  sin (1)

3 ''  Pr  4 ( 2f '  f  ' )  Ec ( Ha 2f '2 sin 2  11f ''2

) (2)

f ( 0 )  0,  ( 0 )  1  St , f ''
( 0)  21 (1  St ) ; f ' (  )  0,  (  )  0 (3)

As no closed form solution exists, we have solved the equations by fourth order Runge –
Kutta numerical scheme hinged upon shooting method subject to an order of convergence
10 6

Fig 1: Stratification on velocity Fig 2: Ha on the heat transfer rate

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The key observations from the graphs are as follows:

- A drag in the velocity profiles is noticed with increasing thermal stratification
- Silica – water nanofluid posesses high emission of heat transfer across the boundary
- Both Eckert number and Hartmann number regulate the heat transfer rate
Keywords: viscous dissipation, magnetohydrodynamics, Marangoni convection, nanofluid,
thermal stratification, shooting method.

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SOLITARY SOLITON SOLUTIONS TO THE FRACTIONAL JAULENT–MIODEK

HIERARCHY EQUATION WITH GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

Ahmad Sharif
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Sciences, Gonbad Kavous University

ABSTRACT
The wave phenomena that take place in fluid dynamics, plasma physics and optical fibers
generally have complicated nonlinear features which leads to nonlinear evolution
equations(NLEEs) for the real processes. Thus it is of significant importance to seek for exact
solutions of NLEEs from both theoretical and practical viewpoints. In recent years, the
investigation of solitary wave solutions to the nonlinear partial differential equation has
become an important subject to understand any physical phenomena in diverse applied fields.
Nonlinear wave phenomena appear in various engineering and scientific fields, such as fluid
dynamics, thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, chemical kinematics, plasma physics, optical
fibers and ocean engineering. The physicist and mathematicians have granted substantial
attention to find the analytical and numerical solutions of NLPDEs. They used many powerful
and direct approaches to construct the traveling wave solutions to nonlinear equations. In this
paper, the Sine-Gordon method applied to obtain analytical soliton solutions of the fractional
Jaulent –Miodek hierarchy equation. These adventages can help us better understand the
behavior and performance of this model. The procedure implemented in this paper can be
recommended in solving other equations in the field. All calculations and graphing are
performed using powerful symbolic computational packages in Mathematica software. The
obtained new periodic and solitary wave solutions can be widely used to provide many
attractive complex physical phenomena in the different fields of sciences. The procedure
implemented in this paper can be recommended in solving other equations in the field. All
calculations and graphing are performed using powerful symbolic computational packages in
Mathematica software.
Keywords: Sine-Gordon method, fractional Jaulent –Miodek hierarchy equation, soliton
solutions

1- Introduction:
Traveling wave solution is a special wave solution that translates in a particular direction with
the addition of retaining a fixed shape. Exact traveling wave solutions of NLEEs have a very
substantial contribution in physical models and have progressively been very important tools.
For example, the auxiliary equation method [1], the simplest equation method [8], the first
integral method [2], homotopy analysis method [3], the complex transform [4], the G / G
expansion method [5], the exp-function method [6].To see more examples, please refer to [7]-
[10]. In this paper we consider the fractional Jaulent –Miodek hierarchy equation
¶ aj 1æ ç ¶ 2j ö
3÷ 3æ ç 1 - 1 ¶ 2j ¶ j - 1 ¶ j ö÷
+ ç - 2j ÷
÷ + ç ¶ + ¶ ÷ = 0,
÷ (1)
¶ta 4 ççè¶ x 2 x
÷
ø 4 ççè4 x ¶ y 2 ¶ x x ¶ y ø÷

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x
¶
Where ¶ -x 1 invers operator of is ¶ x = , can be specified ¶ -x 1 f (x ) = ò f (t )dt , beneath the
¶x - ¥
- 1 - 1
decaying condition at infinity with the condition ¶ ¶ x = ¶ x ¶ x x
= 1 . In following we assume
j (x , y , t ) = h x (x , y , t ) (2)
By substituting (2) into (1) we have
2
¶a ¶ 1 ¶4 3æ ö ¶2
ç ¶ h (x , y , t )÷
h (x , y , t ) + h (x , y , t ) - ç ÷
÷ h (x , y , t ) +
¶ta ¶x 4 ¶x4 2 çè¶ x ÷
ø ¶x2 (3)
3 ¶2 3 ¶2 ¶
h (x , y , t ) + h (x , y , t ) = 0,
16 ¶ y 2 4 ¶x2 ¶y

The present paper organized as follows: In Sect. 2, we describe the structure of the Sine-
Gordon method. In Sect. 3, we express some definitions of conformable derivative. In Sect.
4, we illustrate this method in detail with the Jaulent–Miodek hierarchy equation. Also we
discuss the graphical representation of some obtained solutions. Finally, in Sect. 5, some
conclusions are given.

2- Structure of the Sine-Gordon method

In order we consider Sine-Gordon equation as follows
y xt = a sin ( y ) ; (4)

here a is a non-zero constant. We exert the change

y (x ; t ) = u (x ), x = h (x + ut ) (5)

here u is the traveling wave velocity. Replace Eq. (8) in Eq. (7)
a
u ¢¢ = sin(u ( x)) (6)
um2

By simplifying Eq.(9) we have

2
é ¢ù
êçæu ÷öú a æ ö
2 çu ( x ) ÷
êç ÷ ÷ ú = sin ç ÷
÷ + C, (7)
êçè 2 ÷
øú um2 èç 2 ÷ ø
ëê ûú
u ( x) a
In Eq.(10), C is integration constant. We suppose C = 0, w (x ) = and f 2 = , so
2 um2
Eq.(10) detract to
( )
2
w ¢(x ) = f 2 sin 2 w (x ) ,
In simple terms we have
(
w ¢(x ) = f sin w (x ) , )

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Inserting f = 1 , we have
(
w ¢(x ) = sin w (x ) , )
We have solutions of Eq.(13) as follows
sin (w ( x )) = sech ( x ) or cos (w( x )) = tanh ( x ),
and
sin (w ( x ) ) = i csc h ( x ) or cos (w ( x )) = cot h ( x ) ,
For constructing the solutions of NLPDE as following
N ( y , y t , y x , y tt , .....) = 0,
Using the following variation
n
u (w ) = å cos j - 1 (w )´ éêB j sin (w ) + A j cos (w )ùú+ A 0 (8)
j=1
ë û
by using Eqs.() and () we have Solution of Eq.() as follows
n
u 1 (x ) = å t anh j - 1 (x )´ éêB j sech (x ) + A j t anh (x )ùú+ A 0 (9)
j= 1
ë û
and

n
u 2 (x ) = å cot h j - 1 (x )´ éêB j csch (x ) + A j cot h (x )ùú+ A 0 (10)
j=1
ë û
We obtain n by Balancing in…[]. Then by substituting Eq. () into ODE concluded from Eq.()
we have system of algebraic equations of Sin i (x )and cosi (x ). Then by equating of
coefficients we obtain the necessary coefficients. By substituting these coefficients in () we
extract the solutions of Eq.().

3- The conformable derivative

Khalil proposed an interesting definition of derivative called conformable derivative [1]. This
derivative can be considered to be a natural extension of the classical derivative. Furthermore,
conformable derivative satisfies all the properties of the standard calculus, for instance, the
chain rule.
Definition 2.1 Let f : [0, ¥ ) ® R , the conformable derivative of a function f (t ) of order a ,
is defined as [1]
a f (t + òt 1- a ) - f (t )
Dt f (t ) = lim , a Î (0, 1], t > 0. (11)
ò® 0 ò
This new definition satisfies the following properties. Let a Î (0, 1] , f , g be a -differentiable
at a point t , then
• Dta (af + bg) = aDta ( f ) + bDta (g) , for a, b Î R .
• Dta (t m) = mt m- a , for m Î R .
• Dta ( fg) = fDta (g) + gDta ( f ) .
g
a gDta ( f ) - fDta (g)
• D ( )=
t
.
g g2

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4- Method application to the fractional Jaulent –Miodek hierarchy equation

Let us apply the generalized Kudryashov method to find the exact solutions of the Jaulent–
xa ya ta
Miodek hierarchy. Assume u (x , y , t ) = u (x ), x = + +l , where λ is the wave
a a a
speed. Equation (3) reduces to:
1 3 2 3 3
l u ''+ u ''''- (u ') u ''+ u ''+ u '' u ' = 0 (12)
4 2 16 4
Then Eq. (9) can be rearranged as follows:
1 1 æ 3ö 3 3 æ 2ö
l u ''+ u ''''- çç(u ') ÷
÷'+ u ''+ çç(u ') ÷
÷'= 0 (13)
4 2è ø 16 4è ø
Integrating Eq. (10) with respect to ξ and setting the integration constant to zero, we get:

1 1 3 3 3 2
l u '+ u '''- (u ') + u '+ (u ') = 0 (14)
4 2 16 8

By substituting u ' = v into Eq. (11), we obtain

æ ö
ççl + 3 ÷ ÷
1 1 3
v + v ''- v 3 + v 2 = 0 (15)
çè ÷
÷
16 ø 4 2 8
Considering the homogeneous balance between the highest order derivative terms v '' with the
highest order nonlinear term v 3 gives n = 1 so from (8) we have
v (x ) = B 1 sin (w ) + A1 cos (w ) + A 0 (16)
Proceeding as outlined in two section, we acquire the following sets of solutions to Eq. (15),
as listed below:
3 1 1 1
Set1: B1  , A1  , A0 = - ,   . (17)
16 2 2 16
From (17) and (9) we have solutions of equation (1) as follows

- Dark optical soliton

3 1 1
v1 (x ) = sech (x ) + t anh (x )-
16 2 2
So
3 æx a ya 1 t a ö÷ 1 æx a a a ö
v1 (x , y , t ) = sech ççç + + ÷ + t anh çç + y + 1 t ÷ ÷
1
- .
÷ ç ÷
16 çè a a 16 a ø÷ 2 èç a a 16 a ø÷ 2

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Image 1: Plot 3D of v1 for a = 0.3

Image 2: Plot 3D of v1 for a = 0.8

In the following from (17) and (10) we have

- dark-singular soliton
3 æ a a a ö
1 t ÷ 1 æx a a a ö
v1 (x , y , t ) =
x
csch ççç +
y
+ ÷ + cot h çç + y + 1 t ÷ ÷
1
- .
÷ ç ÷
16 çè a a 16 a ø÷ 2 èç a a 16 a ø÷ 2

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Image 3: Plot 3D of v1 for a = 0.3

Image 4: Plot 3D of v1 for a = 0.8

and more sets.

1. Concluding remarks
One of the main advantages of this method is the determination of different categories of
solutions for the equation in a single framework; This means that the method can determine
different types of solutions for the equation in a single process. We performed all necessary
calculations for obtaining and plotting figures through the implementation of the symbolic
computations in Mathematica software.

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References:
[1] A. Akbulut, M. Kaplan. Auxiliary equation method for time-fractional differential
equations with conformable derivative. Computers & Mathematics with Applications. 75 (3),
(2018), 876-882.
[2] C. Chen, Y.L. Jiang. Simplest equation method for some time-fractional partial
differential equations with conformable derivative. Computers & Mathematics with
Applications, 75(8), (2018), 2978-2988.
[3] H. Yépez-Martínez, J.F. Gómez-Aguilar, A. Atangana. First integral method for
non-linear differential equations with conformable derivative. Mathematical Modelling of
Natural Phenomena, 13(1), (2018), 1-14.
[4] A. Kurt, O. Tasbozan, Y. Cenesiz. Homotopy analysis method for conformable
Burgers-Korteweg-de Vries equation. Bull. Math. Sci. Appl, 17, (2016), 17-23.
[5] Y. Cenesiz, A. Kurt. New fractional complex transforms for conformable fractional
partial differential equations. Journal of Applied Mathematics, Statistics and Informatics,
12(2), (2016), 41-47.
[6] A. Kurt, O. Tasbozan, D. Baleanu. New solutions for conformable fractional
Nizhnik-Novikov-Veselov system via G / G expansion method and homotopy analysis
methods. Optical and Quantum Electronics, 49(10), (2017), 1-23.
[7] O. Tasbozan, Y. Cenesiz, A. Kurt, D. Baleanu. New analytical solutions for
conformable fractional PDEs arising in mathematical physics by exp-function method. Open
Physics, 15(1), (2017), 647-651.
[8] Polyanin AD, Sorokin VG. A method for constructing exact solutions of nonlinear
delay PDEs. Journal of Mathematical Analysis and Applications. 2021 Feb;494(2):124619.
[9] Nabti A, Ghanbari B. Global stability analysis of a fractional SVEIR epidemic
model. Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences (2021), doi: 10.1002/mma.7285.
[10] Wang WB, Lou GW, Shen XM, Song JQ. Exact solutions of various physical
features for the fifth order potential Bogoyavlenskii-Schiff equation. Results in Physics. 2020
Sep 1; 18:103243.

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A NEW CORRECTION MATRIX FOR ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH SEMI-

RIGID AND HINGE CONNECTIONS

Hossein Rahami
School of Engineering Science, College of Engineering, University of Tehran

ABSTRACT
In this paper, a new correction matrix for investigating planar and space frames with semi-
rigid connections was derived using the displacement method of matrix analysis.
In the conventional analysis of structures, the beam to column connection is considered as
either perfectly hinged or rigidly fixed. These assumptions are not entirely consistent with
conditions often encountered in practice, however, they have been adopted because of the
simplicity in analysis and design. The third type of connection, termed the semi-rigid
connection, is also recognized by some design codes and can be used for designing such
structures as structural steel building frames. A connection is considered to be semi-rigid if its
rotational restraint is less than that of a perfectly rigid connection but more than that of a
frictionless hinged connection
In the matrix analysis, The effects of member releases can be conveniently incorporated in our
stiffness methods by modifying the member local stiffness relationships to account for such
releases.
In this paper, the expressions for member local stiffness matrices and the member local fixed-
end force can be easily modified to reflect the conditions of semi-rigid or hinge connections.
for each case, a correction matrix is defined to modify member local stiffness matrices and the
member local fixed-end force. On the other hand, we will see that by using a correction
matrix, a modified member stiffness matrix, as well as a modified fixed-end force for each
type of semi-rigid connection, and any form of member release, can be obtained.
One of the uses of this matrix can be in optimizing structures with semi-rigid or pined
connections. This is because the use of semi-rigid connections can create a balance between
the negative and positive moments, and as a result, by using smaller sections, the Fixed-End
forces can be handled. Using the method presented here will make it easier to solve the
optimization problem, because, all variables appear in a single correction matrix. In this way,
the use of a correction matrix will shorten the process of structural analysis, increase the
speed of the optimization method and also make the coding of the displacement method
easier.
Keywords: Semi-Rigid Connection, Pined Connection, Stiffness Matrix, Fixed-End Forces,
The Correction Matrix

1-Introduction
Structural analysis is usually done in two ways, stiffness method and force method. In the
stiffness method, the primary unknowns are the displacements. In this method, first force-
displacement relations are computed and subsequently, equations are written satisfying the
equilibrium conditions of the structure. In the force method, primary unknown are forces. In
this method, compatibility equations are established for displacement and rotations. Solving
these equations, redundant forces are calculated. Once the redundant forces are calculated, the
remaining reactions are evaluated by equations of equilibrium. Both methods can be
formulated by the matrix method.

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In this regard, [1-5] for the displacement method and [3, 6-8] for the force method can be
suggested. Although the force method has a stronger history, the displacement method is more
attention due to its simpler formulation and the possibility of faster implementation in
software.
Accurate modeling of connections is an essential part of the analysis. The connections are
usually modeled rigidly or pined using simplifying assumptions, but in reality, the behavior of
the connections is semi-rigid.
In other words, each rigid connection has some flexibility and each joint can withstand some
moment, which will lead us to semi-rigid connections. Preliminary studies related to this type
of connection can be mentioned [9]. In reference [10] has also investigated the dynamic
analysis of this type of connection in two-dimensional structures. Reference [11] is also a

In Figure (1), a semi-rigid connection is subjected to an j moment. The value of ” in this

comprehensive book on semi-rigid connections.

figure will be a number between the pined and the complete rigid connection.

Figure 1: A semi-rigid connection

Analysis of semi-rigid connections has been studied in many studies. For example, in [1], the
desired formulation can be seen for the two-dimensional model. In the three-dimensional
model, formulations can be similarly generalized. Since the semi-rigid connection changes
both the stiffness matrix and the forces, the previous methods are not very suitable due to the
complexity of the formulation. In addition, in the discussion of matrix analysis, it was seen
that for cases where one or both sides of the connection is a pin, the modified stiffness and
s
moments matrices should be defined independently.
t
Similar to the classical analysis, by applying a correction factor of to find the stiffness
matrix of a member (which is pined on the other side), the flexural stiffness is corrected and
the calculations will be followed more simply. In this paper, a correction matrix is suggested
that both the stiffness matrix and the trapping forces be corrected. One of the advantages of
the proposed matrix is the simple introduction of the matrix and node loads for the semi-rigid
state. In addition, this matrix can be presented in a simplified form for cases where one or
both sides of the member have pined.

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Optimization of structures with semi-rigid or pined connections is one of the uses of this
matrix. [12, 13]. Since it is easy to understand that a semi-rigid connection can strike a
balance between negative and positive moments, resulting in cost-effectiveness. Since all the
variables in the proposed method appear only in one correction matrix and the optimization
speed increases, it will make the problem easier to solve. Figure (2) shows a portal frame (a)
and the moment distribution for rigid (b), pined (c), and semi-rigid (d).

Figure 2: Portal frame (a) and moment distribution of rigid (b), pined (c), and semi-rigid (d)

2-Correction matrix
In this section, first, the calculation of the correction matrix for two-dimensional model and
then three-dimensional will be presented.

According to Figure (3), a two-dimensional beam under arbitrary loads, á3and ás (shear) and
2-1-Two-dimensional correction matrix

á and át (moment).

Figure 3: Beam element with loads and forces and node displacements

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If we represent the displacement of any force with â, the matrix form of the displacement

á3 â3 ⎧mUë ⎫
force relations is as follows:
12 6¤ −12 6¤
ì

á åæç 6¤ 4¤ −6¤ 2¤ â ⎪mjì ⎪

ã ä= s è é ãâ ä + ç → á = ƒâ + á
(1)
ás ¤ −12 −6¤ 12 −6¤ s ⎨mUë ⎬
§ Z

át 6¤ 2¤ −6¤ 4¤ ât ⎪mj§ ⎪
⎩ ç⎭
Where áí represents fixed-end forces. Now suppose this beam has semi-rigid supports on

flexural stiffness Içì (at the beginning) and Iç§ (at the end).
both sides. These supports can be modeled according to Figure (4), with springs with a

Figure 4: Modeling of semi-rigid supports with bending springs

Since the determinants of the matrix ƒ in equation (1) are equal to zero, and two and four

stated in [1], if we show the forces and displacements of the spring supports with áî and âî ,
rows are independent, we first perform the calculations on these two rows. Similar to what is

áî áît
respectively, we will have:
áî = Içì (âî − â ) → â = âî − ì ; áît = Iç§ (âît − ât ) → ât = âît − §
Iç Iç
(2)

Where Içì and Iç§ are the stiffness of the bending springs on both sides of the beginning and

and considering áî = á , we will have:

end of the element around the z-axis. By replacing in the second and 4th lines of equation (1)

åæç áî áît
áî = mjçì + s ð6¤âî3 + 4¤ ?âî − ì A − 6¤âîs + 2¤ ?âît − § Añ
(3)
¤ Iç Iç
åæç áî áît
áît = mjç§ + ð6¤â
î + 2¤ ?â
î − A − 6¤â
î + 4¤ ?â
î − Añ
¤s 3
Içì s t
Iç§

åæç Içì Iç§

By definition:
Iç = ; /ç =
ì ; /ç =
§
¤ Iç + Içì Iç + Iç§
(4)

4 2 âî3
The matrix form of this equation will be simplified as follows:
⎡ ì−3 − 2⎤ î
åæ
⎢/ç /ç ⎥ øá ù = ç ú6¤ 4¤ −6¤ 2¤ û ãâî ä + ømjç§ ù
(5)
§ ì

⎢ 2 − 2 4 − 3⎥ áît ¤s 6¤ 2¤ −6¤ 4¤ âîs mjç

⎣/çì /ç§ ⎦ âît

If =ç = 12 − 8/çì − 8/ç§ + 5/çì /ç§ , then we have:

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âî3
áî 1 / ì (4 − 3/ § ) 2/çì (/ç§ − 1) åæç 6¤ 4¤ −6¤ 2¤ û ãâî ä
(6)
ø ù= ˜ç § ì ç •ü s ú
áît =ç 2/ç (/ç − 1) /ç§ (4 − 3/çì ) ¤ 6¤ 2¤ −6¤ 4¤ âîs
âît

mjçì
+ø ùý
mjç§

In other words, we have reached a matrix by multiplying it in the stiffness matrix as well as
the fixed-end forces, we will reach the modified stiffness matrix and the modified fixed-end
forces. Therefore, the correction matrix is:

1 /çì (4 − 3/ç§ ) 2/çì (/ç§ − 1)

j = ˜ •
=ç 2/ç§ (/çì − 1) /ç§ (4 − 3/çì )
(7)
>t

The subscripts used for j correspond to the subscripts á to the left of Equation (6). Now by
replacing equation (6) in the first and third lines of equation (1) and after simplification,

⎧mUë ⎫
finally:
12 6¤ −12 6¤ âî3
ì

áî ⎪mjì ⎪⎞
(8)
⎛åæç 6¤ 4¤ −6¤ 2¤ âî
ø î3 ù = j3>s ⎜ s è éã ä + ç
⎟
ás ¤ −12 −6¤ 12 −6¤ âîs ⎨mUë ⎬
§

6¤ 2¤ −6¤ 4¤ âît ⎪ ⎪
⎩mjç ⎭⎠
§
⎝

Where j3>s is:

¤=ç
6 −(/çì − 1)(/ç§ − 2) 0 −(/ç§ − 1)(/çì − 2)
è 6
(9)
j3>s = é
¤=ç ¤=ç
0 (/çì − 1)(/ç§ − 2) (/ç§ − 1)(/çì − 2)
6

Obviously, according to Equation (4), the boundaries /çì and /ç§ will be equal to zero (at the
pined support) and equal to one (at the rigid support).

2-2- Three element correction matrix

In the following, we will deal with the three-dimensional element. The stiffness matrix in 3D

ƒ3 ƒ −ƒ3 ƒ
is as follows:
⎡ ⎤
å ƒ ƒs −ƒ ƒt ⎥
(10)
ƒ = s⎢
¤ ⎢ 3−ƒ −ƒ ƒ3 −ƒ ⎥
⎣ƒ ƒt −ƒ ƒs ⎦

where:

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" 0 0 0 0 0
ƒ3 = 0 (1) 0 ; ƒ = 0 0 (2)
(11)

0 0 ¯(1) 0 −¯(2) 0
0 0 − 0 0
ƒs = 0 ¯(3) 0 ; ƒt = 0 ¯(4) 0
0 0 (3) 0 0 (4)
"= ¤ ¯ = 2¤æë z6/¤ 3 2¤ ¤{
;
= x*¤ /å = 2¤æç z6/¤ 3 2¤ ¤{

áZ
Fixed-end forces will also be as follows:
(12)
= ‚m ìX mUëì mUçì m-Xì mjëì mjçì m §
X mUë§ mUç§ m-X§ mjë§ mjç§ ‡
The ultimate goal is to find a modification matrix to convert the stiffness matrix and fixed-end

to obtain the correction matrix j in such a way that simultaneously:

forces to the modified stiffness matrix and modified fixed-end forces. In other words, we want

ƒ 1 = jƒ ; áZ1 = jáZ
In 3D, we have 12 internal forces, represented by á3to á3 . It should be noted that since the
(13)

rank of the stiffness matrix is 6, it is not possible to find a unique solution in solving the
matrix of equation (13). Therefore, the problem must be solved by separating the degrees of
freedom.

These forces are represented on both sides of the element by á3 and á . The rotational springs
a- Axial forces

do not change these forces and therefore the correction matrix is equal to the identity matrix,

1 0
in other words:
j3> = ú û
0 1
(14)

These moments are displayed on both sides of the element with át and á3|. In the absence of
b- Torsional moments

x* x*
torsion springs, the relations are as follows:
át = (ât − â3| ) + m-Xì ; á3| = (â3| − ât ) + m-X§
¤ ¤
(15)

áît
After applying the torsion springs, we will have:
áît = IXì (âît − ât ) → ât = âît − ì ; áî3| = IX§ (âî3| − â3| ) → â3|
(16)
IX
áî3|
= âî3| − §
IX

Where IXì and IX§ are the stiffness of the torsion springs at both the beginning and end around
the x-axis. According to equation (15) and áî = á , we will have:

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x* áît áî3|
áît =?âît − ì − âî3| + § A + m-Xì ; áî3|
¤ IX
(17)
IX
x* áî3| áît
= ?âî3| − § − âît + ì A + m-X§
¤ IX IX
Solving this equation leads to:

áît 1 /Xì /Xì (1 − /X§ ) x* 1 −1 âît m-Xì

ø ù= ž ú û ø ù + ø ù¡
áî3| =X /X§ (1 − /Xì ) /X§ ¤ −1 1 âî3| m-X
(18)

where:

x* IXì IX§
IX = ; /Xì = ; /X§ = ; =X
¤ IX + IX§
(19)
IX + IXì
= /Xì + /X§ − /Xì /X§

1 /Xì /Xì (1 − /X§ )

Therefore, the correction matrix for the effect of torsion springs will be as follows:
jt>3| =
=X /X§ (1 − /Xì ) /X§
(20)

These moments are displayed on both sides of the element around the z-axis with áu and á3 .
c- Bending moments

Exactly as seen in obtaining equation (7), the correction matrices can be expressed as follows:

1 /çì (4 − 3/ç§ ) 2/çì (/ç§ − 1)

ju>3 = ˜ § ì •
=ç 2/ç (/ç − 1) /ç§ (4 − 3/çì )
(21)

Similarly, if we display the moments on both sides of the y-axis element with ሠand á33 ,

1 /ëì …4 − 3/ë§ † 2/ëì …/ë§ − 1†

then:

jˆ>33 =
(22)
=ë 2/ë§ …/ëì − 1† /ë§ …4 − 3/ëì †

These forces are displayed on both sides of the element in the y-direction with á and á .
d- Shear forces

Similar to equation (9) we have:

¤=ç
6 −(/çì − 1)(/ç§ − 2) 0 −(/ç§ − 1)(/çì − 2)
è 6
(23)
j = é
>
¤=ç ¤=ç
0 (/çì − 1)(/ç§ − 2) (/ç§ − 1)(/çì − 2)
6

The columns of this matrix will correspond to degrees of freedom 2, 6, 8, and 12.

Also in the z-direction, the correction matrix will be as follows:

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¤=ë
6 …/ëì − 1†…/ë§ − 2† 0 …/ë§ − 1†…/ëì − 2†
è 6
(24)
js>y = é
¤=ë ¤=ë
0 −…/ëì − 1†…/ë§ − 2† −…/ë§ − 1†…/ëì − 2†
6

The columns of this matrix also correspond to degrees of freedom 3, 5, 9, and 11.
By assembling the correction matrices presented in Equations (14) and (20) to (24), the final
matrix can be expressed as a four-block matrix as follows:

æ 0 V
0 w 0 å
(25)
j=è é
0 − æ −V
0 D 0 m

In this matrix, æ is a unit matrix and 0 is a zero matrix and the other blocks are:

0 0 0 ì
X 0 0 ℎX§ 0 0
= ‹0 0 − çŒ ; w = ‹0 0 Œ ; D = ‹0 që§ 0 Œ
(26)
ì ì
ë
0 ì
ë 0 0 0 ì 0 0 qç§
ç
0 0 0 ℎXì 0 0 §
X 0 0
V = ‹0 0 − çŒ ; å = ‹0 qëì 0 Œ ; m = ‹0 0 Œ
§ §
ë
0 §
ë 0 0 0 qçì 0 0 §
ç

Where L, L and qL are:

6 /L
= …/L − 1†…/L − 2† ; L = …4 − 3/L †
E E
(27)
L
¤=L =L
2/L E
qL = …/ − 1† ; =L = 12 − 8/Lì − 8/L§ + 5/Lì /L§
=L L

Where I represents the axis of the corresponding coordinates and can be y or z. Also, F
represents the beginning or end of the element ( or %). The index G also represents the other
side of the element and therefore will always be the opposite of F . Also X and ℎX are as
follows:

/X
= ; ℎX = X …1 − /X † ; =X = /Xì + /X§ − /Xì /X§
E
=X
(28)
X

In this way, by specifying the correction matrix j, it is possible to reach the modified
stiffness matrix and the modified fixed-end forces by pre-multiplying it in the stiffness matrix
and the fixed-end forces.

where both sides are rigid. In this case /Lì = /L§ = 1 is chosen in which I will represent the
One way to control the resulting correction matrix is to obtain this matrix for a situation

three directions of the coordinate axes.

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In this case =L = 1, which we will reach the unit matrix by replacing it in the correction
matrix. In other words, no correction is needed, as expected.

3-Correction matrix (one or both sides has pined)

The aim is to obtain the correction matrix for situations where one or both sides of the
member have pined. There are three general ways to release nodes at the beginning and end of
an element.

If we assume that the connection used is a spherical joint, then /Lì = 0 in equations (27) and
a-The node is pined at the beginning of the connection and rigid at the end.

(28), where I will represent the three directions of the coordinate axes. in this case:

æ 0 0
0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0
(29)
j=è é ; = 0 0 −1 ; D
0 − æ 0 2¤
0 1 0
0 D 0 æ
1 2 0 0
= 0 −1 0
2
0 0 −1

moments around the y and z directions maybe release. In this case, we have /ëì = /çì = 0.
It should be noted that sometimes the joint is not a spherical joint and, for example, only the

In this case by choosing /L§ = 0 we will have:

b- The node is rigid at the beginning and pined at the end.

æ 0 0 V
0 æ 0 å 3 0 0 0 1 2 0 0
(30)
j=è é ; V= 0 0 −1 ; å = 0 −1 0
0 0 æ −V 2¤ 2
0 1 0 0 0 −1
0 0 0 0

In this case /Lì = /L§ = 0 and therefore, =ë = =ç = 1 and =X = 0. Since =X = 0, we will have
c- Both nodes have pined

X = } for torsional moments. In this situation, we can choose a

\
¨

very small number for =X or since áît = áî3| = 0, then in the following equation matrix
a problem in calculating
¨

jt>3| must be equal to zero:

áî x* 1 −1 âît m- ì
ø ît ù = jt>3| ž ú û ø ù + ø X§ ù¡
á3| ¤ −1 1 âî3| m-X
(31)

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Therefore, the general correction matrix is:

æ 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
(32)
j=è é ; = 0 0 −1
0 − æ − ¤
0 1 0
0 0 0 0

Finally, we control one of the obtained matrices. For example, for the case where the first
node has pined and the end node is rigid, the correction matrix is obtained as (29). According
to Equation (13), we will have:

æ 0 0 ƒ3 ƒ −ƒ3 ƒ
⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 0 å ⎢ƒ ƒs −ƒ ƒt
(33)
ƒ1 =è é ⎥
0 − æ 0 ¤s ⎢−ƒ3 −ƒ ƒ3 −ƒ ⎥
0 D 0 æ ⎣ƒ ƒt −ƒ ƒs ⎦
ƒ31 0 −ƒ31 ƒ1
å ⎡0 0 0 0
⎤
= s ⎢−ƒ 1 0 ƒ31
⎥
−ƒ Î ⎥
¤ ⎢ 3
⎣(ƒ 1 ) 0 −(ƒ 1 ) ƒs1 ⎦

where:

¤ 0 0 0 0 0
ƒ31 = ‹0 3æç 0 Œ ; ƒ = ‹0 0 3¤æç Œ ; ƒs1
(34)
1

0 0 3æë 0 −3¤æë 0
0 0 0
= ‹0 3¤ æë 0 Œ
0 0 3¤ æç

Also áZ1 = jáZ for modified fixed-end forces.

In reference [14] a MATLAB code for analyzing three-dimensional structures using this
method is presented that the reader can refer to if needed.

References
[1] Kassimali A., Matrix Analysis of Structures, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company,
1999.
[2] McGuire W., Gallagher R.H. and Ziemian R.D., Matrix Structural Analysis, 2nd
ed. John Wiley, 2000.
[3] Kaveh A., Matrix Analysis of Structures, IUST Press, 2011, (in persian)
[4] Tehranizadeh M. Matrix Structural Analysis and application on structural
dynamics, International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, 1998, (in
persian)
[5] Rezaiee-Pajand M., Theory of matrix structural analysis, Ferdowsi university of
Mashhad, 2008 , (in persian)

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[6] Kaveh A., Structural Mechanics: Graph and Matrix Methods, Research Studies
Press (John Wiley), Exeter, U.K., 2004 (third edition). Baldock, Hertfordshire, UK. ISBN 0-
86380-186-2/0-471-96028-4
[7] Kaveh A., Computational Structural Analysis and Finite Element Methods,
Springer Verlag, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 2014. ISBN 978-3-319-
02963-4
[8] Henderson J.C. de C, Topological aspects of structural analysis, Aircraft
Engineering 32, 137–141, 1960.
[9] Monforton, T. S. Wu, Matrix Analysis of Semi-Rigid Connected Frames, Journal
of the Structural Division, Vol. 89, Issue 6, 13-24, 1963
[10] Uğur Öztürk A. and Mutlu Seçer, An investigation for semi-rigid frames by
different connection models, Mathematical and Computational Applications, Vol. 10, No. 1,
35-44, 2005.
[11] Wai-Fah Chen, Semi-rigid Connections Handbook, J. Ross Publishing, 2011 -
Technology & Engineering
[12] Kaveh A. and Ghafari M.H., Optimum design of castelatted beams: effect of
composite action and semi-rigid connections, Scientia Iranica, No. 1, 25, 162-173, 2018.
[13] Kaveh A. and Moez H., Minimal cycle bases for analysis of frames and semi-
rigid joints, Computers and Structures, 86, 503-510, 2008.
[14] Rahami H. , A simple function for the analysis of two- and three- dimensional
frame structures, mathworks , [Link]
matrix-structural-analysis

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J-CLOSED FUNCTIONS VIA J-CLOSED SETS IN TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Assistant Professor [Link]

Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women

ABSTRACT
In 1937, Stone introduced regular open sets and used it to define the semi-regularization of a
topological space. In 1968, Velicko proposed -open sets which are stronger than open sets.
Levine has brought generalized closed sets in 1970. Dunham has established a generalized
closure using Levine’s generalized closed sets as Cl*.In 2016,Annalakshmi has introduced
regular*-open sets (r*-open sets) using Cl*.A class of new sets namely η*-open sets,a
union of r*-open sets, which is placed between the classes of δ-open set and open set is
[Link] basic properties are procured and the concepts of η*-cluster point,η*-adherent
point and a η*-derived set are introduced and studied. Moreover, a new class of sets namely J-
closed sets is initiated using η*-open sets in topological spaces. This new concept is weaker
than closedness and infact it is weaker than g-closedness but stronger than g -closedness
which are essential to characterize almost weakly Hausdorff spaces and thus the digital
[Link] properties and relationships with other g-closed sets are [Link] class of J-
closed sets is placed between that of generalized closed (g-closed) sets and generalized -
closedsets (g -closed).Changing the position of η*-Closure operator and η*-openness another
two concepts are introduced namely J*-closed sets and J**-closed sets and their status are
analysed and properties are obtained. Many interesting chararcterizations are established.
Finally in a semi-regular space,J,J* and J**-closed sets coincide which has to be proved by
Example.
In this article, J-closed functions using the concept of J-closed sets and J-open functions using
the notion of J-open sets are initiated. The interrelationships of these newly introduced
functions with various existing functions are examined and its properties are analysed. The
composition of two J-closed function need not be J-closed which is proved by Counter

like JTC-space and JTδ-space is proved.

Example. Moreover the composition of J-closed function is J-closed function in some spaces

Keywords: J-closed function, J-closed set, J-open set ,J-open function and *-open sets.

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ON THE NUMBER OF SOLUTIONS OF COMMUTATOR EQUATION [xn,y]=g IN A

CLASS OF FINITE GROUPS

Dr. Mansour Hashemi

Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

Mina Pirzadeh
Faculty of Mathematical Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

ABSTRACT
Let G be a finite group. The commutativity degree of G , written P(G) , is defined as the ratio

|{( x, y)  G  G : xy  yx}|
P(G)  .
| G |2
In [3], Pournaki et al. have studied and generalized this concept for the group G and g  G as
follows:

|{( x, y)  G  G :[ x, y]  g}|
Pg (G)  .
| G |2
M. Hashemi [2] gave some explicit formulas of P(G) for some particular finite groups G .
Also, Hashemi and et al. [1] derived formulas for calculating the probability of Pg (G ) where
G is a two generated group of nilpotency class 2. We now turn to a generalization of Pg (G ) .
For every n  2 , we consider

gn (G)  {( x, y)  G  G; [ xn , y]  g}.

Then the probability that the commutator equation [ xn , y]  g , written Pgn (G), is equal to
| gn (G) |
.
| GG |
In this paper, we obtain explicit formula for the Pgn (G), where

2
G  Hm  a, b | am  bm  1, b1ab  a1m , m  2.
By these facts, we have the following Theorem:

Theorem. Let m, n  2 be integers and r1 , r2 , s1 and s2 be variables, when 0  r1 , r2  m 1and

0  s1 , s2  m2  1.
Then the equation n(s1r2  s2 r1 )  t ( mod m) has solution if and only if l | t where
l  gcd ( m, n) .

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These results can be checked for some small values by GAP [5].
Keywords: Finite groups, nilpotent groups, commutativity degree, GAP

[1] M. Hashemi, M. Pirzadeh and S. A. Gorgian, The probability that the commutator
equation [x, y] = g has solution in a finite group, Journal of Algebra and Related Topics, 7
(2020), no. 2, 47-61.
[2] M. Hashemi, The commutative degree on 2-generated groups with nilpotency
class2, Ars Combin., 122
(2015), 149-159.
[3] M. R. Pournaki and R. Sobhani, Probability that the commutator of two group
elements is equal to a give element, J. Pure and Applied Algebra, 212 (2008), 727-734.
[4] H. Doostie and M. Hashemi, Fibonacci lenghts involving the Wall number K(n), J.
Appl. Math. Com-
puting., 20 (2006), 171-180.
[5] The GAP Group, GAP-Group, Algorithm and Programming, Version 4.4.12.
([Link]

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SOLUTION OF TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM UNDER INTERVAL VALUED

PTYHAGOREAN FUZZY SET

Vineet Kumar
Department of Applied Mathematics, Delhi Technological University

Anjana Gupta
Department of Applied Mathematics, Delhi Technological University

H.C. Taneja
Department of Applied Mathematics, Delhi Technological University

ABSTRACT
In the application of real-world problems, there is more pressure on administration how to
send products from origin to destination in a cost-effective manner. To reduce these
difficulties the transportation problem models are used very efficiently. In a conventional
transportation problem, the decision-maker is sure about the transportation cost, availability
and demand of the product. But in real-world problem, these factors are uncontrollable due to
the imprecision of data. To deal with the uncertain data and vagueness of real-world
problems, the concept of fuzzy set (FS) and their extension have been introduced. The paper
focuses on the interval-valued Pythagorean fuzzy transportation problem. In some cases, it is
difficult to measure the membership and non-membership value at a point. So in the proposed
work, we have taken the membership and non-membership value as an interval for finding the
solution of the transportation problem (TP) under interval-valued Pythagorean fuzzy set
(IVPFS). In the paper, we have solved three different types of interval-valued Pythagorean
fuzzy transportation problems using score function (SF) and compare the result of initial basic
feasible solution (IBFS) with optimality. The interval-valued Pythagorean fuzzy arithmetic
operations and different algorithms are discussed here. To support our work, numerical
problems are given for the effectiveness of the different types of models. Finally, we have
discussed the results and conclusion of the work.
Keywords: Transportation problem, Fuzzy set, Interval-valued Pythagorean fuzzy set, Score
function.

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INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT) SECURITY

Meziane Hind
Mohammed I University, Faculty of Sciences, Mathematics Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-9513-5236

ABSTRACT
Security is among the significant challenges of the IoT (Internet of Things). IoT is a vast
domain which contains physical objects, networks communication, technologies, hardware
(devices, computers), protocols, electronics, platforms and applications that interconnects
anything from the physical environment (physical objects, animals, places, plants, machines
and peoples …) to the internet in order to exchange data without any human interaction1.
However, many kinds of attacks have been invented to breach the security of IoT devices. For
example, opening the doors of a house or a store to make thefts, stopping the operation of a
factory or causing material or human damage to it, remote control of flying vehicle, blocking
road traffic of an entire city. Security in IoT is more important and essential. So, the leading
companies in this field should consider cybersecurity as a top priority1.
Recently, the IoT has been drawing wide attention. It can be used in wide range of domains
including transportation, healthcare, smart buildings... IoT systems have become very
vulnerable and victims of attacks and threats. Consequently, IoT security is an important
concern that needs to be well studied before developing more advanced IoT systems.
This paper presents an overview of IoT security. Then, we give the related works. Besides, the
the major security issues is also investigated. Next, results and discussion are provided. After
concluding, the future works are also discussed.
Keywords: Internet of Things (IoT), attacks, IoT Security.

1
Meziane, H., Ouerdi, N., Kasmi, M. A., & Mazouz, S. (2021). Classifying Security Attacks in IoT Using CTM
Method. In Emerging Trends in ICT for Sustainable Development (pp. 307-315). Springer, Cham.

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LIE SYMMETRY ANALYSIS OF FRACTIONAL PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

Doç. Dr. Mohamed Rahioui

Laboratory of mathematics, analysis and system controls, Department of Mathematics,
Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail University

Prof. Dr. El Hassan El Kinani

Laboratory of mathematics, analysis and system controls, Department of Mathematics,
Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail University

Prof. Dr. Abdelaziz Ouhadan

Laboratory of mathematics, analysis and system controls, Department of Mathematics,
Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail University

ABSTRACT
Certain themes reoccur in many fields of mathematics, particularly in Applied Mathematics.
One example is symmetry groups, which exist in the Galois theory of equations and Lie
groups. Lie groups have gotten a lot of interest because of their applicability in domains
including chemistry, diffusion, biology, viscoelasticity, control theory, and so on. This
approach has been used to investigate a number of well-known equations, including the Wave
equation, Burgers equation, modified Burgers equation, Euler equations, Korteweg-de Vries
equation, and Riccati equation…
This fundamental theory has become a key to understanding the symmetries of various
fractional differential equations, as well as a necessary tool for further research.
We shall look at Sophus Lie's idea of using local groups of transformations to achieve
fractional differential equation symmetries and consequently certain transformed solutions in
this work. Our goal is to build a more generalized method for solving fractional differential
equations based on the classical concepts of prolongation of infinitesimal generator and
fractional differential equation invariance criterion.
We will first offer a theoretical basis for this strategy, then recall some essential properties
and exemplify this approach by employing the conformable derivative type to treat the
conformable heat equation. We wrap up the study with a few observations.
Keywords : fractional differential equations, Lie symmetry, transformations groups, heat
equation, vector fields, prolongation, infinitesimal generator, manifold, Lie algebra, Lie
group, infinitesimal symmetries.

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THE GENERALIZED FORCHHEIMER EQUATION WITH MICROSTRUCTURE

EFFECTS

M. H. Hamdan
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of New Brunswick

M. S. Abu Zaytoon
Department of Mathematics, University of Petra

ABSTRACT
In this work, we derive Darcy’s and Forchheimer’s equations for flow of fluids with pressure-
dependent viscosity through porous media while taking into considerations the effects of
porous microstructure. The approach used is intrinsic volume averaging, and microstructure
effects are accounted for using the Churchill-Usagi total friction factor.
Keywords: Pressure-dependent viscosity, drag coefficient, porous microstructure.

INTRODUCTION
The past two decades have witnessed increasing interest in the flow through porous media of
fluids with pressure-dependent viscosities. This might be attributed to emerging applications
in many industrial settings that include carbon sequestration in enhanced oil recovery,
groundwater flow and filtration problems under high pressure gradients, new frontiers in
lubrication theory, and applications in the pharmaceutical industry (Nakshatrala and
Rajagopal, 2011). These and other important applications mandate a need to accurately model
the flow and derive appropriate governing equations and provide solutions to initial and
boundary value problems.
The concept of fluid viscosity dependence on pressure under isothermal conditions can be
traced back to the nineteenth century and the work of Barus (1991). However, modelling the
flow of pressure-dependent viscosity fluids in porous sediments is quite recent and can be
attributed in the main part to the work of Rajagopal and co-workers (cf. Rajagopal, (2007) and
the references therein) and the references therein). Modelling this type of flow through porous
media represents a paradigm shift in our thinking of what physical quantities are important,
and how the flow is affected by these quantities. This includes an emphasis on the role high
pressures and high-pressure gradients in porous media and their effects on interacting forces
between flowing fluids and the solid matrix structures. This shift in our though processes is
due in part to the realization that while it is acceptable in the flow of fluids with constant
viscosities to take the drag force to be proportional to the shear viscosity, this may not be the
case when pressure-dependent viscosities are involved. In fact, in the Brinkman-type flow
with pressure-dependent viscosity, the shear viscosity and the drag force are not related since,
according to Rajagopal (2007) viscosity is a measure of the frictional resistance in between
fluid layers while the drag force is a measure of the friction between the fluid and the solid, at
the pore.
New knowledge on flow of fluids with pressure-dependent viscosities in porous media
emphasizes in the need to generalize the classical models of flow through porous media to
better handle high pressure phenomena.

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It has been argued that the celebrated Darcy’s equation in the study of some flows through
porous media suffers limitations that include its inability to account for microscopic inertia
that arises due to tortuosity of the flow path. The absence of a viscous shear term in Darcy’s
equation imposes limits on its ability to account for viscous shear effects that arise when a
macroscopic, solid boundary is encountered. Darcy’s equation may be valid in low
permeability, low porosity media where variations at the microscopic, pore-level length scale
are negligible at the macroscopic length scale.
Nakshatrala and Rajagopal, (2011) discussed other limitations of Darcy’s equation and its
short-comings in predicting important phenomena in flow through porous media. They
emphasized that while Darcy’s equation merely predicts fluid flux through the porous
structure, its “flux prediction is not accurate at high pressures and pressure gradients”.
In order to overcome some of the above limitations, Srinivasan [Link]. (2013), Nakshatrala and
Rajagopal, (2011), provided a generalized form of Darcy’s equation in which the drag
coefficient depended on pressure. Chang et. al. (2017) reported both Darcy’s equation and
Forchheimer’s equation in the following generalized forms:

(S, "⃗)â⃗ + ∇S = œ ⃗
Generalized Darcy’s Equation:
(1)

with drag force (S, "⃗) given by:

(S, "⃗) = ⃗) . expz — S{
L(X
(2)

(â⃗, S, "⃗)â⃗ + ∇S = œx⃗

Generalized Forchheimer’s Equation:
(3)

with drag force (â⃗, S, "⃗) given by:

(â⃗, S, "⃗) = + n ‖â⃗‖ = ⃗) . expz — S{ + n œ‖â
( )
L(X⃗) L(X
⃗‖ (4)

wherein h| is the fluid fixed viscosity, œ is the density of the fluid, S is the pressure, ⃗ is the
gravitational acceletarion, I("⃗) is the medium permeability function, â⃗ is the velocity vector,
‖â⃗‖ = √â⃗ ∙ â⃗ , — is the experimentally obtained Barus coefficient, and n is the Forchheimer
or inertial coefficient. It is customary to write n = , where Dn is the Ergun coefficient
~
@L(X⃗)
with value between 0.375 and 0.5.

gives rise to the permeability function, I("⃗), nor does it distinguish between one porous
Equations (1)-(4) do not explicitly take into account the porous medium microstructure, which

medium and another.

microstructure in the drag coefficients (S, "⃗) and (â⃗, S, "⃗). This is the objective of this
One way to distinguish between different porous structures is to take into account the porous

work in which we start with Stokes equations for flow of a fluid with pressure-dependent
viscosity in the absence of convective acceleration and use intrinsic volume averaging to
obtain an averaged form of the equations, valid for flow through porous media. The arising
surface integral that gives rise to the drag coefficient is then analyzed and approximated,
based on Churchill-Usagi relation for total frictional effects, using expressions for the porous
microstructure.

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Effects of the porous microstructure will be accounted for using mathematical idealizations of
the pore structure, based on the concept of Representative Unit Cell (RUC) and the geometric
factors of Du Plessis and Diedericks, (1997). Porous microstructures of granular and
consolidated porous materials are analyzed, and appropriate Darcy and Darcy-Forchheimer
drag coefficients are obtained for each. Permeability functions for these two types of porous
structures are determined through porosity of each medium.
Results of the current work for the drag functions and permeability for granular and
consolidated media are as follows:

MODEL EQUATIONS
Consider Stokes’ flow of an incompressible fluid with pressure-dependent viscosity. Flow is
governed by the equations of continuity and momentum, expressed as:

∇ ∙ â⃗ = 0 (5)

−∇S + ∇ ∙ -⃗ + œ ⃗ = 0⃗ (6)

-⃗ = h(∇â⃗ + (∇â⃗) )
wherein
(7)

â⃗ is the velocity vector field, S is the pressure, œ is the fluid density, h = h(S) is the pressure-
dependent viscosity of the fluid.

(6) are averaged over a control volume, ! , referred to as a Representative Elementary Volume
In order to obtain the flow equations through a porous structure, governing equations (5) and

the pore space, !" , and a (stationary and rigid) solid-phase contained in the porous matrix
(REV), (Du Plessis and Masliyah, 1988). An REV is composed of a fluid-phase contained in

solid of volume !¢ , such that ! = !" + !¢ . The no-slip velocity condition, â⃗ = 0⃗, holds on the
stationary solid matrix. The fraction of pore space in the REV is the same as pore space
fraction in the whole porous medium, thus having the same porosity as the medium. Porosity,
 , of the REV, hence of the porous medium, is defined as:

# = p $p %" q! = p $p 1q! =
3 3 p&
p
(8)
&

where %" is a fluid-phase function defined at position "⃗ in ! by:

1; "⃗ ∈ !"
%" ("⃗) = '
0; "⃗ ∈ !¢
(9)

Porous microstructure interactions with the flowing fluid are accounted for through an
idealization of the pore geometry and the concept of a Representative Unit Cell (RUC). An
RUC is the minimal REV that embeds average properties of the porous medium.
In order to average governing equations (5)-(7), we first define the volumetric phase average
of a fluid quantity F per unit volume, as:

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< m > = $p %" mq! = $p mq!

3 3
p p
(10)
and the intrinsic phase average (or the volumetric average of m over effective pore space, !" )
&

as:

< m >" = %" mq! = $ mq!

3 3
$
p& p p& p&
(11)
Relationship between the volumetric phase average and the intrinsic phase average can be
seen from equations (10), and (11), and the definition of porosity, (8), as:

< m > = # < m >" (12)

and the deviation of an averaged quantity from its true (microscopic) value is given by

m ° = m −< m >" (13)

Using the above definitions of averages, we can write the averaging rules in the following

Letting m and K be volumetrically additive scalar quantities, m⃗ a vector quantity, and a

forms, listed here for ease of reference.

constant (whose average is itself), then:

(i) < m >= < m > = # < m >"

< ∇m > = #∇< m >" + p $+ m ° C⃗ qU
3
(ii)

where U is the surface area of the solid matrix in the REV that is in contact with the fluid, and
C⃗ is the unit normal vector pointing into the solid.

< m ∓ K > = # < m >" + # < K >"

< mK > = # < m >" < K >" + # < m ° K ° >"
(iii)
(iv)
< ∇ ∙ m⃗ > = ∇ ∙ φ < m⃗ >" + $ m⃗ ∙ C⃗ qU
3
p +
(v)

(vi)… Due to the no-slip condition, a surface integral is zero if it contains the fluid velocity
vector explicitly.
The above averaging theorems are applied to equations (5) and (6), as sollows.
Continuity Equation:

∇ ∙ # < â⃗ >" + â⃗ ∙ C⃗qU = 0

By rule (v), equation (5) takes the form:
3
$
p +
(14)

Momentum Equations:
Taking the averages of both sides of (6), and invoking rules (i)-(v) yields

−#∇< S >" − p $+ S° C⃗qU + ∇ ∙ # < -⃗ >" + $ -⃗ ∙ C⃗qU +œ# < ⃗ >" = 0⃗

3 3
p +
(15)

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Equations (14) and (15) represent the intrinsic volume averaged continuity and momentum
equations. The deviation terms and surface integrals appearing in the averaged equations
contain information on the interactions between the fluid-phase and solid-phase in the REV.
These are analyzed in what follows.

ANALYSIS OF SURFACE INTEGRALS

$ â⃗ ∙ C⃗qU in (14) vanishes. Equation (14) thus takes the following final averaged form:
Using Gauss’ divergence theorem, together with continuity equation (5), the surface integral
3
p +

∇ ∙ # < â⃗ >" = 0
The term ∇ ∙ # < -⃗ >" of equation (15) can be written as ∇ ∙ # < hæ⃗ >" , where æ⃗ = (∇â⃗ +
(16)

∇â⃗ ), and expanded into the form

∇ ∙ # < hæ⃗ >" = ∇ ∙ # < h >" < æ⃗ >" + ∇ ∙ #(< h ° >" < æ⃗° >" +< h °° æ⃗°° >" ) (17)

fluid velocity gradients, < æ⃗° >" , and deviations of the average viscosity, < h ° >" . Assuming
The last term on the right-hand-side of (17) involves products of deviations of the average

that these deviations are small in the absence of high velocity and viscosity gradients, the
products of these small deviations can be ignored. We can then write:

∇ ∙ # < -⃗ >" = ∇ ∙ # < h >" < æ⃗ >" (18)

The term $+ S° ²⃗qU represents pressure fluctuations on the fluid-solid interface. In case of
3
p
flow of a fluid with constant viscosity, Le Bars and Grae Worster, (2006), argue that this term

media, it may be of significance. The surface integrals, $ S° ²⃗qU and $ -⃗ ∙ C⃗qU of

is small, hence can be neglected. However, in case of high pressure flow through porous
3 3
p + p +
(-⃗ ∙ C⃗ − S° C⃗)qU, in the sense
3
$
p +
introduced by Whitaker, (1999), that involves the normal derivative of â⃗ .
equations (15), can be combined to form a surface filter

Since the solid porous matrix affects the fluid through the portion of the surface area of the
solid that is in contact with it, this surface filter contains the information necessary to quantify
the forces exerted on the flowing fluid by the porous matrix. This form of surface filter has
been abundantly analyzed in the literature, and has been identified with the force that gives
rise to Darcy resistance and the Forchheimer inertial drag term.

wherein < is a friction factor (or the Churchill-Usagi total frictional effects of the porous
Following Du Plessis and Diedericks, (1997), it can be expressed in the following form,

matrix on the fluid), and we have replaced the constamt viscosity with an average viscosity
function:

−(S° C⃗ − -⃗ ∙ C⃗)qU = −< h >" <# < â⃗ >"

3
$
p +
(19)

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In order to account for Darcy resistance and the Forchheimer drag effects, we follow the
analyses provided in Whitaker, (1999), Ruth and Ma (1992, 1993), and Du Plessis and

The above surface integral, or the friction factor, < , can be decomposed in terms of the
Diedericks, (1997), and decompose the surface integral as follows.

A shear force integral, <3 , which accounts for the viscous drag effects (Darcy
following two parts:
1)

An inertial force integral, < , which accounts for inertial drag effects that predominate
resistance) that predominate in the Darcy regime, that is, for small Reynolds number flow.
2)
in the Forchheimer regime, that is, for high Reynolds number flow.
1 r
As recognized and discussed by Le Bars and Grae Worster, (2006), the term  T  ndS is
VS
the interfacial viscous stress exchange, which corresponds to the microscopic momentum
exchange of the Newtonian fluid with the solid matrix. It depends on the morphology of the
porous matrix, on the viscosity of the fluid (hence depends on pressure for fluids with
pressure-dependent viscosities) and, if present, on the relative velocity of the fluid and the
solid matrix.
In porous structures where Darcy and Forchheimer equations are valid, and in the absence of
macroscopic solid walls, viscous shear effects are neglected and equation (15) can be written

−#∇< S >" −< h >" <# < â⃗ >" +œ# < ⃗ >" = 0⃗
as:
(20)

Taking porosity # to be constant, and letting h ∗ = # < h >" , ™⃗ = # < â⃗ >" , S∗ = # <
S >" , and x⃗ = # < ⃗ >" , continuity equation (16) can be written as:
∇ ∙ ™⃗ = 0 (21)

<™⃗ +∇S∗ = œx⃗

and equation (20) takes the following form
∗

"
(22)

If viscous drag effect is the only frictional force present, then < = <3 , and (22) can be written

<3 ™⃗ +∇S∗ = œx⃗

as a first approximation in the form
∗

"
(23)

If both <3 and < are accounted for, then, by the Churchill-Usagi relation, total frictional
effects, < , of the porous matrix on the fluid is expressed in terms of <3 and < as
< = <3 + < (24)

where / is a shifting factor. Du Plessis and Diedericks, (1997), have shown that reasonable
correlation is obtained when / = 1. We thus write < = <3 + < , and equation (22) as:
(<3 + < )™⃗ ∇S∗ = œx⃗
∗

"
(25)

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where f 1 be the velocity-independent viscous shear geometric factor that depends on the
geometry of the porous medium and gives rise to the Darcy resistance, and f 2 the velocity-
dependent inertial geometric factor that gives rise to the Forchheimer inertial term.
Expressions for f1 and f2 require a mathematical description of the porous matrix and its
microstructure. Du Plessis and Diedericks, (1997), carried out extensive analysis on
evaluating these geometric factors for isotropic porous media, based on Du Plessis and
Masliyah’s, (1988, 1991), concept of a Representative Unit Cell (RUC), which they defined
as the minimal REV in which the average properties of the porous medium are embedded. For
granular and consolidated isotropic porous media, the following expressions, summarized in

Table 1, as given in Du Plessis and Diedericks, (1997), are adopted in this work for <3 and <
and for the hydrodynamic permeability, I:
Consolidated Media
Granular Media
(Sponges and Metallic Foams)
36(1 − #)€ 36.(. − 1)
l

<3 = <3 =
q z1 − (1 − #) {z1 − (1 − #) {
a
€
l
€
q #

œq|™⃗|D0 (1 − #)€ œq|™⃗|D0 .(. − 1)

l

< = < =
q hz1 − (1 − #) {
l
€
q h#(3 − .)

#
I=
<3 # q #
q #z1 − (1 − #) {z1 − (1 − #) { I= =
a l

=
€ €
<3 36.(. − 1)
36(1 − #)€
l

Table 1. Friction Factors for Granular and Consolidated Media

where d is a microscopic length (such as the mean pore diameter) and C d is the Forchheimer
3• "
drag coefficient, and tortuosity, ., is approximated by . ≈
s
.

Using the expressions of Table 1 in (23) and (25), we obtain the following forms of drag
coefficients and generalized Darcy’s and Forchheimer’s equations.

For Granular Media:

l
Darcy’s Drag Coefficient:
(S, "⃗) = h| expz — S]
su(3>")€
a l (26)
0l z3>(3>")€ {z3>(3>")€ {

l
Generalized Darcy’s Equation:

h| expz — S{™ +∇S∗ = œx⃗

su(3>")€
a l ⃗ (27)
0l z3>(3>")€ {z3>(3>")€ {

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™⃗ +∇S∗ =œx⃗
or
2Þz¬3 ∗ {
L(X⃗)
(28)

l l
Forchheimer Drag Coefficient:
(â⃗, S, "⃗) = h| expz — S{ + ‖™⃗‖
su(3>")€ 4~5 (3>")€
a l l (29)
0l z3>(3>")€ {z3>(3>")€ { 0z3>(3>")€ {l

l l
Generalized Forchheimer’s Equation:

h| expz — S{ + ‖™⃗‖ 6 ™⃗ + ∇S∗ =œx⃗

su(3>")€ 4~5 (3>")€
' a l l (30)
0l z3>(3>")€ {z3>(3>")€ { z3>(3>")€ {l

™⃗ + œ + ∇S∗ =œx⃗
or
n ‖™
2Þz¬3 ∗ {
⃗‖™⃗
L(X⃗)
(31)

where
l a l

= and = =
~5 (3>")€ " 0l "z3>(3>")€ {z3>(3>")€ {
n l
Za l .
0z3>(3>")€ {l su(3>")€

For Consolidated Media:

(S, "⃗) = h| expz — S{

su7(7>3)
Darcy’s Drag Coefficient:
0l "
(32)

h| expz — S{™⃗ +∇S∗ = œx⃗

su7(7>3)
Generalized Darcy’s Equation:
0l "
(33)

(â⃗, S, "⃗) = . h| expz — S{ + 0"(s>7) ‖™⃗‖

su7(7>3) 4~5 7(7>3)
Forchheimer Drag Coefficient:
0l "
(34)

8 0l " h| expz — S{ + "(s>7) ‖™⃗‖ 9 ™⃗ +∇S∗ = œx⃗

su7(7>3) 4~5 7(7>3)
Generalized Forchheimer’s Equation:
(35)

+œ ⃗‖9 ™⃗ + ∇S∗ =œx⃗

or
2Þz¬3 ∗ {
8
L(X⃗) n ‖™ (36)
where
= and = = su7(7>3) .
~5 7(7>3) " 0l " l
n "(s>7) Za

CONCLUSION
In this work, we used the method of intrinsic volume averaging to derive generalized Darcy’s
and Forchheimer’s equations that govern the flow of a pressure-dependent viscosity fluids
through porous media. Effects of porous microstructures have been taken into account in
deriving expressions for the drag functions.

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Two types of materials have been examined: consolidated matter (such as soils and sponge
material) and granular matter (sands and pebbles).

REFERENCES
Barus, C.J. (1891). Note on dependence of viscosity on pressure and temperature.
Proceedings of the American Academy, 27, 13-19.
Chang, J., Nakashatrala, K.B. and Reddy, J.N. (2017). Modification to Darcy-
Forchheimer model due to pressure-dependent viscosity: consequences and numerical
solutions. J. Porous Media, 20(3), 263-285.
Du Plessis, J.P. and Masliyah, J.H., (1988). Mathematical modeling of flow through
consolidated isotropic porous media. Transport in Porous Media, 3, 145-161.
Du Plessis, J.P. and Diedericks, G.P. J, (1997). Pore-Scale Modeling of Interstitial
Phenomena. In:
Du Plessis, J.P. and Masliyah, J.H., (1991). Flow through isotropic granular porous
media.
Fluid Transport in Porous Media, J.P. Du Plessis, ed., Computational Mechanics
Publications, Southampton, 61-104.
Le Bars, M. and Grae Worster, M., (2006). Interfacial conditions between a pure fluid
and a porous medium: implications for binary alloy solidification. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics, 550, 149-173.
Nakshatrala, K.B. and Rajagopal, K.R. (2011). A numerical study of fluids with
pressure dependent viscosity flowing through a rigid porous medium. Int. J. Numer. Meth.
Fluids, 67, 342-368.
Rajagopal, K.R., (2007). On a hierarchy of approximate models for flows of
incompressible fluids through porous solids. Math. Models and Methods in the Applied
Sciences, 17 (2), 215–252.
Ruth, D.W. and Ma, H., (1992). On the derivation of the Forchheimer equation by
means of the average theorem. Transport in Porous Media, 7(3), 255-264.
Ruth, D.W. and Ma, H., (1993). Numerical analysis of viscous, incompressible flow in
a diverging-converging RUC. Transport in Porous Media, 13, 161-177.
Srinivasan, S., Bonito, A. and K.R. Rajagopal, K.R., (2013). Flow of a fluid through a
porous solid due to high pressure gradient. Journal of Porous Media, 16, 193–203.
Transport in Porous Media, 6, 207-221.
Whitaker, S., (1999). The method of volume averaging. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht.

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A NOVEL APPROACH TO MODEL NON-LIFE INSURANCE RISK

Ahmet KAYA
Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli University
ORCID: 0000-0001-5109-8130

ABSTRACT
Risk is a possibility of negative or undesirable results. Insurance companies need to take care
of their status from this risk and its effects. Also, the policyholders would like to pay less
money for their coverage. Various mathematical models are constructed to compute non-ruin
probability and to find optimum premium amount. Risk theory is also significant actuarial
tool to arrange balance between insurance companies and policyholders.
Consider the classical compound process is defined by

=(«) = + D« − U(«)
where is the initial capital, D is the premium amount and U(«) is the total claim amount
defined by

;([)

U(«) = + 5
23

where 5(F) are independent and identically distributed random variables claims and 7(«) is a
Poisson process with rate λ.
In this work, Quantum mechanics method, which is developing area in actuarial science, is
then used to define and compute non-ruin probability. Thanks to Quantum mechanics
approach and stochastic method, non-ruin probability can be define as follows

[ <(") = Ezf(ξt)I(T > t)|ξ0 = x{

where T is the time of ruin, æ is an indicator and ξt is a general surplus process.

Assume that each claim has various distributions: small claim, big claim and infinite claim
with different probabilities.

â ,F«ℎ S/. FJF«¯ S

5 = < q ,F«ℎ S/. FJF«¯ ™
−∞ ,F«ℎ S/. FJF«¯ S>°

Then, transform of transition operator and non-ruin operator in discrete space and continuous
space are generated. Non-ruin probability is modelled and various examples are advanced via
Quantum mechanics for appropriately chosen Hamiltonian in discrete space by using the
following notation

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< "|exp(−«K)|" > >= + < "|exp(−«K)|F >< F|"′ >

and its continuous space notation is defined as follows

°
qS
< "|exp(−«K)|" >= ª
>
< "|exp(−«K)|S >< S|"′ >
2š
>°

Keywords: Ruin probability, Dirac notations, risk theory, Hamiltonian, Quantum mechanics.

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CERTAIN SUBCLASSES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS WITH RESPECT N-

SYMMETRIC POINTS

S. Sunil Varma
Department of Mathematics, Madras Christian College

Thomas Rosy
Department of Mathematics, Madras Christian College

S. Prathiba
Department of Mathematics, Madras Christian College

ABSTRACT
In this paper we introduce three new subclasses of analytic functions with respect to N−
symmetric points which are related to the domains, with a right branch of a family of
hyperbolas as boundary. Structural formulae for functions in these subclasses are derived.
Necessary and sufficient conditions for functions to belong to these subclasses are established
along with covering theorem. Finally, we obtain the coefficient bounds for functions in these
subclasses.
Mathematics Subject Classification: 30C45, 30C50.
Keywords: Analytic functions, N-symmetric points, structural formula, convolution,
coefficient estimates

Let ∆ = {z ∈ ℂ : |z| < 1} be the unit disk and ℋ (∆) denote the class of all holomorphic
1. INTRODUCTION

functions defined on ∆. Denote by B the subclass of ℋ (∆) containing normalized functions

in ℋ (∆). The functions in B are of the form <( ) = + ∑° R2 R
R
. Denote by C , the
functions in B that are univalent. Let N be a positive integer and ∈= % _ denote the Nth root
lD\

of unity. For each < ∈ B , let

be the N−weighted mean function of < and

(1)

<; ( ) = ; ‚<( ) − jZ,; ( )‡ = ; ∑;>3

E2| ∈ <…∈E † = + ∑°
3 3 >E 1;•3
123 1;•3 . (2)
Equation (2) has been obtained using the fact that

7 F< I Fr iâJ«FSJ% .< 7

1 +∈L +∈ L + ⋯ +∈(R>3)L = 8
0 .«ℎ%/,Fr%
(3)

In [11], Sakaguchi introduced the subclass of functions that are starlike with respect to
N−Symmetric points, for N = 1,2,3,··· as
UUF; = 8< ∈ B: ℜ Z > 0, ∈ ∆ 9.
çZ I (ç)
_ (ç)
More details about the subclasses involving N− symmetric points may be found in [1, 2, 6, 9,
8]. A detailed study of new subclasses of analytic functions related to N− symmetric points
was studied by Ponnusamy in [10].

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Motivated by the above mentioned works in subclasses related to N− symmetric points, we

define three new subclasses of analytic functions. The structural formula for functions in these
classes were derived. Convolution theorems and covering theorem for functions in these

Let ℬ be the class of analytic functions K defined on the unit disk ∆ with K(0) = 0 and
classes are studied. Coefficient estimates for functions in these subclasses are also obtained.

| K(z)| < 1 for all z ∈ ∆.

Lemma 1.1. [3] (Schwarz Lemma:) If K is in ℬ , then | K(z)| ≤ |z|, z ∈ ∆ and equality holds if
and only if K(z) = λ z where λ ∈ ℂ with |λ| = 1.
The functions in ℬ are called Schwarz functions.
Consider two analytic functions < and g defined on the unit disk ∆. We say that < is
subordinate to g, denoted by f ≺ g if there exists a function K in ℬ such that < (z) = g(K(z)),
z ∈ ∆. In particular, if g is univalent in ∆, then f ≺ g if and only if < (0) = g (0) and
< (∆) ⊂ g (∆) [3].
Denote by ℘ the class of analytic functions that maps the origin to the point 1 and has a
positive real part. The class ℘ is called the Caratheodory class. Thus, if p ∈ ℘, then

S( ) = 1 + S3 + S + ⋯ , ℜS( ) > 0, ∈ ∆. (4)

In a recent work [4, 5], a new subfamily of domains contained in a right half-plane which are
related to a hyperbola
K(r) = øœ% ∅ : œ = ,− < ∅< ù
3 R¢ R¢
Q
( OP¢ )Ÿ
Ÿ

(u, 0) = (2>¢ , 0) and makes an angle with it. As s → 1, the hyperbola becomes a line that
R¢
was defined and studied for 0 < s ≤ 1. The hyperbola H(s) intersects the real axis at

intersects the real axis at (u, 0) = (2>3 ,0). Let ℍ(s) be a domain whose boundary is H(s).
ℍ(s) is symmetric with the real axis and starlike with respect to 1 ∈ ℍ(s). The family
{ℍ(s): 0 < s ≤ 1} consists of a subfamily of domains contained in a right half-plane.
For 0 < s ≤ 1, z ∈ ∆, let
1
™¢ ( ) = = % >¢ T (3>ç) .
(1 − )¢
The branch of the logarithm is chosen in such a way that ™¢ (0) = 1. As the function, ™¢ maps
the unit disk onto a domain ℍ(s), the function ™¢ plays the role of extremal function in the
class ℘ (™¢ ) = {p ∈ ℘: p ≺ ™¢ }. Moreover,

where (r)R is the Pochhamer symbol: (r)R = .

U(¢•R)
U(¢)

bounded by the hyperbolas H(s) and studied how the properties of the domains ℍ(s) and class
In [4], the authors introduced the notion of starlikeness and convexity related to the domains

℘ (™¢ ) influence on the properties of the classes introduced by them. In [10] the author had
introduced and studied the properties of certain subclasses SN (A, B), KN (A, B) and CN (A, B),
−1 ≤ B < A ≤ 1 related to N− Symmetric points.
In this paper, we introduce three new subclasses of analytic functions related to starlike,

function ™¢ . We establish the structural formula for functions in these classes.

convex and close-to-convex functions with respect to N− symmetric points subordinate to the

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The necessary and sufficient conditions for functions in B to be in these classes in terms of
convolutions are proved. Coefficient estimates for functions in these subclasses are also

We begin by defining the subclasses U;,V M (r), ƒ;,V M (r) Cq D;,V M (r).
∗
established along with other interesting results.

Definition 1.1. A function in B is said to be in the class, U;,V M (r),

∗

(0 < s ≤ 1) if
∈∆
çZ I (ç) 3
Z_ (ç)
≺ (3>ç)Ÿ , (6)
where <; is defined as in (2).

Definition 1.2. A function in B is said to be in the class ƒ;,V M (r),

(0 < s ≤ 1) if
I
¥çZ I (ç)©
≺ (3>ç)Ÿ , ∈∆
3
Z_I (ç)
(7)
where <; is defined as in (2).

Definition 1.3. A function in B is said to be in the class D;,V M (r),

(0 < s ≤ 1) if
≺ (3>ç)Ÿ , ∈∆
çZ I (ç) 3
W(ç)
(8)
where <; is defined as in (2) and g belongs to the subclass U;,V M (r).
∗

2. STRUCTURAL FORMULA FOR FUNCTIONS IN X∗¸,YZ[ (\), ]¸,YZ[ (\) and ^¸,YZ[ (\)
Theorem 2.1. A function < ∈ B is in the subclass U;,V M (r) if and only if there is a function
∗

K ∈ ℬ such that

Proof. Suppose < ∈ U;,V M (r). Then, by definition,

∗

for some function K ∈ ℬ . Replacing z by ∈E

(10)
in (10), we have

(11)
From (10) and (11),

(12)

<; ( ) = z < > (z) …1 − K( )†

¢
(2) implies
(13)
Differentiating (13) with respect to z,

<;> ( ) = …1 − K( )† … < >> ( ) + < > ( )† − r < > ( )…1 − K( )† K> ( )

¢ ¢>3
(14)
On the other hand, from (12),

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(15)
Comparing (14) and (15),
;>3
<′′( ) rK′( ) 1 1 1
= + + ˜ − •
<′( ) (1 − K( ))¢ 7 (1 − K(∈E ))¢
E2|
Repeated integration gives the structural representation of < given by (9).
Conversely, let < have the representation given by (9). Then, < (0) = 0. Also,
< > ( ) = …1 − K(r)† %"S $| ?∑;>3 − 7A qâ .
>¢ [ 3 3
;_ E2| Ÿ
¥3>`…∈a _†©
(16)

Clearly, < > (0) = 1, Moreover, < > ( ) b 0 for each z ∈ ∆. Differentiation yields

%"S $| ;[ ∑;>3
E2| ? − 7A
[ 3 3
Ÿ
¥3>`…∈a [†©

= $| ∑;>3 ?%"S $| ∑;>3 −7 A

[3 3 ç 3 3
; E2| E2|
Ÿ Ÿ
¥3>`…∈a [†© ;_ ¥3>`…∈a _†©
(17)

Using the fact that ∈ is the Nth root of unity and a change in the variables, we obtain

Using (16), (17) and (18) we obtain,

and hence < ∈ U;,V M (r).

∗

Theorem 2.2. A function f ∈ B is in the subclass ƒ;,V M (r) if and only if there is a function
K ∈ ℬ such that

Proof. The proof follows from the fact that < ∈ ƒ;,V M (r) if and only if z f’(z) ∈ U;,V
∗
M (r).

Theorem 2.3. A function f ∈ B is in the subclass D;,V M (r) with respect to ; ∈ U;,V
∗
M (r) if
and only if there exists two functions ω1 and ω2 in ℬ such that
;>3
ç
1 [
1 1
<( ) = ª ‹%"S ª c+ − 7d q⌠q« (20)
| (1 − K3 («)) | 7â (1 − K (∈E )¢
¢
E2|

( )= $| (3>` ([))Ÿ ú%"S $| ;_ ¥∑;>3

E2| (3>` (∈a ç)Ÿ − 7© qâû q« (21)
ç 3 [ 3 3
l l

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Proof. We first prove the necessary part. Assume that < ∈ D;,V M (r) and ; ∈ U;,V
∗
M (r). Then
there exists two functions ω1, ω2 ∈ ℬ such that

(22)
From (22) we obtain
(23)
and

Replacing z by ∈E z we
(24)
obtain

(25)

; ( ) = …1 − K3 ( )† … < ( ) + < ( )† − r < ( )…1 − K3 ( )† K3 ( )

¢ ¢>3 ,
Differentiating above equation, we obtain
> >> > >
(26)

; ( ) = < ( )…1 − K3 ( )† ∑E2|

¢ 3 ;>3 3
Using (24) and (25),
> >
Ÿ
; …3>`l (ç)†
(27)
Comparing (26) and (27), we obtain
= + + ∑;>3 −7 .
Z II (ç) ¢`aI (ç) 3 3 3
Z I(e) …3>`a (ç)†
Ÿ
; ;ç E2| Ÿ
¥3>`l …∈a 熩
Repeated integration gives (20) and using Theorem (2.1), we obtain (21).
Sufficiency part can be proved in lines of that in Theorem 2.1.

We prove certain necessary and sufficient conditions for the functions < in the class B to be
3. CONVOLUTION THEOREMS

in the subclasses U;,V M (r) and ƒ;,V M (r) using convolution.

∗

Theorem 3.1. A function f ∈ B belongs to the subclass U;,V M (r) if and only if
∗

ú<( ) ∗ û b 0, ∈ ∆, |f| = 1 ,
3 ç(3>X)Ÿ ›_ (ç)>ç(3>ç)
ç (3>ç)l ›_ (ç)
(28)

where ; ( ) = .
3>ç _
3>ç
Proof. A function < in B belongs to the subclass U;,V M (r) if and only if for some
∗

z ∈ ∆ and |f | = 1,
<>( ) 1
b
<; ( ) (1 − ")¢
Since < is normalized, this is equivalent to

>( ) = <( ) ∗ (3>ç)l and <; ( ) = <( ) ∗

using the fact that < .
ç ç
(29)
3>ç _
Therefore (21) becomes

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1 (1 − ")¢ ; ( ) − (1 − )
Simplifying, we obtain
<( ) ∗ b 0, ∈ ∆, |f| = 1.
(1 − ) ; ( )
;( )=
3>ç _
3>ç
where .

Theorem 3.2. A function < ∈ B belongs to the subclass ƒ;,V M (r) if and only if

where ; ( ) = with z ∈ ∆ and |x| = 1.

3>ç _
3>ç
Proof. Let f ∈ ƒ;,V M (r). Then < > ( ) ∈ U;,V
∗
M (r).

Let ( ) = ;( )=
ç(3>X)Ÿ ›_ (ç)>ç(3>ç) 3>ç _
(3>ç)l ›_ (ç) 3>ç
where . Then,

(31)
By Theorem 2.1,

1
(20) becomes
z < > ( ) ∗ ( ){ b 0.
Using the fact that z < > ( ) ∗ g(z) = f(z) ∗ >( ) , we have

>( ) from (23), we obtain (22).

(32)
Substituting

Theorem 3.3. If < ∈ U;,V M (r) then

∗

Proof. Since < ∈ U;,V M (r), there is a function K ∈ ℬ such that

∗
(33)

=
çZ , (ç) 3
Ÿ
Z_ (ç) …3>`(ç)†
(34)
Replacing ¯ ∈E in (26)

Using the fact that <; …∈ † = ∈ <; ( )

.
E E

Allowing j = 1, 2, ··· , N and summing up we obtain

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.
Integrating and taking exponentials on both sides, we obtain (25).

Lemma 3.1. [7] Let g(z) = ∑°

R23 wR
R

In ∆. æ< ℎ( ) = ∑R23 R is analytic in ∆ and satisfies the subordination h ≺ g in ∆, then

° R
be analytic and convex univalent function

|An| ≤ |B1|, n = 1,2,··· .

Theorem 3.4. Let < ∈ U;,V M (r). Then | | g .

∗ ¢

Proof. Let p(z) = 1 + p1z + p2z2 + ··· ∈ ℘ be such that

Since < ∈ U;,V M (r),

∗
. (35)

By Lemma 3.1, |SR | ≤ s, ∀ n ≥ 1. Equation (27) implies

< > (z) = <; ( )S( ).
Substituting the respective Taylor’s series for the functions above and equating the
coefficients,

We now prove the covering theorem for the functions in the subclass U;,V M (r) .
∗

Theorem 3.5. Let < ∈ U;,V M (r). The image of the unit disk ∆ under f contains the disk |ω| < r
∗

where / = .
t•¢
Proof. Let < ∈ U;,V M (r) and ω0 be a point in the complex plane such that < (z) b ω0 for any z
∗

∈ ∆. This implies ω0 b 0. The function

1 1
is univalent in ∆ and hence
i +
i g 2 ⟹ |K| | k .
K| | |+2
Using Theorem 3.4, we obtain |K| | k . This proves that < (∆) contains the disk with
t•¢
center 0 and radius
t•¢
.

4. COEFFICIENT BOUNDS
In this section, we obtain coefficient bounds for the functions in the subclasses introduced in
this article.

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Theorem 4.1. Let <( ) = + ∑°

R2 R
R
∈ U;,V
∗
M (r). For each k ≥ 2, and

r ¥1 + © ¥1 + © … ¥1 + (L>3);©
N = 1,2,··· ,
¢ ¢ ¢

| L;•3 | .
; ;
g
I7
and for n satisfying (k − 1) N + 1 < n < k N + 1, ∀k ≥ 1, N = 1,2,···
r ¥1 + © ¥1 + © … ¥1 + (L>3);©
¢ ¢ ¢

| R| g .
; ;
C
Proof. Let

where <; ( ) = ∑° ∈ <…∈ †. A simple computation gives

3
(36)
>E E
; E23
<; ( ) = + ∑° R2 ; …∑E2| ∈ † .
] W
;>3 (R>3)E R

Substituting the Taylor’s series for < (z) and (29) in (28), and comparing the coefficients on
(37)
>

both sides, we obtain

;>3 ;>3 ;>3

C = SR>3 + c+ ∈ d SR> + c+ ∈ d SR>s + ⋯ + c+ ∈(R> d S3

E s E R>3 )E
R
7 7 7
E2| E2| E2|
;>3

+ c+ ∈(R>3)E d . (38)
R
7
E2|

Since < ∈ U;,V M (r), we have S( ) ≺ and hence by Lemma 3.1, |SR | ≤ s,
∗ 3
Ÿ
…3>`(ç)†
n = 1, 2, ··· . Using this in (30) and a rearrangement of terms gives

Now,

Case (i) : Assume n = k N + 1. Then, ∑;>3 E2| ∈

(R>3)E
= 7 . Let us prove the

k N| L;•3 | g r(1 + | ;•3 | + | ;•3 | + ⋯ + l (L>3);•3 l).

required inequality using Mathematical Induction. Then (11) becomes

If we assume that the result is true for k = 1 ,2, ··· (j − 1), then the above
inequality gives

which implies

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Case (ii) : Assume that n b j N + 1, j ≥ 1. Then there exists a k such that

.

n |an| ≤ s (1 + |aN+1| + |a2N+1|··· + l (E>3);•3 l).

(k − 1) N + 1 < n < k N + 1. Then,

which implies

Theorem 4.2. Let <( ) = + ∑°

R2 R
R
∈ ƒ;,V M (r) . For each k ≥ 2, and

and for i satisfying (k − 1) N + 1 < n < k N + 1, ∀k ≥ 1, N = 1, 2, ···

.

.
Proof. Let

where <; ( ) = ∑;>3 ∈ <…∈ † . A simple computation gives

3
(40)
>E E
; E23
<; ( ) = + ∑° R2 ; …∑E2| ∈ † .
] W;>3 (R>3)E R

Substituting the Taylor’s series for < ’(z) and (40) in (41), and comparing the coefficients on
(41)

both sides, we obtain

Since < ∈ U;,V M (r), we have S( ) ≺ and hence by Lemma 3.1, |SR | ≤ s,
∗ 3
Ÿ
…3>m(ç)†
n = 1, 2, ··· . Using this in (30) and a rearrangement of terms gives

.
Now,

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Case (i) : Assume = k N + 1. Then, ∑;>3 E2| ∈

(R>3)E
= 7. Let us prove the required inequality

(I7 + 1) | L;•3 | g r…1 + | ;•3 | + | ;•3 | + ⋯ + l (L>3);•3 l†.

using Mathematical Induction. Then (11) becomes

If we assume that the result is true for k = 1, 2, ···(j − 1), then the above inequality gives
(G7 + 1) l g r ˜1 + (;•3)l + ( ¥1 + (;•3)l © + (s;•3)l ¥1 + ( © ¥1 +
¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢
E;•3 l ;•3)l ;•3)l

©+ ⋯+ ¥1 + (;•3)l © ¥1 + ( © … ž1 + ¡•
¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢
(;•3)l …(E>3);•3†
l
;•3)l …(E> );•3†
l

which implies
r ¥1 + (;•3)l © ¥1 + ( © … ž1 + ¡
¢ ¢ ¢
l
;•3)l …(E>3);•3†
l E;•3 l g
(G7 + 1)
Case (ii) : Assume that n b G7 + 1, G k 1. Then there exists a k such that

C | R | g r…1 + | ;•3 | + | ;•3 | + ⋯ + l (E>3);•3 l†.

(k-1)N+1 < n < kN+1. Then,

which implies
r ¥1 + (;•3)l © ¥1 + ( © … ž1 + ¡
¢ ¢ ¢
l
;•3)l
.
…(L>3);•3†
| R| g
C

REFERENCES
1. Al-Amiri, H., Coman, D., Mocanu, P.T., (1995). Some properties of starlike
functions with respect to symmetric-conjugate points, [Link]. and Math Sci., 18(3), 469 -
474.
2. Chand, R., Singh, P., (1979). On certain schlict functions, Ind. J. of Pure and Appl.
Math, 10(9), 1167-1174.
3. Duren, P.L., (1983). Univalent Functions, Grundlehren der mathematischen
Wissenschaften 259, New York, Berlin, Hiedelberg, Tokyo, Springer-Verlag.
4. Kanas, S., Mashi, V.S., and Ebadian, A., (2019). Relations of a planar domains
bounded by hyperbolas with families of holomorphic functions, [Link]. and, applns, 246, 14
pp.
5. Kanas, S., Mashi, V.S., and Ebadian, A., (2020). Coefficient problems for families
of holomorphic functions related to hyperbola, Math. Slovaca, 70(3), 605-616.
6. Nezhmetdinov, I.R., and Ponnusamy, S., (2002). On the class of univalent functions
starlike with respect to N− symmetric points, Hokkaido. Math. J. 31, 61 - 77.
7. Rogosinski, W., (1945). In the coefficients of subordinate functions, Proceedings of
the London Mathematical Society, 2(1), 48-82.
8. Tuneski, N., (2008). Some results for univalent functions defined with respect to n-
symmetric points, Novi. Sad, J. Math 38(3), 91-96.
9. Parvatham, R., and Radha, S., (1986). On α− Starlike and α− close-to-convex
functions with respect to n− symmetric points, Ind. J. of Pure and Appl. Math, 16(9), 1114 -
1122.
10. Ponnusamy, S., (1988). Some applications of differential subordination and
convolution techniques to univalent function theory, Ph.D. Thesis IIT Kanpur.
11. Sakaguchi, K., (1959). On a certain univalent mapping, [Link],. Soc. Japan, 11,
72 - 75.

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ON A SUBCLASS OF HARMONIC UNIVALENT MAPPINGS WHOSE ANALYTIC

AND CO-ANALYTIC PARTS SATISFY A DIFFERENTIAL INEQUALITY

S. Sunil VARMA
Department of Mathematics, Madras Christian College

Thomas ROSY
Department of Mathematics, Madras Christian College

ABSTRACT
In this research article, a new subclass of harmonic univalent mappings who’s analytic and
co-analytic parts satisfy a first order differential inequality is introduced and certain properties
of analytic and co-analytic parts are proved. Convolution property for functions in this
subclass with an analytic convex function is established. As an application, sufficient
conditions for certain harmonic mappings with, a modified Mittag-Leffler function as the co-
analytic part to be in this subclass is derived.
Mathematics Subject Classification: Primary 30C45, 30C50
Keywords: Analytic, co-analytic parts, differential inequality, coefficient estimates,
convolution, Mittag-Leffler Function.

1. INTRODUCTION

paper [4]. Denote by ℋ the classs of all harmonic mappings < defined on the open unit disk
Harmonic univalent functions were introduced by Clunie and Shiel-Small in their seminal

n = {z ∈ ℂ ∶ | | < 1} with values in ℂ. The functions < in the class ℋ can be represented as
< = ℎ + where
° °

ℎ( ) = ++ R
R
and ( ) = + R
R
(1)
R2 R23
Both ℎ and are analytic in the unit disk and are named "analytic" and "co-analytic" parts of
< respectively. If ≡ 0 then the class ℋ reduces to the class B of normalized analytic
functions on the unit disk. For < = ℎ + ∈ ℋ, the Jacobian is defined as |ℎ′( )| − | ′( )|
and is denoted by *Z ( ). The harmonic function < = ℎ + is univalent if *Z ( ) b 0 z7{. In
particular, it is called sense-preserving if *Z ( ) > 0 and sense-reversing if *Z ( ) < 0 for each
∈ n. The subclass of ℋ consisting of univalent sense-preserving harmonic functions in the
unit disk n is denoted by Cℋ . The classical family of normalized, analytic and univalent
functions on the unit disk is C = {< ∈ Cℋ : ≡ 0}.

ℋ | = {< ∈ ℋ: <ç (0) = 0}.

Let

The functions in ℋ are those functions in ℋ with series representation

|
° °

<( ) = ++ R
R
++ R
R. (2)
R2 R2
The subclass Uℋ|
consists of those functions < in Ck with <ç̅ (0) = 0. A more detailed account

V in the complex plane is said to be close-to-convex if the complement of V can be written as

about harmonic univalent mappings can be found in the monograph by Duren [5]. A domain

union of non-intersecting half lines.

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A function < ∈ ℋ is called close-to-convex in n if <(n) is close-to-convex. The class of

harmonic close-to-convex mappings in n is denoted by uℋ . If < = ℎ + ∈ ℋ | , then the
corresponding subclass is denoted by uℋ | . These subclasses were studied by Bshouty [Link]. in
[2,3]. Further, the authors in [11] introduced and studied a subclass of close-to-convex
harmonic functions.

related subclasses. Accordingly, a sense preserving harmonic mapping < = ℎ + is stable

In 2013, Hernandez and Martin [6] introduced the concept of stable harmonic functions and

harmonic univalent in the unit disk if all the mappings <v = ℎ + Q with |Q| = 1 are

convex mappings are similarly defined. They further proved that if < = ℎ + is a sense
univalent. Stable harmonic convex, stable harmonic starlike and stable harmonic close-to-

preserving harmonic map in the unit disk, then for each Q ∈ n the functions ℎ + Q are
univalent in n.
In [12] Peng %«. J. introduced the subclass w of B consisting of functions < satisfying
1
| <′( ) − <( )| < , ∈ n (3)
2

We now define a harmonic analogue of the subclass w.

and studied the properties of functions in this class.

A function < = ℎ + ∈ ℋ | is said to be in the subclass wℋ if

1
Definition 1.
| ℎ′( ) − ℎ( )| g − | > (z) − ( )|, ∈ n. (4)
2
In this article, a necessary and sufficient condition for functions in ℋ | to belong to the
subclass wℋ in terms of a related analytic function is proved. Sharp upper bounds for the
coefficients of both the analytic and co-analytic parts of < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ are obtiained

Jacobian of < ∈ wℋ . Closure of this subclass under convex combination and a convolution
which is followed by the sufficient condition, growth theorem and a sharp upper bound for the

harmonic functions involving Mittag-Leffler functions to be in the subclass wℋ .

result is established. In the last part of the article, we obtain certain sufficient conditions for

2. MAIN RESULTS

Lemma 1. [4] Suppose that ℎ and are analytic in n with | ′(0)| < |ℎ′(0)| and ℎ + x is
First, we recall a lemma.

close-to-convex for each x(|x| = 1). Then m = ℎ + is harmonic close-to-convex.

Theorem 1. A harmonic mapping < = ℎ + is in wℋ |

if and only if my = ℎ + x is in the
class w.
Proof. Assume that < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ . For each x > 0 with |x| = 1 and for each | | < 1,
| my ′( ) − my ( )| = l… ℎ> (z) − ℎ( )† + x… > (z) − ( )†l
g | ℎ′( ) − ℎ( )| + | ′( ) − ( )|
By (4) we have | my ′( ) − my ( )| < for each | | < 1 and hence my ∈ w.
3

Conversely, let my = ℎ + x belong to w. Then

| my ′( ) − my ( )| g , ∀ | | < 1
3

l… ℎ′( ) − ℎ( )† + x… ′( ) − ( )†l g , ∀ | | < 1.

3
⟹

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As x > 0 is arbitrary
1
l… ℎ′( ) − ℎ( )†l + l… ′( ) − ( )†l g , ∀ | | < 1.
2
This implies <=ℎ+ ∈ wℋ
|
.


Remark 1. The functions in the subclass w are univalent. By above result, for < = ℎ + , the
analytic function my = ℎ + x are univalent for each x with |x| = 1. By Proposition 2.1 in [6]
the function m = ℎ + is stable analytic univalent function and thereby, the functions in the
subclass wℋ are stable harmonic univalent.

Theorem 2. For < = ℎ + in wℋ

|
and C k 2,
(F) | R | g
3
(R>3)
⋅
(FF) | R|
3
g (R>3)
⋅
(FFF) | R| +| R|
3
g R>3 ⋅
(F–) || R |−| R || g
3
R>3
⋅ All the bounds are sharp.
Proof. (F) The function ℎ′( ) − ℎ( ) is analytic in the open unit disk | | < 1. On computing,

ℎ> (z) − ℎ( ) = {R2 ° (C

− 1) R R .
we have

1
By Cauchy’s theorem,

(C − 1)| R | g
2š | z| r
| zh '( z )  h( z ) |
 | z |n
| dz |

1
g
2š
1
 | zg '( z )  g ( z ) |
 2

| z |n
| dz |

1 1 R
/% } >
…/% } † − (/% } )
| z|  r

⟹ / (C − 1)| R | g −
R>
|ª | q”
2 2š | / R>3
1
⟹ / R> (C − 1)| R | g
2
Allowing / → 1> , we have | R | g (R>3) ⋅
3

(ii) follows on lines similar to that of (i). Using (i) an (ii), we obtain the desired inequality in

(F–) This follows from l| R | − | R |l g | R | + | R | for each C.

(iii).

For sharpness, let <3 ( ) = + and < ( ) = + (R>3) ⋅ Then,

ç] ç]
(R>3)
| |R 1
| <3 ′( ) − <3 ( )| = < , since | | < 1.
2 2
⟹ <3 ∈ wℋ . It can be seen that < also belong to wℋ . Moreover, | R | =
3
(R>3)
and
| R| = for <3 and < respectively.
3
(R>3)


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Lemma 2. [12] If ℎ ∈ w, then

| | − | | g |ℎ( )| g | | + | |
3 3
(5)

1 − | | g |ℎ′( )| g 1 + | |.
and
(6)

Theorem 3. Let < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ . Then

1 1
| | − | | g |<( )| g | | + | | , z ∈ ∆.
2 2
Proof. Since < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ |
, by Theorem 2.1, there is a function m = ℎ + x in the class w
for each x with |x| = 1. Also, | m′( ) − m( )| < , ∈ n. Then there is a function • ∈ B
3

with |•( )| g 1 such that

1 1 ç
my ′( ) = 1 + •( ) + ª • (€)q€
2 2 |
and 1 − | | g |m > ( )| g 1 + | |. (7)

|ℎ′( )| + | ( )| g 1 + | | and lℎ>(ç) l − l >(ç) l k 1 −

which implies

| |. (8)
If • is a radial segment from 0 to , then
∂< ∂<
|<( )| = | ª qƒ + qƒ| g ª(|ℎ′(ƒ)| + | ′(ƒ)|) |qƒ|
„ ∂ƒ ∂ƒ „
By (8), we obtain
|ç|
1
|<( )| g ª (1 + «) q« = | | + | | .
| 2

∂< ∂< 1
Likewise,
|ç|
|<( )| = | ª qƒ + qƒ| k ª(|ℎ′(ƒ)| − | ′(ƒ)|) |qƒ| k ª (1 − «) q« = | | − | | .
„ ∂ƒ ∂ƒ „ | 2


Sufficient condition for a function … ∈ †À to be in the subclass ‡†À :

° (C
Theorem 4. Let < = ℎ + ∈ ℋ | . If {R2 − 1)(| R | + | R |) g then < ∈ wℋ .
3

Proof. Since < = ℎ + ∈ ℋ | , ℎ( ) = + {R2 °

R
R
. Then,
| ℎ ( ) − ℎ( )|
>

g ∑°R2 (C − 1)| R || |
R

g ∑° R2 (C − 1)| R |
g − ∑° R2 (C − 1)| R |
3

R2 (C − 1)
g − |∑° R|
3

>( ) − ( )|
g −|
3

Thus < ∈ wℋ . 

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Theorem 5. If < ∈ wℋ , then *Z ( ) g (1 + | |) .

Proof. Let < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ |
.Then ℎ ∈ w. Now,
*Z ( ) = |ℎ> ( )| − | > ( )|
g |ℎ> ( )|
g (1 + | | )
The sharpness is clear if we consider the function <( ) = + which is a member of wℋ .
çl

Theorem 6. Each function < ∈ wℋ maps the unit disk n onto a domain bounded by a

Proof. Let < ∈ wℋ . We first prove that it is uniformly continuous on n. Let 3 and be two
rectifiable Jordan curve.

points in n with 3 b . Then

∂< ∂<
|<( 3 ) − <( )| = | ª qƒ + qƒ|
zça ,çl { ∂ƒ ∂ƒ
gª (|ℎ′(ƒ)| + | ′(ƒ)|) |qƒ|
zça ,çl {
|ça |
gª (1 + «) q«
|çl
1
= (| 3 | − | |)z1 + (| 3 | + | |){
2
g 2| 3 − |.
Let D be a curve defined by , = <…% } †, 0 g ” g 2š and 0 = ”| < ”3 < ⋯ < ”R = 2š be a
partition of z0,2š{. Then,
R R

+l<…% }ˆ † − <…% }ˆ‰a †l g 2 +l% }ˆ

−% }ˆ‰a
l < 4š.
L23 L23
This shows that D is a rectifiable curve. It is left to prove that D is a Jordan curve i.e. to show
that < is univalent. By Theorem 2.2, the function my = ℎ + x belongs to the subclass w for
all x with |x| = 1. This imples my is univalent on ∂n.
Now let 3 and be two distinct points on ∂n such that <( 3 ) = <( ). Then,
ℎ( 3 ) − ℎ( ) = ( ) − ( 3 ).
Let ℎ( 3 ) = ℎ( ). Then ( 3 ) = ( ). Since my is univalent, 3 = . Assume that
ℎ( 3 ) b ℎ( ) and ” ∈ z0,2š). Then
% > } …ℎ( 3 ) − ℎ( )† = % } … ( ) − ( 3 )†

Thus, ℎ( 3 ) − ℎ( ) = % } … ( ) − ( 3 )†
is a positive real number.

⟹ that my ( 3 ) = my ( ) with x = % } .
Thus 3 = ⟹ < is univalent in n.

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Theorem 7. The class wℋ is closed under convex combination.

3. CONVEX COMBINATIONS AND CONVOLUTION RESULTS

Proof. Let <3 = ℎ3 + 3 , < = ℎ + , . . . , <R = ℎR + R ∈ wℋ . and

< = «3 <3 + « < +. . . +«R <R
where 0 g « g 1, { 23 « = 1 be the convex combination of functions in wℋ
R |
. Then
< = { 23 « ℎ + { 23 « = ℎ +
R R

where ℎ = { R23 « ℎ and = { R23 « .

Also, ℎ(0) = { R23 « ℎ (0) = 0, ℎ′(0) = { R23 « ℎ ′(0) = { R23 « = 1 and
(0) = { R23 « (0) = 0.

| ℎ> ( ) − ℎ( )| = | ∑R23 « ℎ> ( ) − ∑R23 « ℎ ( )|

Now

g ∑²Š2º « | zℎ> ( ) − ℎ ( )|
g ∑²Š2º « z − | z > ( ) − ( )|{
3

g − ∑²Š2º « | z > ( ) − ( )|
3

= − | > ( ) − ( )|
3

Thus, < = «3 <3 + « < +. . . +«R <R ∈ wℋ ⟹ wℋ is closed under convex combination. 

In 2002, Goodloe [9] defined the convolution of a harmonic function and an analytic function
as:

Definition 2: [9] Let < = ℎ + and assume • is analytic in the unit disk n. Then
…< ∗ •†( ) = (ℎ ∗ •)( ) + ( ∗ •)( ), for each ∈ n.
∼

Lemma 3: [9] Let S be an analytic function in n with S(0) = 1 and ℜ…S( )† > in n. Then
3

for any analytic function < in n, the function S ∗ < takes the values in the convex hull of the
range of n under <.

Theorem 8. If < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ and • ∈ % where % is the subclass of all convex univalent

functions defined on n, then for each h ∈ ℂ with |h| = 1, the function < ∗ …• + h•† ∈ wℋ .
Proof. If < = ℎ + ∈ wℋ then
< ∗ …• + h•† = ℎ ∗ • + h( ∗ •).
Define my = ℎ ∗ • + xh( ∗ •). Then
my ′ − my ( )
= …ℎ ∗ • + xh( ∗ •)†′ − …ℎ ∗ • + xh( ∗ •)†
•( )
= ú¥ ℎ>(ç) − ℎ( )© − xh ¥ >(ç) − ( )©û ∗

) > . By above lemma,

3
• being convex, ℜ(
Œ(ç)
ç
| my ′ − my ( )| < , ∈ n.
3

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This implies my ∈ w. By Theorem 2.1, < ∗ …• + h•† ∈ wℋ .

4. APPLICATIONS
°
An interesting special function is
R
å ( )=+ , ∈ ℂ, ℜ(h) > 0,
•(hC + 1)
R2|
3
ℜ( )
the Mittag-Leffler function introduced in [10]. It is an entire function of of order . In

å ,• ( ) = ∑° , , h, ∈ ℂ; ℜ(h) > 0,
[14 , 15], a more general function defined by
ç]
R2| „( R••)
(10)
known as Mittag-Leffler type function was introduced by Wiman. These two functions arise
as a solution to differential equations of fractional orders and integral equations. For more
details see [1].
In this concluding section, we derive certain conditions for harmonic functions whose

subclass wℋ . We first observe the following:

co-analytic part is the Mittag-Leffler type functions with some modifications to belong to the

Remark 2. For h k 1 and k 1 and C ∈ ℕ,

3
g •(••3)...(••R>3) ⋅
„(•)
„( R••)

Theorem 9. Let m( ) = + •( ) å ,• ( ) where > 0. If

s
+3 +2 +1<0
then m( ) ∈ wℋ .
(11)

Proof. To determine m( ) in the required form, we substitute the series representation of å ,• .

Hence
•( )
°

m( ) = ++ R
•…(C − 2)h + †
R2

∑°R2 (C − 1) (| R| +|
R |)
Therefore

= ∑°
R2 (C − 1) „((R> ) ••
„(•)

= 1 + ∑°
R23(C + 1) „(R
„(•)
••)

< 1 + ∑°
R•3
R23 •(••3)...(••R>3)

< 1 + •€ −
(••3)€ ••3

Thus m( ) will belong to wℋ if

( + 1)s +1 1
1+ − <
s 2 2
which simplifies to (11). 

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Theorem 10. Let x( ) = + (å ,• ( )− ) where > 0. If

3
„(•)
…2 − •( )† s + 3 + 2 + 1 < 0
then x( ) ∈ wℋ .
(12)

Proof. Using the series representation for the Mittag-Leffler function å ,• ( ), we have
x( ) = + (å ,• ( )− ) = + ∑° . . Therefore
3 ç]
„(•) R2 „…(R>3) ••†
°

+(C − 1) (| R| +| R |)
R2
°
1
= +(C − 1)
•((C − 2)h +
R2
•( )
°
1
= +(C + 1)
•( ) •(Ch + )
R2|
•( )
°
1
= + +(C + 1)
•( ) •(Ch + )
R23
Proceeding as in the previous theorem, we obtain the result. 

Theorem 11. Let K( ) = + •( ) $| å ,• («)q«. If k √2 then K( ) ∈ wℋ .

ç

Proof. To determine K( ) in the required form, we substitute the series representation of å ,•

to obtain K( ) = + ∑° R.
„(•)
R2 (R>3)„(R ••)
Therefore
°

+(C − 1) (| R| +| R |)
R2
•( )
°

=+
•(Ch + )
R2
°
1
<+
( + 1). . . ( + C − 1)
R2
°
1 1 R>3
< +( )
+1
R2
1
=
Thus if > √2 we have K( ) ∈ wℋ . 

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References
[1] Bansal, D., & Prajapat, J.K. (2016). Certain geometric properties of the Mittag-
Leffler function, Complex. Variables and Elliptic Equations, 61 (3) ,338 - 350.
[2] Bshouty, D., & Lyzziak, A. (2011). Close-to-convexity criteria for planar harmonic
mappings, Complex Analysis and Operator Theory, 5, 767 - 774.
[3] Bshouty, D., Joshi, S.S., & Joshi, S.B. (2013). On Close-to-convex harmonic
mappings, Complex Variables and Elliptic Eqnuations, 58, 1195 - 1199.
[4] Clunie, J., & Sheil-Small, T. (1984). Harmonic Univalent Functions, Annnales
Academiae Scientiatrum Fennicae Series A. I. Mathematica, 9, 3 - 25.
[5] Duren, P.L, (2004). Harmonic Mappings in the Plane, Cambridge University Press
[6] Hernandez, R., & Martin, M.J, (2013), Stable geometric properties of analytic and
harmonic functions, Math. Proc. Cambridge. Philos. Soc, 155, 343 - 359.
[7] Lewy, H. (1983), On the non-vanishing of the Jacobian in certain one-to-one
mappings, Bulletin of American Mathematical Society, 42 (10), 689 - 692.
[8] Manivannan, M., & Prajapat, J.K. (2021), On a subclass of close-to-convex
harmonic mappings, Journal of Classical Analysis, 17(1), 13 - 26.
[9] Goodloe, M.R. (2002), Hadamard Products of Convex Harmonic Mappings,

[10] Mittag-Leffler, G.M. (1903), Sur la nouvelle fonction E• (x), C.R. Academy of
Complex Variables and Elliptic Equations, 47(2), 81 - 92.

Science, Paris, 137, 554-558.

convex mappings, Monatshefte fu‘ r Mathematik, 188(2), 247 - 267.

[11] Ghosh, N., & Vasudevarao, A. (2019), On some subclass of harmonic clos-to-

[12] Peng, Z., & Zhong, G. (2017), Some properties for certain classes of univalent
functions defined by differential inequalities, Acta Mathematica Scientia, 37B (1), 69 - 78.
[13] Singh, R., & Singh, S. (1989), Convolution properties of a class of starlike
functions, Proceedings of American Mathematical Society, 105, 145 - 152.

E’ (x), Acta Mathematica, 29, 191-201.

[14] Wiman, A. (1905), Uber den Fundamental satz in der Theorie der Funcktionen

[15] Wiman, A. (1905), Uber die Nullstellun der Funktionen E’ (x), Acta
Mathematica, 29, 217 - 234.

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DIVERGENCE AND PERIODICITY OF MERCHANDISE TRADE

Dr. Olubunmi T. OLORUNPOMI

Nigeria Police Academy, Department of Computer Science and Mathematics

SUMMARY
This article engrosses an intermediate estimator that confines homogenous long-run reactions
while tolerating diverse intercept, short-run responses and error variances among export,
import and merchandise trade in Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Morocco, Niger and Nigeria
over periods 1960-2019 by means of merging and averaging separable quantities. The series
consistently encompasses unit root processes. ARDL (3, 1, 1) model was prudently selected
out of the nine models that was probable. The error-correcting speed of adjustment terms was
significantly negative as a precondition; subsequently, it takes Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar,
Morocco, Niger and Nigeria a speed of -0.093, -0.377, -0.662, -0.194, -0.123 and -0.103
disparately to return back to long-run stability. Consequently, the deviation from the long-run
equilibrium rate in the merchandise trade of each country is corrected singly by 9.3%, 37.7%,
66.2%, 19.4%, 12.3% and 10.3% the following year. Besides, Madagascar is more rapidly to
the adjustment followed by Kenya. Invariability takes the African countries all together at a
speed of -0.2587 to return back to equilibrium; thus, the deviation from the long-run
equilibrium rate in the merchandise trade is corrected by 25.87% the following year.
Succinctly, a 1% change in the export of goods and services increases merchandise trade by
59.59%, and a 1% upsurge in the import of goods and services increases merchandise trade by
40.97%. Positive heaviness on the long-run resistance was superlative; nevertheless, the
encouraging effect of export was distinguished.
Keywords: Intermediate estimator, Merging and Averaging, Long-run stability, Short-run
responses, Unit root

INTRODUCTION
The special effects that are not perceptible in cross-section or time-series records can be
recognized by means of panel data and more complex interactive models can be verified
while imposing smaller amount of restrictions (Pesaran, et al. 1995; Baltagi, et al. 2000;
Hsiao, 2003; Martinez-Zarzoso and Bengochea-Morancho, 2004; Baltagi, 2014, 2015). In
panel backdrops by means of separate effects, the link between the mean differenced
regressors and the error duration is stimulating due to unfairness prompted in the review of
autoregressive distributed lag, ARDL models. This inequitableness only dies away for
colossal sizes of observations which cannot be adjusted by cumulating the number of cross-
sections (Arellano, 2004). Pesaran, et al. 1999 projected the pooled mean group estimator that
takes the cointegration system of the simple ARDL model and acclimatizes it for panel
scenery by permitting the intercepts, short-run quantities and cointegrating relations of the
cross-sections to fluctuate transversely (Baltagi and Griffin, 1984, 1997; Pesaran, et al. 1997,
1999; Freeman, 2000 Baltagi, et al. 2008).
If Vit is pragmatic for all nations i=1,...,N (individual-level observations) across all time
epochs t=1,...,T (time series observations) with cross-section dimension subscript i and time
as subscript t. The reparametrized error correction equation is prearranged as (Anderson and
Hsiao, 1981, 1982; Schoenberg, 1997; Baltagi, et al. 2003; Gujarati, 2003; Pedroni, 1999,
2004):

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p 1 q 1
Vi ,t   ii ,t   i , j Vi ,t  j   Si ,t  j  i, j   i ,t (1)
j 1 j 0

( )
where  i   1   j 1 ij are the adjustment coefficients and it is expected to negative;
p


j 0
ij

i ,t  Vi ,t 1  iSit is the error-correcting speed of adjustment term and i  are the

 
1   ik 
 k 
long-run coefficients; If Sit has finite autoregressive representations; then, dependence of
instructive variables on the disturbances is allowed when estimating i ,t ;
ij   m j 1 im for j  1, 2,K , p  1 are (k×1) vector of parameters constant across groups to
p

be estimated on the dependent variable;

q
ij   
m  j 1
 im for j  1, 2,K , q  1 are (k×1) vector of parameters constant across groups to be

estimated on the explanatory variable;

S  ( s ,K , s ) are (T×k) possibly time-varying vector of covariate on k instructive variables
it i1 iT

that can vary across groups and time periods; while, Si  Si  Si 1  si,1 , si,2 ,K , si,Ti  are
( )
j lagged values of Si ;
Vit  ( vi1 ,K , viT ) are (Tx1) vectors of observation on the control variable of the ith group;

while, Vi  Vi  Vi 1  vi,1 , vi,2 ,K , vi,Ti  are j lagged values of Vi ; and
( )
 it  (  i1 ,K ,  iT ) are time-invariant and accounts for any unobservable individual-specific
error term. In order to estimate consistence short-run measurements, it is obligatory that the
disturbances are not interrelated with the regressors.
The same number of lags is expected in each cross-section for the dependent variable and the
regressors; hereafter, the concentrated log-likelihood function is a product of each cross-
section's likelihood given as (Wooldridge, 2000; Gujarati, 2003):
T N 1 N 1
2 i 1
(
2 i 1  i
)
Lt ( )   i  log 2 i2   2 ( Vi   ii ) M i ( Vi   ii ) ( 2)

( )
1
where i  i,1,i,2 ,K,i,Ti  , Mi  ITi  Ri ( Ri Ri ) Ri and Ri  ( Vi,1,K, Vi, p1, Si , Si,1,K, Si,q1 ) .
( ) 1

According to Pesaran, Shin and Smith, the mean group (MG) intermediate estimator accepts
that the intercept, short-run coefficients, and error variances can swerve across the clusters;
while, unweighted averages of different coefficients are calculated for the whole panel. The
fixed effect (FE) transitional estimator constrains long-run coefficients to be equal across
groups; that is, homogeneity over a single subset of regressors or else countries (Mundlak,
1978; Pesaran, et al. 1995, 1997, 1999; Baitagi, et al. 2000).

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RESEARCH AND FINDINGS

The sets of 360 panel data points covering periods 1960-2019 for Ghana,
Kenya, Madagascar, Morocco, Niger and Nigeria were traced from World Bank Data.
Selection of these African countries was based on the obtainability of data. The pictorial
illustrations, probability values, and the consistent quantities of the regression were obtained
according to the imprint of Eviews10.
The time series plots of log merchandise trade (lmtrade), export (lexpgs), and import of goods
and service (limpgs) in figure 1 showed some inconsistent vacillations in the mean and
variances in the series. It would be appropriate to say that the panel time series data are not
covariance stationary by visualization; since, they are altering over time and non-uniform
unpredictability in the time series persists. Thus, it is essential to indorse the unit root
procedure.

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4
lmtrade
1.2 lexpgs
limpgs
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
1 - 60
1 - 75
1 - 90
1 - 05
2 - 60
2 - 75
2 - 90
2 - 05
3 - 60
3 - 75
3 - 90
3 - 05
4 - 60
4 - 75
4 - 90
4 - 05
5 - 60
5 - 75
5 - 90
5 - 05
6 - 60
6 - 75
6 - 90
6 - 05

Figure 1: Time series plot of log of merchandise trade, export and import of goods and services

The mean and median of the series are within the maximum and minimum boundaries in table
1. Negative skewness of -1.00, -0.61 and -1.07 for lmtrade, lexpgs and limpgs consistently are
less than 1; thus, the mean of the series are expected to be less than their median and
unvaryingly less than their mode, hence, more frequent large return observation is to the left
of the distribution. Extreme kurtosis values of 5.11, 3.40 and 5.31 for lmtrade, lexpgs and
limpgs separately are greater than 3.0 benchmark of the normal distribution; therefore, their
curvatures are said to be leptokurtic having fat tails and the observed values are closely
interwove together about the mode. Furthermore, the probability values of 0.00, 0.00 and 0.00
for the Jarque-Bera test of lmtrade, lexpgs and limpgs one-to-one were seen to be less than the
significance level of 0.05 and this suggests that the series are non-normal in distribution.

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Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Statistics LMTRADE LEXPGS LIMPGS
Mean 1.546732 1.281137 1.370720
Median 1.572438 1.307568 1.400733
Maximum 1.969399 1.792229 1.827668
Minimum 0.762218 0.523526 0.474513
Std. Dev. 0.181994 0.193108 0.213911
Skewness -1.003815 -0.606390 -1.070514
Jarque-Bera 126.9940 24.51521 148.6514
Probability 0.000000 0.000005 0.000000
Sum 556.8236 461.2092 493.4593
Sum Sq. Dev. 11.89069 13.38730 16.42705
Observations 360 360 360

Forceful suggestion of unit root process by means of individual and linear trends in the log
levels of the series appeared with their probability values larger than 0.05 significance level
benchmark in table 3. Hence, the series are non-stationary time.

Table 3. Panel Unit Root Tests

Null Hypothesis: Unit root (assumes common unit root process)
lmtrade lexpgs limpgs
Method Stats Prob Stats Prob Stats Prob
Levin,Lin&Chu t* -0.59470 0.2760 0.60575 0.7277 -0.02203 0.4912
Breitung t-stat -0.20738 0.4179 ------ ------ -0.38435 0.3504
Null Hypothesis: Unit root (assumes individual unit root process)
Im, Pesaran & Shin
-1.16446 0.1221 -0.04615 0.4816 -0.65978 0.2547
W-stat
ADF-Fisher Chi-Sq. 15.9787 0.1922 10.3828 0.5824 12.2507 0.4258
PP - Fisher Chi-Sq. 19.5471 0.0762 12.6054 0.3984 14.9933 0.2418

Hadri tests for stationarity thru individual effects in table 4 disclosed that the series are not
stationary in levels, but stationary in first renovation. Henceforth, the data is interestingly and
unswervingly stationary in first transformation.

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Table 4. Hadri Stationary Tests

Null Hypothesis: Stationary (levels)
lmtrade lexpgs limpgs
Method Stats Prob Stats Prob Stats Prob
Hadri Z-St 5.70236 0.0000 5.64839 0.0000 4.15352 0.0000
Heteroscedastic
4.94769 0.0000 6.78991 0.0000 3.62925 0.0001
Consistent Z-stat
Null Hypothesis: Stationary (first difference)
lmtrade lexpgs limpgs
Method Stats Prob Stats Prob Stats Prob
Hadri Z-St 0.06332 0.4748 -0.92007 0.8212 -0.17402 0.5691
Heteroscedastic
0.43408 0.3321 0.10403 0.4586 -0.24976 0.5986
Consistent Z-stat

The model selection procedures of table 5 evaluated nine models spontaneously at supreme
dependent and forceful regressors of two lags to hash out at ARDL(3, 1, 1) with the least
information criteria values. Alkaike information criteria (AIC) make available the minimum
value for the seventh model.

Table 5. Summary of Model Selection

Model LogL AIC* BIC HQ Specification
7 604.306649 -3.311735 -2.885645 -3.141992 ARDL(3, 1, 1)
1 590.948728 -3.303794 -3.012258 -3.187654 ARDL(1, 1, 1)
4 595.142469 -3.293231 -2.934418 -3.150290 ARDL(2, 1, 1)
2 599.894664 -3.285934 -2.859844 -3.116191 ARDL(1, 2, 2)
8 609.910938 -3.274333 -2.713688 -3.050987 ARDL(3, 2, 2)
3 608.858800 -3.268180 -2.707535 -3.044835 ARDL(1, 3, 3)
5 602.484088 -3.265989 -2.772621 -3.069445 ARDL(2, 2, 2)
9 618.277707 -3.253086 -2.557886 -2.976138 ARDL(3, 3, 3)
6 611.071618 -3.246033 -2.618111 -2.995886 ARDL(2, 3, 3)

In table 6, the estimated Wald coefficients test for the selected model ARDL(3, 1, 1) are
suggestively different from zero with statistically importance probability value less than 0.05.
Thus, the coefficients of the model are consistent.

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Table 6. Coefficient Restriction Test

Tes t Statis tic Value df Probability
F-s tatis tic 150.9254 (2, 322) 0.0000
Chi-s quare 301.8508 2 0.0000
Null Hypothes is : C(1)=C(2)=0
Null Hypothes is Sum m ary:
Norm alized Res triction (= 0) Value Std. Err.
C(1) 0.595896 0.083163
C(2) 0.409728 0.088225
The scaled coefficient diagnostics test of table 7 make available evidence and calculate
limitations on the estimated quantities. Thus, the estimated coefficients are robust and can be
used to make pronouncements.

Table 7. Scaled Coefficients Test

Standardized Elas ticity
Variable Coefficient Coefficient at Means

LEXPGS 0.595896 0.632286 0.493572

LIMPGS 0.409728 0.481584 0.363102

The coefficients of the buoyancy interval tests are within 90, 95, and 99 out of each hundred
sureness intervals in table 8. Subsequently, the coefficients of the model can be said to be
trustworthy.

Table 8. Coefficient Confidence Intervals Test

90% CI 95% CI 99% CI
Variable Coefficient Low High Low High Low High

LEXPGS 0.595896 0.458711 0.733081 0.432285 0.759507 0.380406 0.811386

LIMPGS 0.409728 0.264192 0.555263 0.236158 0.583298 0.181121 0.638335

In table 9, the Cross-section rectification coefficient to steadiness of the African countries all
together is negative as a prerequisite with significance probability value; thus, cointegration
exists and the influence of a shock will be momentary and ultimately vanish as the economy
proceeds to steady-state. In view of that; at instability, it takes the nations all in all a speed of -
0.2587 to return back to steadiness and the deviance from long-run innovation proportion is
improved by 25.87% the subsequent year. The coefficients are statistically significance for
probability values less than 0.05. Tersely; in the long-run, 1% change in export of goods and
services will cause an upturn in merchandise trade by 59.59% and a 1% upsurge in import of
goods and services will increase merchandise trade by 40.97%. All the pointers put forth a
positive stress on the long-run springiness; nonetheless, the positive effect of export of goods
and services was more significant on merchandise trade. In the short-run, import of goods and
services in all the countries will upturn merchandise trade by 26.17%.

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Table 9. Estimates of Panel ARDL (3, 1, 1) Model

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob.*

Long Run Equation

LEXPGS 0.595896 0.083163 7.165424 0.0000

LIMPGS 0.409728 0.088225 4.644129 0.0000

Short Run Equation

COINTEQ01 -0.258685 0.091496 -2.827277 0.0050

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.046604 0.052677 -0.884705 0.3770
D(LMTRADE(-2)) -0.114476 0.060830 -1.881899 0.0608
D(LEXPGS) 0.163208 0.085588 1.906910 0.0574
D(LIMPGS) 0.261747 0.088708 2.950648 0.0034
C 0.050993 0.015074 3.382780 0.0008

Mean dependent var 0.002590 S.D. dependent var 0.076243

S.E. of regres s ion 0.058316 Akaike info criterion -3.146148
Sum s quared res id 1.095053 Schwarz criterion -2.735948
Log likelihood 604.3066 Hannan-Quinn criter. -2.983045

The estimates of the coefficients in table 10 are statistically significance for probability values
less than 0.05. The adjustment coefficient to equilibrium was negative as required. At
disequilibrium, it takes Ghana a speed of -0.0930 to return back to equilibrium and the
aberration from long-run modernization rate is corrected by 9.30% the succeeding year. More
so, in the short-run Ghana’s merchandise trade in the earlier first year and export of goods and
services contributed negatively about 26.01% and 9.84% respectively to the change in
merchandise trade; while, imports of goods and services contributed positively about 30.58%
to the change in merchandise trade.

Table 10. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Ghana

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.093048 0.002480 -37.51298 0.0000

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.260087 0.014904 -17.45075 0.0004
D(LMTRADE(-2)) 0.016140 0.016419 0.983012 0.3981
D(LEXPGS) -0.098447 0.037851 -2.600891 0.0803
D(LIMPGS) 0.305758 0.034561 8.846928 0.0030
C 0.029050 0.000483 60.20284 0.0000

The approximations of the coefficients in table 11 are statistically significance for probability
values benchmark less than 0.05. The adjustment coefficient to equilibrium was negative as
required. At disequilibrium, it takes Kenya a speed of -0.3774 to return back to equilibrium
and the irregularity from long-run renewal rate is corrected by 37.74% the successive year.
Similarly, in the short-run Kenya’s merchandise trade in the earlier first year donated
negatively about 8.15% to the change in merchandise trade; while, merchandise trade in the
continuing second year, export of goods and services and imports of goods and services
contributed completely about 2.75%, 25.58% and 33.22% to the adjustment in merchandise
trade.

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Table 11. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Kenya

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.377394 0.007928 -47.60451 0.0000

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.081507 0.002759 -29.53978 0.0001
D(LMTRADE(-2)) 0.027501 0.002730 10.07441 0.0021
D(LEXPGS) 0.255805 0.006569 38.94062 0.0000
D(LIMPGS) 0.332187 0.004769 69.66187 0.0000
C 0.068835 0.001371 50.21795 0.0000

The assessments of the coefficients in table 12 are statistically significance for probability
values less than the benchmark of 0.05. The amendment coefficient to symmetry was adverse
as required. At instability, it takes Madagascar a speed of -0.6621 to return back to
equilibrium and the abnormality from long-run revitalization rate is modified by 66.21% the
successive year. Similarly, in the short-run Madagascar’s merchandise trade in the second
year and the export of goods and services provided negatively about 36.65% and 9.04% to the
amendment in merchandise trade; while, imports of goods and services contributed
completely about 5.42% to the transfiguration in merchandise trade.

Table 12. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Madagascar

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.662124 0.021882 -30.25820 0.0001

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.002987 0.013789 -0.216595 0.8424
D(LMTRADE(-2)) -0.356513 0.009282 -38.40818 0.0000
D(LEXPGS) -0.090434 0.019652 -4.601653 0.0193
D(LIMPGS) 0.054150 0.025188 2.149798 0.1207
C 0.118946 0.003557 33.43598 0.0001

The estimates of the coefficients in table 13 are statistically significance for the benchmark of
probability values less than 0.05. The correction coefficient to equipoise was adversative as
necessary. At unsteadiness, it takes Morocco a speediness of -0.1935 to return back to
steadiness and the idiosyncrasy from long-run revival rate is reformed by 19.35% the
sequential year. Equally, in the short-run Morocco’s merchandise trade in the earliest first
year, the second year delivered depressingly about 1.16% and 2.81% to the revision in
merchandise trade; while, the export of goods and services and imports of goods and services
subsidized absolutely about 36.98% and 58.37% to the conversion in merchandise trade.

Table 13. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Morocco

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.193453 0.004966 -38.95291 0.0000

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.011551 0.003028 -3.814531 0.0317
D(LMTRADE(-2)) -0.028097 0.003303 -8.505513 0.0034
D(LEXPGS) 0.369828 0.007993 46.26895 0.0000
D(LIMPGS) 0.583651 0.005224 111.7267 0.0000
C 0.034014 0.000453 75.05742 0.0000

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The estimations of the coefficients in table 14 are statistically significance for the benchmark
of probability values less than 0.05. The rectification coefficient to constancy was antithetical
as indispensable. At precariousness, it takes Niger a nimbleness of -0.1226 to return back to
steadiness and the idiosyncrasy from long-run revival rate is renewed by 12.26% the
consecutive year. In the same way, in the short-run Niger’s merchandise trade in the earliest
first year, the export of goods and services and imports of goods and services supported
unequivocally about 13.55%, 19.27% and 31.51% in turn to the renovation in merchandise
trade; while, merchandise trade in the second year takes negatively about 19.43% to the
exchange in merchandise trade.

Table 14. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Niger

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.122569 0.002044 -59.96619 0.0000

D(LMTRADE(-1)) 0.135519 0.010170 13.32594 0.0009
D(LMTRADE(-2)) -0.194286 0.010075 -19.28362 0.0003
D(LEXPGS) 0.192670 0.012861 14.98063 0.0006
D(LIMPGS) 0.315133 0.010777 29.24212 0.0001
C 0.025018 0.000168 148.8554 0.0000

The valuations of the quantities in table 15 are statistically importance for the homogeneous
probability values less than 0.05. The overhaul constant to dependability was adversative as
essential. At instability, it takes Nigeria dexterity of -0.930 to return back to balance and the
eccentricity from long-run stimulation rate is improved by 9.30% the uninterrupted year. In
the same way, in the short-run Nigeria’s merchandise trade in the earliest first year and the
export of goods and services provided deleteriously about 26.01% and 9.84% respectively to
the amendment in merchandise trade; while, imports of goods and services buttressed
positively about 30.58% to the interchange in merchandise trade.

Table 15. Cross-Section Short-Run Coefficients for Nigeria

Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statis tic Prob. *

COINTEQ01 -0.093048 0.002480 -37.51298 0.0000

D(LMTRADE(-1)) -0.260087 0.014904 -17.45075 0.0004
D(LMTRADE(-2)) 0.016140 0.016419 0.983012 0.3981
D(LEXPGS) -0.098447 0.037851 -2.600891 0.0803
D(LIMPGS) 0.305758 0.034561 8.846928 0.0030
C 0.029050 0.000483 60.20284 0.0000

CONCLUSION
This article captivates an transitional estimator that precincts standardized long-run feedbacks
while allowing miscellaneous intercept, short-run comebacks and error adjustments among
export, import and merchandise trade in Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Morocco, Niger and
Nigeria over periods 1960-2019 by means of merging and averaging separable quantities.
The series consistently encompasses unit root processes. ARDL(3, 1, 1) model was prudently
selected out of the nine models that was probable. The error-correcting speed of adjustment
terms was significantly negative as a precondition; subsequently, it takes Ghana, Kenya,
Madagascar, Morocco, Niger and Nigeria a speed of -0.093, -0.377, -0.662, -0.194, -0.123
and -0.103 disparately to return back to long-run stability.

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Consequently, the deviation from the long-run symmetry rate in the merchandise trade of each
country is improved one at a time by 9.3%, 37.7%, 66.2%, 19.4%, 12.3% and 10.3% the
following year. Besides, Madagascar is more promptly to the regulation followed by Kenya.
Invariability takes the African countries all together at a speed of -0.2587 to return back to
equilibrium; thus, the deviation from the long-run equilibrium rate in the merchandise trade is
corrected by 25.87% the subsequent year. Neatly, a 1% change in the export of goods and
services increases merchandise trade by 59.59%, and a 1% upsurge in the import of goods and
services increases merchandise trade by 40.97%. Positive pressures on the long-run elasticity
were supreme; although, the positive effect of export was preeminent. In the short-run, import
of goods and services in all the countries will improve merchandise trade by 26.17%.
Export of goods and services is a pointer to be scrutinized when a strategy relating to
merchandise trade is to be validated in the selected African countries.

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Arellano M., (2004), Panel Data Econometrics. Advanced Texts in Econometrics,
Oxford University Press.
Baltagi B. H., (2014), Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, 5th edition, Wiley.
Baltagi, B. H. (ed.), (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Panel Data, Oxford University
Press.
Baltagi, B.H, Bresson, G. & Pirotte, A (2008). To pool or not to pool, p517-546 of
Matyas & Sevestre eds The Econometrics of Panel data, 3rd edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Baltagi, B.H, Bresson, G., Griffin, J.M. & Pirotte, A. (2003). Homogeneous,
Heterogeneous or Shrinkage Estimators? Some empirical evidence from French regional
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Baltagi, B.H, Griffin, J.M. & Xiong, W. (2000). To pool or not to pool: homogeneous
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Statistics, 82, 117-126.
Baltagi, B.H. & Griffin, J.M. (1984). Short and Long-run Effects in Pooled Models.
International Economic Review, 25, 631-645.
Baltagi, B.H. & Griffin, J.M. (1997). Pooled Estimators versus their Heterogeneous
Counterparts in the context of dynamic demand for gasoline, Journal of Econometrics, 77,
303-327.
Barbara, C. (1998). "Mahbub ul Haq, 64, Analyst and Critic of Global Poverty. The
New York Times. p. 2. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
Gujarati, D.N. (2003). Basic Econometrics. 4th Edition. Mc Graw Hill Higher
Education. New York, USA.
Hsiao, C. (2003). Analysis of Panel Data. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
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Martinez-Zarzoso, I., & Bengochea-Morancho A. (2004). Pooled Mean Group
Estimation of an Environmental Kuznets Curve for CO2. Economics Letters 82, 121-126.

314
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Mundlak, Y. (1978). On the Pooling of Time Series and Cross section Data.
Econometrica, 46, 69-85. of the American Statistical Association, 76, 598-606.
Pedroni, P. (1999). Critical Values for Cointegration Tests in Heterogeneous Panels
with Multiple Regressors. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61, 653–70.
Pedroni, P. (2004). Panel Cointegration; Asymptotic and Finite Sample Properties of
Pooled Time Series
Pesaran M.H. (ed.), (2015). Time Series and Panel Data Econometrics, Oxford
University Press.
Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. & Smith, R.P. (1997). Estimating long-run relationships in
Dynamic Heterogeneous Panels. DAE Working Papers Amalgamated Series 9721.
Pesaran, M.H. & Smith, R.P. (1995). Estimating Long-run relationships from
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Pesaran, M.H. (2007) A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross section
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Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data. 2nd
edition. The MIT Press.

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THE LONG TERM HYDROCHEMICAL TRENDS IN THE IRANIAN COAST OF

THE CASPIAN SEA

Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi

Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

Fariba Vahedi
Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

Asieh Makhlough
Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

Mohammad Kardar Rostami

Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

ABSTRACT
For the time being, problem areas of Caspian environments such as the decline of fish stock,
coastal degradation, threat of biodiversity, decline in environmental quality, and alien species.
Therefore, marine ecological monitoring means describing the situation, examining changes
in the marine environment, and following up on the effects of the measures taken. This
approach not only assesses ecosystem changes but also identifies the underlying causes of the
changes while providing evidence. Results showed that the SST trend is slightly increased,
but the long-term trend of salinity was not observed changes. The trend of pH and
transparency was reversed. All forms of nitrogen compounds (organic and inorganic) were
increased but all forms of phosphorous (organic and inorganic) smoothly decreased. The trend
of soluble silicon was not different. The Caspian Sea basin was a nitrogen limitation for
phytoplankton growth. This trophic status (TRIXcs) of the ecosystem is oligo-mesotrophic
with a slightly high risk of eutrophication. In addition, the quality of water was moderate
based on WQIcs in this area.
Keywords: Hydrochemical trends, Long term studies, Iranian Coast, Caspian Sea

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THE LONG TERM PHYTOPLANKTON STUDY IN THE IRANIAN COAST OF THE

CASPIAN SEA

Asieh Makhloukh
Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

Hassan Nasrollahzadeh Saravi

Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

Abolghasem Roohi
Caspian Sea Ecology Research Center (CSERC), Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

AbbasAli Aghaei Moghadam

Inland Aquatic Resources Research Center, Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute
(IFSRI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)

ABSTRACT
Monitoring of the aquatic ecosystem identifies new environmental issues, the effectiveness of
conservation strategies used, and the trend in water quality. This study aims to compare the
changes in the structural pattern of phytoplankton, harmful and toxic species, native and
desirable species in the Iranian coast of the Caspian Sea from 1996 to 2019. According to the
results, instability situation has been started in the 2000s in the Caspian Sea ecosystem due to
increased nutrients and pollution and the arrival of new and invasive species. In 2001, the
density and biomass of phytoplankton increased, especially in the Cyanophyta phylum. The
presence of 15 new species of phytoplankton was reported in the 2000s, most of which are
known as harmful and toxic species. This condition led to the bloom of toxic species
Nodularia spumigena (Cyanophyta) in the summer of 2005, 2009, and 2010. In 2009 and
2013, the annual percentage of harmful and toxic species to the total density of phytoplankton
were 43% and 44%, respectively, and decreased to 36% in 2018-2019. The contribution of
native species in phytoplankton abundance showed a decreasing trend from 2009 (43%) to
2013 (32%), but it increased up to 59% in 2018-2019. In 2012, an increase in density of small
flagellate species and species with long setae and bloom potential (Chaetoceros throndsenii
and Apedinella spinifera) was observed in the Mazandaran coast of the Caspian Sea. In 2019,
along with the re-increase of basilarophyte, the participation of cyanophyte and chlorophyte
were decreased. The seasonal study of the years showed the intensive increase of native and
resident species in spring, summer, and autumn of 2013 and 2019. The percentage of native
and resident species in the winter of 2013 was almost 2 folds of 2018. While the percentage of
toxic species (Pseudonitzschia seriata) in the winter of 2018 increased about 10 times
compared to 2012. In other words, the least evidence of improvement of the Caspian Sea
ecosystem was observed in winter. In conclusion, the results in the last year of the study
indicate changes in the ecosystem towards stability.

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These positive evidences are: reduced diversity of harmful and toxic species, decreasing of
cyanophyta participation, increasing of abundance and diversity of native and resident
species, lower coefficient of variation, more uniform distribution, and higher species stability
of dominant native and resident species (Cyclotella meneghiniana, Thalassionema
nitzschioides, and Binuclearia lauterbornii) in comparison with Pseudonitzschia seriata This
conclusion is based on phytoplankton data. For the final judgment of ecosystem status, other
biological levels (fish, zooplankton, benthic organisms, etc.), non-biological factors
(physicochemical factors and biological habitats), and ecosystem efficiency are also
considered and ranked. Their combination presents a single result. The effect of the presence
of Beroe ovata in the Iranian waters of the Caspian Sea in 2019 should also be considered on
ecosystem changes. The toxic and harmful species Pseudonitzschia seriata, was not observed
in the summer of 2019, but it had a wide distribution and high abundance in spring. This is the
negative and important point in the water quality status of this ecosystem. An important key
to maintaining the recovery process and improving the ecosystem is the serious management
of human activities to reduce the entry of man-made nutrients into this aquatic ecosystem.
Keywords: Phytoplankton, Long term, Iranian Coast, Caspian Sea

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THERMAL STRESSES IN THICK RECTANGULAR PLATE BY INTERNAL

MOVING HEAT SOURCES

Dr. Yogita M. Ahire

PVG’s College of Engineering and S S Dhamankar Institute of Management

ABSTRACT
The conduction of heat through solids is the noteworthy wonder for specialists. Numerous
scientists contributed for the investigation of stream of heat through the solids having various
sizes and shapes. It incorporates the engendering of heat through unidirectional bar, annular
rings, solid disks and so forth. The heat streams as though it propels the heat sources inside
the material called as internal moving heat sources. These internal moving heat sources
produces thermal stresses in solids of different kind. It has been investigated by physical
methods as well as mathematical models. These plates are examined for applications in
nuclear reactors, aircraft structures, satellite vehicles and in numerous industrial purposes.
The work has been done on same plates with different conditions such as keeping the one
surface insulated and propagation of heat considered up to the edge of the plate. The
dimensional changes studied with applications of different mathematical models. Attempt has
been made in this paper for determination of thermal stresses by integral transform technique.
The second kind boundary conditions suitably applied for this analysis with Fourier transform
technique. The temperature variety and comparing heat anxieties have been examined. In this
article a thick rectangular plate is analyzed for the temperature appropriation and stresses
caused by internal moving heat sources.
Keywords: Rectangular Plate, Integral Transform Technique, Thermal Stresses

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CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

COMPUTATIONAL CATALYSIS

Maryam Rasoolzadeh
Islamic Azad University, Department of Chemistry

ABSTRACT
Department of Chemistry, Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
Abstract- Catalytic processes are essential for many practical chemical applications. Catalysts
do chemical reactions faster and more selective, the advantages that are crucially for the
sustainable production of materials, energy and the bioactive compounds. Nowadays, catalyst
discovery and design is progressively relying on computational chemistry. The aim of this
article is to analyze recent investigations and developments in computational heterogeneous
catalysis. The methodology of this research is systematic review. Some of the key challenges
in front of scientists in the field of computational heterogeneous catalysis are discussed1234.
The first-principles computations can give considerably detailed sights into the energetics of
catalytic reactions happening at the nanoscale, but there is no simple approach to utilize these
insights to explain the macroscopic reaction kinetics data that experiments provide. However,
computational modeling can play a significant role in the design of more catalytically active
and selective materials through the exploration of reaction mechanisms and the good
opportunity to investigate hypothetical catalysts in silico former to experimental verification.
In the past, detailed reaction mechanisms could not be comprehended; but, computational
chemistry has made it thinkable to analyze a specific elementary reaction of a reaction system.
The design of heterogeneous catalysts depends on realizing the fundamental surface kinetics
that controls catalyst efficiency, and microkinetic modeling is an approach that can aid the
researcher in simplifying the process of catalyst design. Therefore, the combination of
computational chemistry and microkinetic modeling can considerably upgrade computational
catalysis investigation. Throughout the review, the research provides several examples of
applications, discuss remaining challenges, and provide our outlook for the near future. The
research finally summarized the advances in theoretical approaches for accelerating catalyst
design and discovery and concluded that the improvement of “universal” concepts such as
scaling relations would be a significant milestone in design of applicable catalysts.
Keywords: Computational Chemistry, Microkinetic Modeling, Density Functional Theory

1
Park, J., Kim, H. S., Lee, W. B., & Park, M. J. (2020). Trends and outlook of computational chemistry and
microkinetic modeling for catalytic synthesis of methanol and DME. Catalysts, 10(6), 655.
2
Chen, B. W., Xu, L., & Mavrikakis, M. (2020). Computational methods in heterogeneous catalysis. Chemical
Reviews, 121(2), 1007-1048.
3
Foscato, M., & Jensen, V. R. (2020). Automated in silico design of homogeneous catalysts. ACS
Catalysis, 10(3), 2354-2377.
4
Chen, Z. N., Shen, T., Wang, Y., & Zhang, I. Y. (2021). Accurate description of catalytic selectivity:
Challenges and opportunities for the development of density functional approximations. CCS Chemistry, 136-
143.

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RECYCLING OF WASTE COOKING OIL INTO MULTIFUNCTIONAL

ADDITIVES FOR LUBRICANTS

Muhammad Sikandar
Department of chemistry, COMSATs University Islamabad Lahore campus Pakistan

ABSTRACT
The recycling of waste cooking oils has been focused to build up cost-effective and
multifunctional additives. Edible oils are most commonly used in kitchen as well as
commercially. Animal fats and vegetable oils are the different sources used worldwide to
collect edible oils. Vegetable oil utilization in 2019 has arrived at 204.88 million metric tons
and this figure is expanding at a speed of 2% every year. Out of the absolute utilization just
20-30% is reused and when user discarded WCO, it causes problems for the environment and
human health ultimately. It is recommended that WCOs can be used as helpful wellsprings of
synthetic substances for the creation of bio plasticizers. In view of this, there is a need to
develop technique / method to remove these harmful substances as well as to reuse the waste
cooking oil as useful lubricant to fabricate multifunctional additives. To get this, we have
used benzoyl peroxide, ethylene propylene monomer as well as ethylene propylene polymer.
By using different molar concentration of above mentioned materials, different properties
such as viscosity, friction modifiers, rust or corrosion protection and biodegradability of
synthesized additives has been investigated. Enhanced impact of above mentioned properties
has been observed in the synthesized additives. Their physico-chemical properties has been
assessed by different techniques.
Keywords: WCOs (waste cooking oils), UCOs (used cooking oil), EPM (ethylene propylene
monomer), EPR (ethylene propylene rubber/polymer)

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FABRICATION OF CN WRAPPED BIMETALLIC METAL ORGANIC

FRAMEWORK FOR WATER SPLITTING

Muhammad Waseem Fazal

Department of chemistry, COMSATs University Islamabad Lahore campus Pakistan

ABSTRACT
Energy crises are a major concern worldwide. To date, there is a great need for using
available resources across acceptable protocols and finding a way to store them. Our economy
has become fragile because of our reliance on fossil fuels, and the excessive use of these
organic materials has increased environmental toxicity. So, there is a need for a sustainable
and clean source of energy that minimizes the issue related to the economy and environmental
pollution. Thus, in addition to using conventional sources such as fossil fuels, recently,
Hydrogen has been used as a renewable source of energy. A lot of methods have been used to
produce hydrogen; however, electrolysis has proved to be the best method due to the excess
availability of water. Transition metal and noble transition metals-based catalysts have been
used as an electro catalyst, but scarcity and high cost hinder their large-scale applications.
Herein, we have fabricated a novel material of NC rapped bimetallic MOF-based
nanocomposite by solvothermal method in which NC rapped bimetallic MOF-based
nanocomposite has been grown on nickel foam in one step. Nanocomposite has shown low
over potential, high charge density due to presence of NC coating as well as large number of
active sites. The material characterization has been done by SEM, FTIR and XRD. Their
electrochemical measurement cyclic voltammetry, linear scanning voltammetry,
Chronoamperometry, chronoamperometry has done through Gamry potentiostat 1010E.
Keywords: NC (Nitrogen-carbon), SEM (Scanning electron microscopy), FTIR (Fourier
transformed infrared spectroscopy), XRD (X-ray diffraction)

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MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING (MCDM) METHODS USED IN COVID-19

RELATED STUDIES

Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN BARAK

Çukurova University, Industrial Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-2039-0785

ABSTRACT
The Covid-19 outbreak first appeared in Wuhan, in China's Hubei Province, in December
2019. Due to its rapid contagion, it turned into an epidemic in a short time and affected the
whole world. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of cases
infected by the virus, which affected the whole world in a short time, was reported to be more
than 217 million and the number of deaths more than 4 million until September 2021. In
addition, the vaccine applied in the fight against this virus has exceeded 5 billion doses. Due
to the rapid spread of the epidemic, it is very important to take correct and fast decisions and
to implement the decisions taken. Therefore, to make the right decisions, many decision
problems have been solved by using Multi-Criteria Decision Making Methods. The Multi-
Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) method, which is a sub-branch of Operations Research,
has been widely used in decision studies related to Covid-19 today. It has been widely used in
solving problems in areas such as health, education, production, and facility location,
especially today, to make the right decisions between different alternatives in the pandemic.
In this study, MCDM methods in studies that provide solutions to the problems related to
Covid-19 in different fields were examined and researched. The studies examined were re-
evaluated according to the methods used and the applied field. The ways and different aspects
of the application of MCDM, a sub-branch of operations research, to the other field problem
were investigated. In addition, the new forms of MCDM methods that were revealed as a
result of the development of the methods used in studies related to Covid-19 were examined.
Keywords: Covid-19, Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM), Decision Making

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ORDER ACCEPTANCE AND SCHEDULING STUDIES AND GREEN APPLICATIONS: A

REVİEW

Menşure Zühal ERİŞGİN BARAK

Çukurova University, Industrial Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-2039-0785

ABSTRACT
The Order Acceptance and Scheduling (OAS) problem has been the subject of the most
important production scheduling studies for the last 20 years. The Order Acceptance and
Scheduling is both scheduling and an optimization problem. In Make to Order (MTO)
companies with capacity constraints have to choose some of the orders since they can't keep
up with the more incoming orders while establishing the production schedule. On the other
hand, the delivery date constraint and the wide variety of orders make it very difficult to set
up the production schedule. In some OAS studies, companies either reject or outsourced
orders that cannot be included in the schedule. Although companies can deliver some orders
on time, some orders are delivered late due to capacity constraints. In some OAS studies,
customer dissatisfaction caused by late deliveries is tried to be increased by giving discounts
to the customers. OAS problems are studied in single or multi-machine systems. The type of
production systems addressed in multi-machine Oas studies is generally unrelated or identical
parallel machines. In general, the objective of the optimization problem in OAS studies is cost
or makespan minimization or profit maximization. Also, there are different studies in the
literature that include different parameters such as fuzzy logic, outsourcing, release date,
machine break, or idle time. Today, due to increasing global climate and environmental
problems, OAS studies are carried out with the environmental parameters with the view of the
sustainable use of energy. Generally, in the green OAS studies, carbon emission and
electricity prices parameters are included. In this review, the OAS-related studies and green
OAS studies were investigated.
Keywords: Order Acceptance and Scheduling, Carbon Emission, Electricity, Sustainability,
Make to Order, Green Scheduling, Optimization

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INFLUENCE OF INFILL DENSITY ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D

PRINTED POLYLACTID ACID PARTS

Ali Can KAYA

Mechatronics Engineering Department, Turkish-German University
ORCID: 0000-0003-2856-5508

Ali KORUCU
Mechatronics Engineering Department, Turkish-German University
ORCID: 0000-0002-9937-1885

ASBSTRACT
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a widely used semicrystalline polymer with excellent mechanical and
biodegradable properties. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a 3D printing process
enabling easy fabrication of complex parts and lightweight truss structures. Since FDM
process is heavily depended on the printing parameters such as infill density, fabrication of
PLA parts by trending FDM process casts suspicion on the robustness of the printed parts. In
current study, PLA tensile specimens with different infill densities of 50%, 80% and 100%
were fabricated. Quasi-static tensile tests of the samples were carried out and fracture surfaces
of the samples were investigated under the optical microscope (OM). Elastic modulus, yield
strength and energy absorption of the printed samples increased with increasing infill
densities. Stress-strain curves of samples with 100% infill densities showed a pronounced
peak stress and softening, while stress-strain curves of samples with lower infill densities
depicted neither peak stress nor significant softening. Voids in the printed samples with lower
infill densities modified the deformation behavior of fully dense PLA specimen, and a
smoother transition took place from the viscoelastic to plastic regime. This modification may
lead to favorable or detrimental results in the mechanical properties of the printed parts
depending on the application.
Keywords: PLA, FDM, infill density, mechanical properties

1. INTRODUCTION
Additive manufacturing (AM) has become recently widespread with a larger flexibility in
manufacturing of complex shaped parts [1] and sustainability as compared to the conventional
manufacturing methods [2]. With adaptation of the AM to the industry the competition
between the AM and conventional manufacturing methods are increasing.
AM is a process that fabricate 3D objects by adding of materials layer by layer. Some of the
developed 3D printing methods include Stereolithography (SLA), Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM),
Inject printing and Laser metal deposition (LMD) [2]. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
and Polylactic acid (PLA) are the thermoplastics widely used in FDM. PLA is a
biodegradable semi crystalline polymer exploited commonly in FDM due to their favorable
glass transition temperature [2]. PLA possesses high strength and stiffness but low toughness
and ductility. It is used in packaging and disposable applications and its suitability is further
investigated for automotive applications [2-4].

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Recently, effects of the printing parameters have been intensively investigated for different
filament materials [2-7]. For instance, Keat et al. [5] demonstrated that the strength of the
PLA increased with increasing of infill density; however, strength of conductive PLA
decreased with increasing of infill density. They further concluded that the increasing of the
infill density hindered the movement of the PLA and reduced the fracture strain. In another
study, Sood et al. [6] investigated the process parameters such as layer thickness, orientation,
raster angle, raster width and air gap. They reported that with increasing number of layers
thermal cycles increased and larger amount of residual stresses accumulated in the printed
sample. Furthermore, strength of the printed parts is improved by increasing diffusion
between neighboring raster when the number of layers is increased [6]. Besides PLA,
Polypropylene (PP) was investigated as a filament material for the 3-D printing. PP with 20,
60 and 100% infill densities were printed and pulled quasi-statically [7]. The printed samples
with an infill density of 100% showed 2.5 times higher ultimate strength than that of printed
samples with an infill density of 20% [7]. Several studies reported the effect of the infill
density on the mechanical properties of the printed parts. However, influence of the printing
process and infill density on the fracture behavior of the printed parts remains unknown.
In current study, PLA samples were fabricated with different infill densities and their
mechanical properties were characterized by quasi-static tensile testing. Fracture surfaces of
the broken samples were visualized by optical microscope and the effect of printing on the
fracture was revealed.

2. RESEARCH AND FINDINGS

Netherlands). PLA filament diameter was about 2.85 ±0.10 mm. PLA has a glass transition
Specimens were fabricated using silver metallic color PLA filament (Ultimaker, Utrecht,

temperature of 600 and a density of 1.24 g/cm3 [8].

Tensile specimens were fabricated by FDM (Ultimaker II extended plus, Utrecht,
Netherlands). A 3D CAD model of the ASTM 638 type II tensile specimen was created using
a CAD software. After converting CAD data into the STL file, G-Code of the specimen was
created with an open source slicer software Cura. Printing parameters of the tensile test
specimen is given in Table 1. In current study, tensile test specimens were fabricated with
different infill densities of 50%, 80% and 100%. At least five specimens were printed for each
infill densities.

Table 1. Printing parameters of the fabricated tensile specimens

Property
Nozzle diameter 0.4 mm
o
Bed Temperature 60 C
o
Nozzle Temperature 210 C
Wall Thickness 1.2 mm
Printing Speed 60 mm/s
o
Raster Angle 45
Layer Thickness 0.15 mm
Overlap 10%
Infill Pattern Grid

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V (Kyoto, Japan) which is equipped with a load cell of 100 kN with a resolution of ±0.5%
Quasi static tensile tests were carried out with a universal testing machine of Shimadzu AGX-

indicated test force. Tensile specimens were pulled with a displacement rate of 5 mm/min.
Elongation of the samples was measured by a video extensometer. A 2 mega pixel CCD
camera is utilized for the imaging of the sample during tensile testing.
Optical micrographs of the fracture surface of the tested samples were investigated with a
Zeiss Smartzoom 5 light microscope (Zeiss, Jena, Germany).

Fig.1. illustrating a) printing of the tensile test specimens by FDM, b) printed test specimens,
c) tensile testing of the PLA specimen and d) optical investigation of the fracture surfaces.

In printed samples there are always some amount of pores depending on the infill densities.
Influence of the infill density on the porosity can be determined by calculating the porosity for
each infill densities.

Porosity of the printed samples ( ) can be calculated using [9]:

œ
=1−
Ϣ
where œ¢ is the density of fully dense material, œ is the density of the fabricated material.
Density, is the ratio of the mass to volume, of the printed samples was calculated by
determining the volume of the tensile test specimens from CAD model and measuring the
mass of the specimens with a scale.
Mechanical properties of the printed samples were determined according to standard test
method for tensile properties of plastics (ASTM 638-14).

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Porosity of the tensile specimens and their physical properties are important factors that can
influence the measured mechanical properties of the samples. The measured porosity and
density of the samples are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Measured porosity and density of the printed samples

No Infill density (%) Measured Density (gr/cm3) Calculated porosity (%)
1 50 0.82 33.9
2 80 1 19.4
3 100 1.09 12.1

Average mechanical properties for the samples at each infill densities are summarized in
Table 3. According to the results with increasing infill density strength and stiffness of the
tensile test specimens are increased. Fracture strain, however, did not show such a correlation
with infill densities or porosity.

Table 4. Average measured mechanical properties of the printed samples

Infill Density E-Modulus Yield Strength Fracture Strain
No
(%) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
1 50 1706,10±0,04 23,61±0,57 4,08±1,03
2 80 2022,80±0,03 27,22±0,28 4,83±1,54

± FCqF «FC «ℎ% r« Cq /q q%–F «F.C

3 100 3219,30±0,08 41,05±0,77 4,82±2,14

Stress-strain curves of the samples with different infill densities are demonstrated in fig.2a.
Sample with infill density of 100% shows a significant peak after elastic regime and a large
softening occurred with increasing of tensile strain. In contrast, samples with infill densities of
50% and 80% did not show any softening and stress peak after elastic regime. This may be
attributed to the increased porosity in the case of samples with 50 and 80% infill densities,
because peak stress and softening were also demonstrated in cast fully dense samples [10].
Energy absorption capacity of the printed samples increased with increasing of the infill
density (fig.2b). The porosity in the samples is utmost important and slight change in the
stress strain curves has not a significant effect on the energy absorption capacity of the
samples.

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Fig 2. a) illustrating stress-strain curves of samples with different infill densities, b)

illustrating energy absorption per volume of the samples with different infill densities.

Fracture surfaces of the broken specimens are revealed in fig.3. Air gaps between the
neighboring raster are visible. The amount of air gaps is less as compared to inner part of the
specimen. This has an influence on the fracture behavior of the sample. The thermal cycle on
the specimen wall is larger than inner part of the specimen leading to an increase of residual
stresses [6]. With increasing infill densities of the printed samples, residual stresses increase
and abrupt changes in the stress strain curves become visible. In fig. 4. large amount of
residual stresses led to bending of the tensile test specimen with infill density of 100%, while
there was no such an observation in the samples with infill densities of 50 and 80%.

Fig.3. Fracture surfaces of the printed samples with infill densities of a) 50%, b) 80% and c)
100%.

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Fig.4. Bending of the tensile specimen with infill density of 100% after fracture.

3. CONCLUSION
Quasi static tensile testing was carried out on the printed samples with different infill
densities. From our results following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Infill density has a great influence on the strength and energy absorption properties of the
samples
2. While stress softening was observed at an infill density of 100%, not a significant softening
was observed for printed parts with infill densities of 50 and 80%.
3. 100% infill density has a porosity of 12.1% which is quite large and can have an effect on
the mechanical performance of the parts.
4. With increasing infill density amount of voids decreases in the fracture surfaces
5. Inhomogeneous fracture occurred due to the different material density on the inner side and
wall of the parts.
6.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Ford, M. Despeisse, Additive manufacturing and sustainability: an exploratory
study of the advantages and challenges, Journal of Cleaner Production, 137, 2016, 1573-1587.
[2] C. Lubombo, M. A. Huneaul, Effect of infill patterns on the mechanical
performance of lightweight 3D-printed cellular PLA parts, Materials Today Communications,
17, 2018, 214-228.
[3] D. Notta-Cuvier, M. Murariu, J. Odent, R. Delille, A. Bouzouita, J.-M. Raquez, F.
Lauro, P. Dubois, Tailoring Polylactide Properties for Automotive Applications: Effects of
Co-Addition of Halloysite Nanotubes and Selected Plasticizer, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 300
(2015) 684–698.
[4] A. Bouzouita, C. Samuel, D. Notta-cuvier, J. Odent, F. Lauro, P. Dubois, J.
Raquez, Design of highly tough poly (L -lactide) - based ternary blends for automotive
applications, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 43402 (2016) 1–9.
[5] Y. C. Keat, Y. W. Yin, M. Z. Ramli, T. P. Leng, and S. C. Chie, Effects of infill
density on the mechanical properties of 3D printed PLA and conductive PLA, AIP
Conference Proceedings 2129, 020013 (2019)

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[6] Sood, A.K., R.K. Ohdar, and S.S. Mahapatra, Mater Design, 31(1), 287-295
(2010).
[7] Carneiro, O.S., A. Silva, and R. Gomes, Mater Design, 83, 768-776 (2015).
[8] Ultimaker PLA, Technical data sheet, Version 4.002 (2018)
[9] P.C. Angelo, Powder Metallurgy: Science, Technology and Applications Prentice-
Hall of India, New Delhi (2008)
[10] P. Ma, A.B. Spoelstra, P. Schmit, P.J. Lemstra, Toughening of poly (lactic acid)
by poly (β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxyvalerate) with high β-hydroxyvalerate content,
European Polymer Journal, 49, 6, 1523-1531 (2013).

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DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS ADSORBENT MATERIALS FOR

PURIFICATION OF USED COOKING OIL

Miss Perveen Kanwal

Department of Chemistry, COMSATS University ISLAMABAD Lahore campus Pakistan

Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal

Department of Chemistry, COMSATS University ISLAMABAD Lahore campus Pakistan

ABSTRACT
Cooking oil is one of the primary commodities people need to process food. Repeatedly use
of cooking oil can cause increasing free fatty acids and peroxide value contained. Therefore,
continuous exposure to used cooking oil has known resulting hazardous impacts on the
environment and also to human health. Hence, it is necessary to purify used cooking oil
before it is discharged to the environment. Modern research aims to use eco-friendly and
indigenous materials for purification of used cooking oils. In this context, clay has gained
significant importance and applied as an Eco compatible and low-cost resource. Clay minerals
occur in different morphological and physicochemical properties based on their constituents
and layer arrangements. The applications of clay in construction, petroleum refining, water
treatment, development of adsorbent have been established with other interesting applications
on the horizon. The effects of indigenous adsorbents were examined by determining the
following quality parameters: acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV), density and viscosity.
Indigenous adsorbents with different ratio as 2:8, 4:6, 5:5 and 8:2 were formed by
[Link] method. Fuller’s earth-china clay material is activated by acid to check its
enhanced capability. The surface area and pore size of adsorbents are increased after
treatment with organic acid, which absorb more impurities. The experiments showed that the
oil is suitable for consumption after the purification by fuller’s earth-china clay composites
material with the help of filtration method. Free fatty acid value before treatment was 2.98%
and after treatment FFA value is 0.91% which shows 70% FFA value recovery Peroxide value
before treatment was 45miliequ/1000 and after treatment by adsorbent is 10milliequ/1000 that
is 77% recovery rate. After treatment of used cooking by adsorbents produced about 80% to
85% fresh oil.
Keywords: Free fatty acids, peroxide value, China clay, Fuller earth, used cooking oil

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USE OF PLANT BIOMASS TO REDUCE PEROXIDE VALUE AND FREE FATTY

ACIDS OF USED COOKING OIL

Kalsoom Fatima
Department of Chemistry, COMSATS University Islamabad

Dr. Muhammad Javid Iqbal

Department of Chemistry, COMSATS University Islamabad

ABSTRACT
The refining of used cooking oil (UCO) and its conversion into useful product is the need of
the time. Degradation and spoiling of cooking oil due to oxidation, hydrolysis and
polymerization which depends upon frying cycles, frying time and high temperature. In
cooking process, oil spoiling occurs by environmental conditions like heat, air and water
mixing. Hydrolysis gives free fatty acids, diglycerides, monoglycerides and glycerol that
indicate the acid number. Acid number is inversely proportional to oil quality as acid number
increases then quality of oil decreases. Use of damaged cooking oil is dangerous for human
consumption and causes various health issues like heart problem, renal and liver disorders in
the long run. Different synthetic inorganic adsorbent such as silica gel, magnesium oxide,
aluminum hydroxide and activated clay are also used in recycling of UCOs. Bio-adsorbents
are fresh idea to prepare adsorbents for the treatment of UCOs with biomass bagasse gives
better results and a cheap source available in abundance. Activation of bagasse is done by
sodium hydroxide solution as immersion media for 200 mints. Different adsorbent weights
(2,3,4 grams) and adsorption time is used for the refining of the cooking oils. Free Fatty Acids
80% and Peroxide Value 85% has been reduced with help of bagasse and activated charcoal.
The presented work proved that the results of activated bagasse was more efficient than
activated charcoal. FTIR, XRD and SEM was used for the characterization of activated
bagasse and activated charcoal for comparisons.
Keywords: Used cooking oil, Bio-adsorbent-bagasse, Activated charcoal, Free fatty acids,
Peroxide value

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HEAT AND MASS FLOW IN VARYING CLOSED LOOP SINGLE TUBE

GEOMETRIES BY USING DIFFERENT NANOFLUIDS

Waqar Ahmed
Malaysia Japan Institute of Technology, University Technology Malaysia
Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Malaya

ABSTRACT
An experimental analysis of heat and mass flow of a metal oxide-water based nanofluid were
been conducted in different flow passage configurations. Two-step preparation was used to
synthesize the metal oxide nanoparticles with distilled. Further, the synthesized nanoparticles
were dispersed in distilled water by using the probe sonication method. All the nanoparticles
have been characterized for XRD, FTIR, RAMAN, and FESEM analysis to confirm proper
synthesis. The metal oxide-water based (ZnO-DW, Al2O3-DW, SiO2/DW, CuO-DW) based
were prepared and tested for thermophysical and thermal properties enhancements in different
closed configuration passages (circular, square, and annular) at changed wt.% concentration
of (0.1, 0.075, 0.05, and 0.025). All the nanofluids were tested for thermal conductivity,
viscosity, and density analysis. Further, four different (0.1, 0.075, 0.05, and 0.025) wt.%
concentrations of all nanofluids were run in the different heat exchangers, and their thermal
and hydrodynamic parameters were been studied. Consequently, the result of these
experiments has been analyzed and compared among varying configuration passages to
identify which passage has the highest heat transfer. In the current exploration the Reynold
number, Nusselt number, friction factor, and heat transfer were calculated from the raw data
by using the Gnielinski, Petukhov, Dittus-Boelter, and Blasius models. Moreover, the greatest
enhancement from the metal oxide nanofluids has been chosen and submitted as the ideal heat
transfer fluid.
Keywords: Metal oxide nanoparticles; Nanofluids; Heat exchangers; Heat transfer; Friction
loss

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ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE PROPERTIES of g-C3N4-BASED

ELECTRODES

Tuğrul YUMAK
Sinop University, Faculty of Science and Arts, Department of Chemistry
ORCID: 0000-0002-3688-3525

ABSTRACT
Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has layered structure similar with graphite and presents
interesting and unique physicochemical properties due to the s-triazine cores, although its
electronic and electrochemical applications are limited by the relatively poor conductivity 1.
However, the electrical conductivity can be enhanced by using additives during the electrode
production process 2. In this work, the g-C3N4 powders were synthesized from melamine with
the control of increasing temperature during the thermochemical polymerization. The as-
synthesized g-C3N4 powders were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Raman
spectroscopy. The g-C3N4-based electrode slurry were prepared by mixing g-C3N4 (Electrode
Active Material, EAM), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), and carbon black (CB) with
different ratios of EAM:PVDF:CB by weight. The electrode ink was drop casted on a Pt
working electrode for the electrochemical investigation. Cyclic voltammetry (CV),
galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
techniques (EIS) were used in order to determine the electrochemical energy storage
properties.
It is found that the presence of the carbon black caused an increase in the electrical
conductivity. However, the PVDF addition led to a drastically decrease. The optimum
electrode composition was found to be 80:15:5 by weight. Moreover, the Columbic efficiency
were determined in different working voltage window 3. Although the working voltage is
limited by the electrochemical properties of the electrolyte used, it is found that the Columbic
efficiency change in a broad range. The electrochemical behavior of the electrodes was
investigated by CV in the optimum working voltage window. In addition, the specific
capacitance in F/g of the electrodes were calculated from the galvanostatic charge-discharge
curves after excluding the IR drop. Due to the electrochemical testing results it is concluded
that g-C3N4 based electrodes can be a good candidate for supercapacitor applications.
Keywords: Graphitic carbon nitride, supercapacitors, electrode additives

1
Chen Z, Zhang S, Liu Y, Alharbi NS, Rabah SO, et al. Synthesis and fabrication of g-C3N4-based materials
and their application in elimination of pollutants. Science of The Total Environment 2020; 731: 139054. doi:
10.1016/[Link].2020.139054
2
Yumak T. Surface characteristics and electrochemical properties of activated carbon obtained from different
parts of Pinus pinaster. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 2021; 625: 126982.
doi: 10.1016/[Link].2021.126982
3
Jiang C, Yakaboylu GA, Yumak T, Zondlo JW, Sabolsky EM, et al. Activated carbons prepared by indirect and
direct CO2 activation of lignocellulosic biomass for supercapacitor electrodes. Renewable Energy 2020; 155: 38-
52. doi:10.1016/[Link].2020.03.111

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BENEFITS OF USING FUZZY LOGIC

Marwa. A. Marzouk
IT Lecturer, Information Technology Department, Matrouh University
ORCID: 0000-0002-4775-7508

ABSTRACT
Fuzzy logic has rapidly become one of the most successful of today's technologies for
developing sophisticated control systems. It addresses such applications perfectly as it
resembles human decision-making with an ability to generate precise solutions from certain or
approximate information. Also, It fills an important gap in engineering design methods left
vacant by purely mathematical approaches (e.g. linear control design), and purely logic-based
approaches (e.g. expert systems) in system design. While other approaches require accurate
equations to model real-world behaviors, fuzzy design can accommodate the ambiguities of
real-world human language and logic. It provides both an intuitive method for describing
systems in human terms and automates the conversion of those system specifications into
effective models. Fuzzy logic hence was designed to allow computers to determine the
distinctions among data with shades of gray, similar to the process of human reasoning. A
major drawback of Fuzzy Logic control systems is that they are completely dependent on
human knowledge and expertise. You have to regularly update the rules of a Fuzzy Logic
control system. These systems cannot recognize machine learning or neural networks. Fuzzy
logic is extensively used in modern control systems such as expert systems. Fuzzy Logic is
used with Neural Networks as it mimics how a person would make decisions, only much
faster. It is done by Aggregation of data and changing it into more meaningful data by
forming partial truths as Fuzzy sets.
Keywords: Fuzzy Logic, Engineering Design, Fuzzy Sets

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INVESTIGATION OF THE PROTEIN COMPOSITION OF EXTRACELLULAR

VESICLES IN ASTHMA AND COPD

Zsófia Gál
Semmelweis University, Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology

András Gézsi
Semmelweis University, Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology

Mónika Sándorné Vángor

Semmelweis University, Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology

Lilla Turiák
Eötvös Loránd University, Research Group of Proteomics

László Drahos
Eötvös Loránd University, Research Group of Proteomics

Csaba Szalai
Semmelweis University, Department of Genetics, Cell- and Immunobiology

ABSTRACT
Introduction
Both asthma and COPD are a heterogeneous group of diseases. Currently, there are no
biomarker which can easily and reliably distinguish the two mentioned lung diseases from
each. Moreover, 5-10% of patients have severe refractory asthma, they are not able to keep
their symptoms under control with the products available today. This shows that new drug
targets are needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) take place an important role in the
intercellular communication, therefore, they can play a role in the development of
pathological processes. Our aim is to find EV associated proteins which can help us to
identify new therapeutic pathways or differential diagnostic markers.

Methods
EVs are isolated from platelet-free plasma samples (PFPs) by differential centrifugation. PFPs
centrifuged two times on 12500 g. Then, the pellet was exposed to liquid nitrogen. A mass
spectrometry measurement was carried out with 12 adult asthmatic and 6 adult control
samples to analyze the protein content of EVs. SPSS and MaxQuant software was used for the
evaluation of results. Proteins with significant differences will be validated by ELISA in an
extended population.

Results
We primarily sought to detect quantitative differences. Ascending level of complement c9
(a,b) were measured in parallel with the severity of asthma and the comparison of moderately
severe vs. control showed nominally significant association (p=0.014). In addition, C9(a,b) as
well as talin-1 were also associated with controllability of asthma (p=0.02 and p=0.0005).
Talin-1 and Complement C9 has been selected for further examination.

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Conclusion
If further studies can confirm our results, Complement C9 and Talin-1 could be used in
differential diagnosis of asthma and COPD and in the exploration of new pathomechanisms.
Keywords: Asthma, COPD, Complement Component C9, Talin-1, Extracellular Vesicles,
EVs

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DEEP LEARNING FOR FABRIC DEFECT DETECTION

Aafaf Beljadid
Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of science
ORCID: 0000-0001-8191-4768

Adil Tannouche
Enginering and applied science Laboratory, High School of technology

Abdesamad Balouki
Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of science

ABSTRACT
Detecting defect is an important quality control procedure that aims to identify and locate
defects appearing in fabric, but there are challenging issues to be faced in detecting defects
fast and precisely. In this paper, we propose the use of VGG-16 a deep convolutional neural
network (CNN) for automatic fabric defect detection. In the first step we collected our fabric
defect dataset then we trained the VGG-16 model, we achieved a 97.7% of accuracy for 5
different defect types, the aim of our study is to detect defects not to classify the types of
defect. In this paper, we propose a pre-trained CNN architecture for fabric defect detection.
Considering the above challenges in real-world applications, the proposed fabric defect
detection system is able to learn fabric defect and classify it into 5 classes of fabric defect
types. Finally, similar to real-world applications, we collect a dataset for fabric defect
detection and conduct experiments on this dataset. The results show that our proposed fabric
defect classification system can detect different defect types and classified them. Next, we
present a brief literature review of fabric defect detection methods. Then we propose our
method for automatic defect detection, which includes the Dataset preparation and the
proposed network model. Finally, results and discussion are followed by conclusions.
Keywords: Fabric defect detection, Deep Learning, VGG Architecture

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ASSESSING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE GOOD GOVERNANCE

INDICATORS AND ENERGY TRANSITION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Ehsan Rasoulinezhad
Assistant Professor, Faculty of World Studies

ABSTRACT
It is widely accepted that good governance may lead to a better energy transition progress in
the world, while low regulatory quality or political instability negatively affected the progress
of energy transformation in countries. The concept of good governance and energy transition
are two key factors for the country of Russia that is trying to handle the movement from fossil
fuels to green energy resources. The aim of this paper is to study the relationship between the
good governance indicators and energy transition for the case of Russian Federation. To this
end, the econometric technique of ARDL bounds testing method for the annual data of post-
Soviet era (1993-2019) is employed. The major results reveal the long-run negative impact of
economic growth, population growth and inflation rate on energy transition of Russia, while
CO2 emissions, regulatory quality, exchange rate and political stability have positive impacts
on energy transition movement in the country. As the main policy implications, the federal
government in Russia should try to make a long-run plan of energy transition and also make
financing tools to support the green energy projects in Far-East region. In this way, lowering
the dependency of the Federal budget to oil and gas revenues may be a useful strategy for this
country.
Keywords: Good governance; energy transition; Russian Federation; ARDL

1- Introduction
The global energy sector is going through change of paradigm. The value of energy projects
has always assessed by economic factors and its effective use. However, due to increasing
awareness of danger of greenhouse emissions to the environments, environmental factor
began to be taken into account, in the evaluation of energy projects, such as power plants, oil
and gas projects etc.
Energy transitions are a multidimensional, complex, non-linear, non-deterministic, and
uncertain phenomenon and, therefore, they are difficult to characterize using a small number
of features. They require a transformation of actors and their conduct, of markets, and a
change in the existing regulations and policies (Sovacool and Geels, 2016). Historically, a
new energy source or technology has displaced another because it can produce either cheaper
services or services with superior attributes, such as being cleaner, easier or more flexible.
According to BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019, Russia is the biggest exporters of
natural gas, second biggest exporters of crude oil and third biggest exporter of coal in the
global market in 2018. Russia remained the second largest gas, and the third largest oil
producer, accounting for 17% and 12% of the global output, respectively. Russian oil exports
grew by 2% (to 9.2 Mb/d) and accounted for 13% of the global total; gas exports grew by
5.4% (to 248 bcm) accounting for 26% of the global total. Renewables (solar and wind) were
the fastest growing type of energy (+11%), but only represented 0.1% of incremental demand.
Other non-fossil fuels grew less significantly: hydro by 2.6% and nuclear by 0.7%. Russia’s
net CO2 emissions from energy use grew by 4.2% in 2018.

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As a major exporter of natural resources, Russia’s energy security is closely related to the
stability of demand and diversification of buyers. Due to geographical proximity from
Western Siberia, the country’s main region of hydro-carbon production, Russia’s primary
market always has been European consumers. Majority of gas is exported to European
consumers and oil is the similar situation but to less extent. After the deteriorating political
relations with the Western countries, Russia began to diversify its market and strengthen its
ties with Asian countries. It is called “Pivot to the East”. China has emerged as important
partner for cooperation and Russia’s main target market for demand diversification. It was led
to the conclusion of long-term gas supply agreement between the two countries, the first
pipeline gas export project to Asia, Power of Siberia.
This paper tries to find out the relationship between good governance indicators and energy
transition in Russian Federation. To this end, the paper contributes to the existing literature
from different aspects: first of all, two important and challengeable variables of energy
transition and good governance are considered in this research. In addition, the econometric
modeling of energy transition is employed to find out the sign and magnitudes of coefficients
of good governance indicators for the case of Russia.
The rest of paper is structured in 5 different sections. Section 2 discusses existing literature
and next Section provides information about data and econometric model. Section 4
represents empirical findings and last Section tries to provide conclusions and practical
policies for policymakers and scholars around the world.

2- Literature review
Mitrova and Melnikov (2019) provided an overview of Russian energy policy in the context
of the global energy transition and the authors predicts that Russia, ranking fourth in the
world in primary energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, adheres to the strategy
of “business as usual” and relies on fossil fuels. Boute and Zhikharev (2019) argued that the
main driver of Russia's renewable energy policy is to achieve the economic benefits related to
the manufacturing of green equipment and the focus on industrial development rather than the
decarbonization of the power sector clearly appears from the decision of the Russian
government to tie renewable energy subsidies to stringent local content requirements, in
particular, solar energy benefits from a subsidy regime that is favourable to local
manufacturers. Katenci (2018) explored the relationships between carbon emissions and their
main determinants such as energy consumption, real income, international trade, level of
education and level of urbanization in the Russian Federation. Henderson and Mitrova (2020)
believed that Russian Federation has a long way to go to reach an acceptable energy
transformation level and in this way, the good governance should be addressed in the country
to handle and carry out the requirements of energy transition.

3- Data and model specification

å-[ = <(æ7m[ , D“2[ , xx[ , x=“[ , F“F[ , )

Econometrically, the general function of empirical model is written as following:
(1)

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To attain coefficients in the form of elasticities, we transform all the variables into logarithms

¤å-[ = | + 3 ∗ ¤æ7m[ + ∗ ¤D“2[ + s ∗ ¤xx[ + t ∗ ¤x=“[ + ˆ ∗ ¤F“F[

and our empirical model changes as follows:

+h (2)

Here, ETt denotes energy transition of Russia in time t. INFt and CO2t show inflation rate and
CO2 emissions in Russia in time t. GGt represents good governance indicators in Russia in
time t, while GROt indicates economic growth of Russia in time t. Finally, POPt is population
growth in Russia, while μt is the error term assumed to be normally distributed with zero
mean and constant variance.

4- Empirical findings
To find out the relationship between independent variables and energy transition in Russia,
the ARDL bound testing method was conducted. One of the main pre-requirements of this
method Is that all the series should be integrated at I(0) or I(1) or I(0)/I(1). To check this pre-
requirement, the Zivot- Andrews structural break test was applied and the results revealed that
all the variables are integrated at 1st level or I(0). Therefore, we conducted the ARDL bounds
testing method to investigate the relationship between energy transition, economic growth,
good governance indicators, CO2 emissions, population growth and inflation rate in Russia in
the presence of structural break in the series over the period of 1993-2019. To run the ARDL
bound testing estimation, we needed to select an appropriate lag length (to compute F-
statistics for comparing with critical bounds) which was done based on the minimum value of
AIC (Akaike Information Criterion). The findings of the ARDL bounds testing method for the
model with consideration of structural break in the series are reported in Table 1. The findings
express that the computed F-statistics are greater that upper critical bound at 5% and 1%
levels. Furthermore, the structural breaks stems in the variables of energy transition, economic
growth, good governance, CO2 emissions, population growth, and inflation in 2009, 1993,
1997, 1997, 2014,2009, and 2009 respectively. The results proved that the series are
cointegrated for a long-run linkage between energy transition, economic growth, good
governance, CO2 emissions, population growth, and inflation rate in the case of Russia.
Considering the presence of long-run relationship between variables, we investigated
marginal effects of economic growth, exchange rate, CO2 emissions, population growth,
inflation rate and financial openness on energy transition. The estimated results are reported
in Table 1.

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Table 1. Long-run and short-run relationship analysis

Independent
Dependent variable Analysis Coefficient P-value
variables
Economic growth -0.104 0.00
Good governance 0.152 0.02
Energy transition Long-run CO2 emissions 0.285 0.00
Population growth -0.059 0.00
Inflation rate -0.015 0.04
Economic growth -0.022 0.00
Good governance 0.001 0.00
Energy transition Short-run CO2 emissions -0.087 0.03
Population growth -0.043 0.01
Inflation rate -0.132 0.04

Short-run diagnostic tests

Test F-stats P-value
Chi-2 Arch 2.583 0.11
Chi-2 White 1.113 0.11
Chi-2 Ramsay 1.593 0.14
Source: Authors’ compilation

According to the estimated coefficients, represented in Table 1, we can highlight the

following findings:
In the short-run, Russian economic growth negatively influences on energy transition of the
country, while the relationship between good governance and energy transition is found to be
positive and statistically significant indicating that a 1% appreciation in Russian good
governance indicator is linked with a 0.001% increase in energy transition. In addition, the
results confirm that CO2 emissions have negative short-run contribution to energy transition
in Russia. The impacts of population growth and inflation rate on energy transition movement
in Russia are negative. Regarding the long-run analysis, Russian economic growth has
negative and statistically significant long-run impact on energy transition process of the
country. The long-run relationship between good governance and energy transition in Russia
is found to be positive. Our empirical estimation showed that any increase in CO2 emissions
has negative and statistically significant impact on energy transition in Russia. Both
population growth and inflation rate have long-run negative and statistically significant
impact on energy transition process in the Russia.

5- Conclusion and implications

This paper attempted to investigate the effects of various variables, i.e. economic growth,
good governance, CO2 emissions, population growth, and inflation rate on energy transition
(consumption of renewable energy resources to consumption of non-renewable ones) in case
of Russian economy over the period of 1993-2019. To this end, the ARDL bounds testing
method is employed to check cointegration among the series in the presence of structural
breaks for long-run.

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The empirical estimations revealed long-run negative impact of economic growth, population
growth and inflation rate on energy transition of Russia, while CO2 emissions, good
governance and financial openness have positive impacts on energy transition movement in
the country. Furthermore, we found out that in the short-run the relationship between energy
transition improvement and good governance is positive.

References
Boute A., Zhikharev A., Vested interests as driver of the clean energy transition:
Evidence from Russia's solar energy policy, vol.133, Energy Policy, 2019
BP. 2019. Statistical Review of World Energy 2019. URL:
[Link]
economics/statistical-review/[Link] [accessed data 19.07.2021]
Ketenci, N. 2018. The environmental Kuznets curve in the case of Russia Russian
Journal of Economics 4 :249−265 251
Mitrova, T., and Melnikov, Y. 2019. Energy Transition in Russia, Journal of Energy
Transition, 3 (1-2): 73-80.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF KINDERGARTEN’S SPACE PEDAGOGICAL

REFORMATION IN COORDINATION WITH COOPERATIVE METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES IN WATER CYCLE ACTIVITIES

Klimanoglou Sofia
Preschool education teacher, Msc in school management, Aegean University of Rhodes
PHD candidate in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH)

SUMMARY
The present essay, investigates the pedagogical reformation of kindergarten’s space,
implementing water cycle cooperative activities. Action research, is our chosen methodology,
since we searched the environment of classroom and its subjects that are in constant
interaction among them (Kemmis, 1980). In our research 91 toddlers and 4 teachers took part
from 4 kindergartens΄classes in Piraeus region, in 2017-2018. The pilot research lasted 4
weeks and the main research lasted 13 weeks. Twenty water cycle cooperative activities,
planned and utilized in four kindergarten’s classes. Two of them, were the experimental
classes and the other two, were the control ones. In the experimental classes, the twenty
activities were taught through cooperative techniques, toddlers worked in team groups and
had the opportunity to reform the kindergarten’s area, according to their needs and the
demands of educational procedure. Also, when it comes to their body, toddlers could adopt
any posture and position, during the research.
When it comes to cooperative techniques, were used many, such as “Think-Pair-Share”,
“Social Roles”, “Brainstorming”, “Corners”, “Inside/Outside Circle”, “Paraphrase passport”,
“Rally robin”, “Round robin”, “Choral Response”, “Rally Coach”, “Mix-Freeze-Group”,
“Circle the Sage”, “Numbered Heads Together”.
When it comes to kindergarten’s space reformation, toddlers changed their activities’ areas,
through semantic mutations (real and symbolic changes of space, areas and equipment). As a
result of this, space became multifunctional, and served toddlers’ and activities’ demands.
Unlike to control classrooms, toddlers in control classrooms, didn’t have all these
opportunities, since their teachers followed a traditional teacher centered way of teaching.
They didn’t work in groups, they couldn’t move, stand and sit as they like, they couldn’t make
their own space according to their needs. They just had to follow orders from their teachers.
A knowledge test, which included nine questions, was given to all toddlers, about water cycle
phenomenon, before and after the activities (pre test and post test). Τhe results of the
knowledge test, showed that the dynamic procedure of space reforming from toddlers in a
cooperative learning environment, contributed to toddlers’ learning cognitive development
and ‘educational places’ creation through semantic mutations, supported toddlers’ better
conquest of science concepts, since we had much better cognitive results to experiment
classrooms.
Keywords: kindergarten’s space pedagogical reformation, cooperative techniques, cognitive
development, water cycle

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INTRODUCTION
During our life, we cultivate strong bonds with places in which we grow up, we live and we
work. As a result of this, we get from these natural environments, information for ourselves
and for the other people (as individuals and as members of a team) when it comes to
emotional and cognitive perceptions, ideas and preferences (Κnez, 2005).
Material space, which constitutes part of natural environment, is a complex reality and
consists a frame of our daily life, in which takes place financial, social and cultural events. All
these facts, feature our own society and this is the reason that space is a very important factor
of social relationships in combination with the special individual characteristics of every
person who lives, acts and uses it (space), (Γερμανός,1993, 2000).
According to Sanoff (2002), classrooms, should express pupils’ feelings, ideas and satisfy the
needs of the educational procedure. These places should display pupils’ adventure and
innovation. After all, these are essential ingredients for knowledge conquest and play unique
role in teaching and learning.
Space, consists crucial condition and a prerequisite of cooperative teaching and learning
implementation, since it is referred by distinguished supporters and representatives of
cooperative theory and methodology, such as Dewey (1940), Johnson & Johnson (1999),
Kagan (1994), Slavin (2005).These theorists, claim that cooperative way of teaching and
learning, consists of different action tools, therefore it is necessary to adjust classrooms,
according to educational needs and demands. Pupils should adjust school space to their
wishes and to their own ideas (Γερμανός, 2006). They should recognize themselves through
space and they should have the opportunity to intervene and try to change school activity
areas’ as team members. Flexibility of school space is very important, since it must reflect
teams’ needs and opinions, when it comes to cognitive subject activities (Sanoff, 2002).
There are plenty of cooperative methods and techniques, which have the ability to enhance
and strengthen pupils’ learning capacity, making any cognitive subject activity an amusing
and a joyful process, combining at the same time a strong bond among members of the teams,
developing and strengthening their relationships. In our research we utilize a variety of them,
since our aim was to bring our pupils to get to know as many techniques, as possible.
In addition, it’s internationally proven the fact that toddlers have the ability to understand the
natural phenomena and can obtain some first elements of scientific concepts, since the first
years of their life (Young & Diamond, 2012). So, it’s very crucial to give toddlers the chance
to come closer to science and let them investigate, ask, hypothesize, predict, measure, take
decision, leading to conclusions. All these can be applied by giving them (toddlers) the
appropriate stimuli, by planning and implementing interesting and joyful activities.

RESEARCH
Our research sample consisted of 91 toddlers from four kindergartens΄classes in Piraeus
region, in 2017-2018. We planned two experimental classes, in which we applied water cycle
cooperative activities, through classroom’s area reformation from the pupils, according to
their needs and to the demands of the teaching subject. The other two classes were the control
ones and teachers followed a teacher centered way of teaching, without giving permission to
toddlers to have a leading role, by changing the activity areas, working as members of a team,
sitting and standing as they like.

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Before starting our intervention, we applied to all 91 participants, a cognitive test (pretest) of
nine questions about water cycle phenomena (three states of matter, evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, concentration) in order to know their cognitive level. The same
test was given to them, when our intervention was completed (post test).
Also, we chose to apply action research, (Kemmis, 1980, 2006), as methodology procedure of
implementation, following circles, each one of them contained four stages- stage of planning,
stage of acting and observing and stage of reflecting (plan, act, observe, reflect). We
implemented twenty circles, since twenty were the water cycle activities.

FINDINGS
Pretest
Results
Experiment classes

Bar diagrams 1:Pretest - Experimental classes

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In bar diagrams1, we realize that before our intervention, Experimental classes had low
scores in compatible answers, except the 4th one (“Where does the rain fall?”), in which there
were many compatible answers. In most of the questions, toddlers didn’t give any answer at
all.
Pretest
Results
Control classes

Bar diagrams 2: Pretest - Control classes

In bar diagrams 2, we realize that in pre test, Control classes, had low scores in compatible
answers, too. In most of the questions, didn’t give any answer at all, like Experimental
classes.
To sum up, in pre test, both classes Experimental and Control, had low scores in almost all of
the answers. So we realize that Experimental and Control classes, didn’t know about water
cycle phenomena.

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Pre test
Comparative Table
Compatible answers
Experimental & Control Classes

Questions Experimental classes Control classes

1α) “Name a solid object”. 0 (0%) 1 (2%)
1b) “Name a liquid
3 (7%) 1 (2%)
object”.
1c) “Name a gas object”. 3 (7%) 1 (2%)
2) “What happens to water
drops when they are
0(0%) 0 (0%)
warming up from the
sun?”
3) “When water drops
evaporate, what are they 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
converted into?”
4)“Where does the rain fall
24 (52%) 14 (31%)
from?”
5) “Where does the water
that isn’t absorbed by the
5 (11%) 9 (20%)
earth go? Where is it
gathered?”
6) “What are clouds made
0 (0%) 0 (0%)
of?”
7) “When the drops
evaporate, do they 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
disappear?”
8) “What happens to the
water in a wet clothe that 1 (2%) 0 (0%)
dries?”
9) “Find the correct order
in the pictures below (the
0 (0%) 0 (0%)
stages of water cycle are
displaying)”
Table 1: Compatible answers in Experimental & Control Classes (Pre test)

In Table 1, in pretest, we observed that, toddlers from all classes (experimental and control)
didn’t give compatible answers about water cycle phenomena, since they didn’t know about
this cognitive subject, except the 4th one, in which toddlers from experimental and control
classes, gave compatible answer in a high percentage (52% experimental) and (31% control
classes).

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Post test
Results
Experimental Classes

Bar diagrams 3: Post test - Experimental classes

In bar diagrams 3, we realize that after our intervention, experimental classes had high scores
in most of compatible answers.

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Post test
Results
Control Classes

Bar diagrams 4: Post test - Control classes

In bar diagrams 4, we realize that in post test, Control classes, except 4th question, kept having
low scores in compatible answers.

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Post test
Comparative Table
Compatible answers
Experimental & Control Classes
Questions Experimental classes Control classes
1α) “Name a solid object”. 43 (93%) 17 (38%)
1b) “Name a liquid
43 (94%) 18 (40%)
object”.
1c) “Name a gas object”. 41 (89%) 10 (22%)
2) “What happens to water
drops when they are
26 (56%) 14 (31%)
warming up from the
sun?”
3) “When water drops
evaporate, what are they 22 (48%) 2 (5%)
converted into?”
4)“Where does the rain fall
40 (87%) 33 (73%)
from?”
5) “Where does the water
that isn’t absorbed by the
35 (76%) 10 (22%)
earth go? Where is it
gathered?”
6) “What are clouds made
23 (50%) 2 (5%)
of?”
7) “When the drops 10 (22%)
evaporate, do they 43 (94%)
disappear?”
8) “What happens to the
water in a wet clothe that 31 (68%) 8 (18%)
dries?”
9) “Find the correct order
10 (22%)
in the pictures below (the
36 (79%)
stages of water cycle are
displaying)”
Table 2: Compatible answers in Experimental & Control Classes (Post Test)
In Table 2, in pos test, we observed that after our intervention, experimental classes had more
compatible answers, than the control ones.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Kruskal-wallis test
Kruskal-Wallis test, (William Kruskal & Allen Wallis), is a not parametric method, which
investigates, if two samples come from the same distribution. It compares two or more
samples, same or different size. Also, it is suitable examining questions which conclude more
than two types of answers.P-value, is the most important price for our research. If P-value is
smaller than 0.05, then there is a statistically significantly difference, in the specific question,
between two samples.

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Pre test
All kind of answers
Experimental and Control classes
Degrees of
Questions KW Test P-value
freedom
1α) “Name a solid
1 1.02 0.31
object”.
1b) “Name a liquid
1 0.99 0.32
object”.
1c) “Name a gas
1 0.99 0.32
object”.
2) “What happens
to water drops
when they are 1 0.64 0.43
warming up from
the sun?”
3) “When water
drops evaporate,
1 2.07 0.15
what are they
converted into?”
4)“Where does the
1 6.51 0.01
rain fall from?”
5) “Where does
the water that isn’t
absorbed by the 1 0.43 0.52
earth go? Where is
it gathered?”
6) “What are
1 1.57 0.21
clouds made of?”
7) “When the
drops evaporate,
1 - -
do they
disappear?”
8) “What happens
to the water in a
1 0.04 0.84
wet clothe that
dries?”
9) “Find the
correct order in the
pictures below (the
1 - -
stages of water
cycle are
displaying)”
Table 3: Kruskal-Wallis’test results, between Experimental and Control classes (Pre test)

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In table 3, we compared the sample between Experimental and Control classes in Pre test. In
this comparison, we realized that in questions from 1a-3 and 5,6,8 except 4th question, the
answers between the experimental and the control classes, in pre test, are not statistically
significantly different, since p-value of test is bigger than 0.05.
So, in this test, we realized that in pre test, the toddlers in all of the classes (experimental and
control), had approximately the same knowledge level (low) about water cycle phenomena,
since they gave few compatible answers. When it comes to 7th and 9th question, we don’t have
results, because none of the toddlers (91), give any answer.

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Post test
All kind of answers
Experimental and Control classes
Degrees of
Questions KW Test P-value
freedom
1α) “Name a solid
1 34.91 <0.0001
item”.
1b) “Name a
1 31.33 <0.0001
liquid”.
1c) “Name a gas”. 1 40.81 <0.0001
2) “What happens
to water drops
when they are 1 11.73 0.0006
warming up from
the sun?”
3) “When water
drops evaporate,
1 19.93 <0.0001
what are they
converted into?”
4)“Where does the
1 3.00 0.0831
rain fall from?”
5) “Where does
the water that isn’t
absorbed by the 1 22.57 <0.0001
earth go? Where is
it gathered?”
6) “What are
1 22.60 <0.0001
clouds made of?”
7) “When the
drops evaporate,
1 72.82 <0.0001
do they
disappear?”
8) “What happens
to the water in a
1 27.95 <0.0001
wet clothe that
dries?”
9) “Find the
correct order in the
pictures below (the
1 27.68 <0.0001
stages of water
cycle are
displaying)”
Table 4: Kruskal-Wallis’ test results, between Experimental and Control classes (Post test)

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In 4th table, in post test, the answers in all classes (experimental and control) except 4th one,
are all statistically significantly different, because the P-value is smaller than 0.05. Toddlers,
from experimental classes, had much more compatible answers than toddlers from control
classes.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we point out, that toddlers from experimental classes, who had the opportunity
in all water cycle activities, to work in teams, to get different roles and to reform the
kindergarten’s areas, whenever they liked, according to their needs, got higher scores than
toddlers from control classes, in cognitive test, since they had much more compatible
answers.
All these, are confirmed by international bibliography, since there are a lot of positive effects
in pupils’ cognitive progress, when teachers apply cooperative way of teaching and learning
(Roseth, Johnson & Johnson, 2008, Slavin, 2010, 2013).
In addition, when it comes to possibility of reforming classroom’s space and activity area’s
from pupils, our research results’ were also confirmed by bibliography, which showed that
there is interaction among teaching, learning and material environment (Higgins et al.,
2005:14,William, 2015), combining space’s characteristics with pupils’ cognitive and social
attitude (Γερμανός, 2006, Higgins et al., 2004).

REFERENCES
Dewey, J. (1940). Education Today, New York: Greenwood Press.
Higgins, S, H., Wall, E., Woolner, K., & McCaughey, P., C. (2004). The Impact of
School Environments: A Literature Review. The Centre for Learning and Teaching. School of
Education, Communication and Language Science. University of Newcastle.
Higgins, S, H., Wall, E., Woolner, K., & McCaughey, P., C. (2005). The Impact of
School Environments: A literature review, The Centre for Learning and Teaching, School of
Education, Communication and Language Science, University of Newcastle. Ανακτήθηκε
από: [Link] στις 30/04/07.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory
into Practice, 38(2), 67–73.
Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente: Resources for Teachers.
Kemmis, S. (1980). Action Research in Retrospect and Prospect, paper presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Sydney, 6-9
November 1980.
Kemmis, S. (2006). Participatory action research and the public sphere. Educational
Action Research, 14(4), 459–76.
Knez, I. (2005). Attachment and identity as related to a place and its perceived
climate. J. Environ. Psychol. 25, 207–218. doi: 10.1016/[Link].2017.01.009.
Roseth, C. J., Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (2008). Promoting Early Adolescents’
Achievement and Peer Relationships: The Effects of Cooperative, Competitive, and
Individualistic Goal Structures. Psychological Bulletin 134 (2): 223–246.
Sanoff, H. (2002). Community Based Design Learning: Democracy and Collective
Decision Making. Ανακτήθηκε στις 1/6/2013 από: [Link]
Papers/100773/Community_Based_Learning.

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Slavin, R. E. (2005). Cooperative Learning. London: Allymand Bacon.

Slavin, R. E. (2010). Cooperative Learning. In International Encyclopedia of
Education, edited by E. Baker, P. Peterson, and B. McGaw, 3rd ed., 161–178. Oxford:
Elsevier.
Slavin, R. Ε. (2013). Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research.
In Handbook of Psychology, edited by W. Reynolds, G. Miller, and I. Weiner, Vol. 7, 2nd ed.,
199–212. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
William, J. (2015). Learning Environments. Collaborative Learning Spaces:
Classrooms That Connect to the World. Edutopia. Ανακτήθηκε από:
[Link]
ms-fran-siracusa στις 18/1/2018.
Young, H. S., & Diamond, K. E. (2012). Two approaches to teaching young children
science concepts, Vocabulary, and Scientific Problem-solving Skills. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 27(2), 295-305. [Link]
Γερμανός, Δ. (1993). Χώρος και διαδικασίες αγωγής. Η παιδαγωγική διάσταση του
χώρου. Αθήνα: Gutenberg.
Γερμανός, Δ. (2000). Παρεμβάσεις στο σχολικό χώρο και αλλαγή των εκπαιδευτικών
πρακτικών. Στο Τσουκαλά, Κ. (επιμ.), Αρχιτεκτονική, Παιδί και Αγωγή. Θεσσαλονίκη:
Παρατηρητής.
Γερμανός, Δ. (2006). Οι τοίχοι της γνώσης. Σχολικός χώρος και εκπαίδευση. Αθήνα:
Gutenberg.

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SCIENTIFICALLY SOLVE THE FREQUENCY AND CORRESPONDING POWER

VARIATION PROBLEM

Ashish Dhamanda
Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to be University)

ABSTRACT
The modern power system with industrial and commercial loads need to operate at constant
frequency with reliable power. Large amount of electric power generation is a big problem
and challenge to world to fulfill the large demand of electricity which should be economical
also. In the generating station due to continuous variation of demand, it is very difficult to
maintain the constancy of frequency and corresponding power, most of techniques using from
several years to solve such variation problems. An interconnected power system consists
of control areas which are connected to each other by tie lines, any sudden small load
perturbation in any of the interconnected areas causes the deviation of frequencies of all the
areas and also of the powers. This paper presents PI, PID and Fuzzy techniques to solve the
frequency and corresponding power variation problem. PI and PID techniques are the
traditional technique, whenever fuzzy is an innovative technique that enhance conventional
system design with engineering expertise and help to circumvent the need for rigorous
mathematical modeling. Thermal generating system has been taken for electric power
generation and simulink model of thermal generating system has been controlled by Fuzzy, PI
and PID techniques. In thermal system coal is pulverized and fed into a boiler where it is
mixed with forced air and combusted. The boiler is a complex structure consisting of many
stages of energy extraction from the combusted fuel. The highly purified water in the boiler is
converted into superheated steam which is passed through several turbine stages on the shaft
of a turbo generator. Comparative table has been tabulated for batter results. The comparative
results shows that the Fuzzy techniques gives good, effective and efficient results with respect
to the PI and PID techniques by providing constant supply scientifically.
Keywords: Scientifically, Modern Power System, Frequency, Generating System, Fuzzy
Technique

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CLUSTER NETWORK PROTOCOLS BASED ON MOBILE AD HOC ROUTING - A

SURVEY

K. Thamizhmaran
Department of ECE, Annamalai University

Dr. A. Charles
Department of ECE, GCE, Bargur

ABSTRACT
Peer-to-peer (P2P) distributed infrastructure less dynamic distributed wireless-based network
is Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) depended cluster network, now a day’s more number of
young research focused MANET based cluster method. This cluster selection model of self
configured infrastructure less network based on some importance criteria like traffic, delay,
throughput, energy, security attacks, bandwidth and storage etc., more are less energy and
security attacks is very dangers issue due to dynamic nature, battery power, packet drop, link
breakage, misbehaviour attack, conjunction and mobility. Each cluster head selection that in-
depended mobile nodes that able to communicate anytime anywhere in the emergency
environment through wireless link with each other also every node acts as transmitter,
receiver and router. In this survey research article we discussed with various research
submission and also discussed merits and demerits with solving above issue of cluster head
based communication, so here we discussed some of valuable research work they conclude
the importance of energy/power efficient with help of simulation models called network
simulator 2 (NS2).
Index - Ad hoc network, MANET, Routing, Cluster, Issues, Models, Simulations.

1. INTRODUCTION
In 2000, emergency satiation we need to solve critical development is called mobile ad hoc
networks, because of infrastructure based wireless network that means not able to solve
natural issue like natural disaster such as blooding, earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides,
famines, tornados, cyclones, extreme precipitation, extreme temperature, wildfires, military
with war, monitoring, communication etc., and temporary network called conference,
meeting, class, seminar etc. The cluster head selection is collection of mobile nodes that select
head through some of selection criteria [1]. Mobile ad hoc network some quality’s of
traditional communication using wireless devices like mobile device terminals as a not fixed
base station IP based network with radio link. As shown in figure 1 simple wireless link based
mobile ad hoc network as mobility based topology with distributed nature device. It is known
this network routers transmit and receive and also act as medium like channel uses to transmit
and receive with consider traffic conjunction on network with multi-hop wireless networks.
Every active network function depends on network topology, multiple accesses, and routing
of data over the most suitable paths is to be performed in a different path. These tasks are
particularly difficult due to the restricted communication bandwidth offered in the wireless
channel [2].

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Figure 1 Basic Model diagram of MANET

Mobile ad hoc network need to communicate with help of routing protocol through verity of
intermediate, every protocol having set of rules and regulation. These protocols set of rules
include to monitor packet transmitting, receiving and also how to act as channel every details
mentioned, this essential protocol need to classified in three types table driven, reactive and
hybrid routing protocols as in figure 2 [3].

Routing
Protocols

Table On-
driven Demand

Hybrid

Figure 2 Routing Protocols

In this research work fully focused on cluster based energy and security, cluster nodes should
work to supply property and methods square measure usually multichip, several kinds of
mobile spontaneous networks like table driven, on-demand, hybrid Networks. To gift a theme
that ends up in head of nodes organizer formation also efficiently utilizes all the resource of
mobile ad hoc networks. All the separate nodes initially fix the and produce range of region,
next the head of network in the cluster create such as cluster node, last election of the head
node that create based on maximum forward and maximum receiving capability of larger life
show in figure 3.

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manager

clusters

agents
cluster head

Figure 3 Cluster Head in MANET

Cluster head selection process: Cluster head choice is required in cluster primarily based
Network, should analysis have been done on election of cluster head during a cluster
atmosphere. In MANET, there's no position to regulate the election method and quality is
additionally a problem. Another Cluster Head Election technique was planned supported
remaining energy and relative position of the node within the cluster, the cluster head is
chosen on the idea of threshold price T, Threshold is calculated by the 3 factors Energy,
Distance and site and chance of the node, each node generates a Random range, if it's smaller
than a predefined price the node elects itself as a Cluster-head. Another Cluster Head Election
technique was planned supported remaining energy and relative position of the node within
the cluster, the cluster head is chosen on the idea of threshold price T, Threshold is calculated
by the 3 factors Energy, Distance and site and chance of the node, each node generates a
Random range, if it's smaller than a predefined price the node elects itself as a Cluster-head.

2. BACKGROUND WORK
Yogesh Chaba et al (2009), author proposed evaluation of cluster based work and this
protocol mainly discussed on head of the network node routing protocol CBRP, that
performance analysis of two different efficient reactive routing protocols dynamic source
routing and one of most traditional routing ad hoc on-demand distance vector, CBRP work on
different faction like, packet delivery, routing overhead and average delay. Result analysis of
various protocols with one of best leading simulator is glomosim, this paper evaluated and
compared above tow on-demand routings this DSR-CBRP produce lower delay and traffic
than AODV, better outcomes of delivery ratio 82.8% than AODV. Even though very
important parameter energy efficient, packet drop and network lifetime is not considered [4].
Haidar Safa et al (2010) proposed malicious node identification and detection using head
node routing called novel cluster based trust aware routing protocol that developed routing
protocol prevent the forward and receive packet from misbehaviours hops, that developed
design response for dealing path preparation details including one-hop disjoint clusters then
elects and play the role of cluster-heads. Result evaluation of CBTRP avoided malicious path,
they provide better communication using two acknowledgements.

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Whenever not consider isolated malicious nodes increases, some misbehaviour hops totally
surrounded network performance of delay and energy not considered above work [5]. On
other hand Naveen Chauhan et al (2011), suggested challenging head nod based path
selection is a mobile ad hoc network routing task is DWCAIMP this design is based combined
weight metric that consider various network parameters such as energy efficient, topology
area rage and network mobility. Evaluated of suggested DWCAIMP performance overall
performance and reducing energy utilization and minimum network conjunction through
simulation in various network situations compare to existing algorithm. Although this model
head node path find to select one hop neighbors, energy utilization and network lifetime not
consider this work, this developed model including one hop, multi-hop or k-hop neighbors.
Since, the protocol design test and analysis through simulation environment is still demerits of
this work [6]. Alak Roy et al (2012), Sally E. El Khawaga (2016) and A. Christy Jeba Malar
(2020), proposed novel energy efficient cluster formation called signal based energy efficient
clustering model, that provide should decreasing network node energy costs due to
information transferring during head hop formation. SEEC developed new model base on
signal strength and nodes energy of MANET to improve system performance of better longer
lifetime, and passive the head that finding secondary head hop that reduce threshold value.
Moreover proposed model not suitable the entire environment, not consider misbehaviour
node detection/correction and cluster head maintenance phase [7, 8, 16]. Few years back some
of young researchers Wei Liu et al (2013) and Piyalikar et al (2016) suggested certificate
revocation model they head hop-based certificate revocation design called CCRVC scheme
that improve the reliability, certificate revocation process that produce accuracy developed the
threshold based mechanism and legitimate nodes or not this work developed that CCRVC
design. Result outcomes of this work better output then other works suggested design efficient
and guarantee service for secure transmission in MANET. Even though misbehaviour hops,
when attacking network that degrading network performance like time, accuracy and
reliability of new method better but selfish node detection and energy utilization because
increasing network lifetime [10, 15]. YoHan Park and YoungHo Park (2015), addressed
cryptography based new secure communication design that support MANET issues such as
like breakage, traffic, throughput and delay because of dynamic nature of network mobility
due to decentralized network that frequently update the routing path and update the routing
table. The developed model performs secure communication using key generation model and
revocation model with developed necessary change of topology changes. Hence above this
suggested work network lifetime not considered due to minimizing remaining energy [12]. On
other hand Venkanna and Leela Velusamy (2016), developed one of cluster head selection
model called trust energy availability-based cluster based routing protocol, that developed
new design provide better performances of cluster head hop selection process. In this paper
research paper find decision key selection factors such as value, energy and time of that elect
a head hop of cluster. Performance of suggested model result outcomes compare with normal
AODV with different parameters like delivery ratio, latency, network traffic and reducing
number of times topology changes and updating in cluster head hop. Even through malicious
node identification/detection, efficient energy utilization not considered [13]. Sengan
Sudhakar and Chenthur Pandian (2016) and Farooq Aftab (2017), proposed new hybrid two
cluster hop model based routing for to reducing misbehaviour hops in mobile ad hoc network.
In this paper they designed three stages that has been address the improving performance of
degradation networks through head clusters.

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Simulation results of suggested method achieved 7.81% low delay, 35.04% higher delivery
ratio and reduce 3.15% conjunction than existing designed. More over very important
parameter energy efficient, packet drop and network lifetime is not considered [14, 17]. Few
years back some of young researchers Wei Liu et al (2013) suggested certificate revocation
model that cluster based certificate revocation with vindication capability scheme, this work
improve reliability, certificate revocation of developed CCRVC design. Result outcomes of
this work better output then other existing research works that work efficient to guarantee and
better communications privacy in MANETs. Even though misbehaviour attacker, reducing
time and improving the accuracy of reliability and better but selfish node detection and energy
utilization because increasing network life time [10]. Very recently published work by Yutao
Liu et al (2021) discussed median accuse protocol based cluster selection network, proposed
scheme based on cluster hop network that can reducing whole network performance. Finally
outcomes of results dynamic gateway selection model design based on link stability that
decrease head hop information control overhead and improve reliability. Moreover, quick
change of network topology causes that the route replay could not arrive to the source node,
bandwidth increase due to increase percentage of cluster size and also misbehaving detecting
and energy usage does not been overcome [19].

3. CONCLUSION
From all the above papers surveyed, major researchers suggested new routing protocols to
overcome issue of cluster head selecting primary and secondary path with avoided
misbehaviour nodes. But not solved the entire problem so main research gaps identified the
follows: security, routing overhead, misbehaviour attack, and energy and delay etc. In this
aspect we plan to implement to designed acknowledgement based cluster head selection with
minimum energy utilization due to increasing network life and also detect the malicious node
and also reduce routing congestion using leading simulator in future work.

4. REFERENCES
Royer, E. and Toh, C. “A Review of Current Routing Protocols for Ad hoc
Mobile Wireless Networks”, IEEE Transactions on Personal Communication, Vol. 4,
No. 2, 1999, pp. 46–55.
Grossglauser, M. and Tse, D. “Mobility Increases the Capacity of Ad hoc
Wireless Networks”, IEEE Transactions on Networking, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2002, pp.
477–486.
Mohapatra, P., and Krishnamurthy, S., “Ad hoc Networks: Technologies and
Protocols”, First edition, Springer, 2004.
Peng Zhang., Chuang Lin., Yixin Jiang., Yanfei Fan., and Xuemin Shen., “A
Lightweight Encryption Scheme for Network-Coded MANETs”, IEEE Transactions
on Parallel & Distributed Systems, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2009, pp. 1-6.
Yogesh Chaba, Yudhvir Singh and Manish Joon, “Performance Evaluation and
Analysis of Cluster Based Routing Protocols in MANETs”, 2009 International
Conference on Advances in Computing, Control, and Telecommunication
Technologies, SANT Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, IEEE
Computer Society, 2009, pp. 64-66.

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Haidar Safa, Hassan Artail and Diana Tabet, “A cluster-based trust-aware routing
protocol for mobile ad hoc networks”, Wireless Network, Vol. 16, 2010, pp. 969-984.
Naveen Chauhan, Lalit Kumar Awasthi, Narottam Chand, Vivek Katiyar and Ankit
Chugh, “A Distributed Weighted Cluster Based Routing Protocol for MANETs”, Wireless
Sensor Network, Vol. 3, 2011, pp. 54-60.
Alak Roy, Manasi Hazarika, Mrinal Kanti Debbarma, “Energy Efficient Cluster Based
Routing in MANET”, International Conference on Communication, Information &
Computing Technology, IEEE Explore, October, 19-20, Mumbai, 2012.
Abderrezak Rachedi and Abderrahim Benslimane, “Security and Pseudo-Anonymity
with a Cluster-based approach for MANET”, 2008 IEEE GLOBECOM, New Orleans, LA,
United States, 18 June 2012.
Wei Liu, Hiroki Nishiyama, Nirwan Ansari, Jie Yang and Nei Kato, "Cluster based
Certificate Revocation with Vindication Capability for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks", IEEE
Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2013, pp. 239-24.
Srinivas Kanakala, Venugopal Reddy Ananthula and Prashanthi Vempaty, “Energy-
Efficient Cluster Based Routing Protocol in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks Using Network
Coding”, Journal of Computer Networks and Communications, Vol. 14, 2014, pp. 1-12.
YoHan Park and YoungHo Park, “Secure Private Key Revocation Scheme in
Anonymous Cluster -Based MANETs, Journal of Korea Multimedia Society, Vol. 18, No. 4,
2015, pp. 499-505.
Venkanna and Leela Velusamy, “TEA-CBRP: Distributed cluster head election in
MANET by using AHP”, peer-to-peer Network Application, Vol. 9, 2016, pp. 159-170.
Sengan Sudhakar and Chenthur Pandian, “Hybrid cluster-based geographical routing
protocol to mitigate malicious nodes in mobile ad hoc network”, International Journal of Ad
Hoc and Ubiquitous Computing, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2016, pp. 224-236.
Piyalikar, Pritam Kar and Mrinal Kanti Deb Barma, “Forecast Weighted Clustering in
MANET”, Twelfth International Multi-Conference on Information Processing-2016 (IMCIP-
2016), Procedia of Computer Science, Vol. 89, 2016, pp. 253–260.
Sally E. El Khawaga, Ahmed I. Saleh and Hesham A. Ali, “An Administrative
Cluster-based Cooperative Caching (ACCC) strategy for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”, Journal
of Network and Computer Applications, Vol. 69, 2016, pp. 54–76.
Farooq Aftab, Zhongshan Zhang and Adeel Ahmad, “Self-Organization Based
Clustering in MANETs Using Zone Based Group Mobility”, IEEE Translations and content
mining, Vol. 5, 2017, pp. 27464-27476.
A. Christy Jeba Malar, M. Kowsigan, N. Krishnamoorthy, S. Karthick, E. Prabhu and
K. Venkatachalam, “Multi constraints applied energy efficient routing technique based on ant
colony optimization used for disaster resilient location detection in mobile ad hoc network”,
Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing, Vol. 23, 2020, pp. 273-285.
Yutao Liu, Yue Li, Yimeng Zhao and Chunhui Zhang, “Research on MAC Protocols
in Cluster-Based Ad Hoc Networks” Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing, Vol.
23, 2021, pp. 1-12.

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GRAPHENE BASED TRANSPARENT HUMIDITY SENSOR

Mian Aizaz, Ahmed

Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Aiman Asad, Soomro

Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Ahsan Ali, Jatoi

Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Mian Hamid Ali

Department of Botany, Institute of Plant Science, University of Sindh, Jamshoro

ABSTRACT
An astonishing discovery was made in 2004 when scientists learned a way of abstracting the
single layer of graphite called Graphene. Since then, Graphene has elevated the level of
competition in field of sensors. With its high conductivity, flexibility and transparency,
graphene has proven to be remarkable. Although, a lot of research has been done on the gas
sensing properties of graphene and it has amazing potential to be investigated further in other
aspects, we decided to dig into the humidity detection capabilities of this wonder material. In
this paper, we have demonstrated graphene as humidity detecting disposable sensor on
transparent plastic sheet. The simple method named as wet transfer technique was used to
transfer this fragile monolayer of graphite from one substrate to another without damaging its
structure. Using silver paste as a conductive adhesive source, the thin copper wires was
deposited onto the sensor which were used as electrodes to interface the device with
microcontroller. The sensor was connected with Arduino Uno in an air tight chamber using
analog reading pins to collect readings when uncovered to the humidity. A coding program
was written in order for device to work well with the Arduino Uno. The sensor worked as
variable resistor, changing its resistance when the exposed to the humidity. A Wi-Fi module
(node MCU) and pre built-in android application was used along with Arduino to notify on
the mobile and trigger the alarm if the sensor crosses the threshold. This whole setup allowed
us to use graphene as sensing layer and explore it, as disposable sensor for humidity detection
on transparent polymer.
Keywords: Graphene; Arduino UNO; Node MCU; Silver paste; Transparent polymer;
Humidity

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PLC BASED AUTOMATION FOR WIRE STIRRUP BENDER

Aiman Assad, Soomro

Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Mian Aizaz, Ahmed

Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Virda Abbasi
Department of Electronics, Institute of information and Communication technology,
University of Sindh Jamshoro

Eeman Soomro
Department of Bio Informatics, COMSATS University Islamabad

ABSTRACT
So far PLC has been the most productive and significant invention in the technology world.
Due to its constant controlling and monitoring technology for the input and output devices it
has proven as one of the remarkable controllers for automation systems specially used in
industries and construction sites. Conventional methods of wire bending are time consuming
and requires lots of human efforts. Specially at mass production of stirrups, costs more money
on labor and takes more time too. In this paper we have discussed about an Automated wire
stirrup Bender controlled with the help of PLC. The prototype “PLC Based Automation for
Wire Stirrup Bender” intend to save time and money. Previously a lot of machines and tools
have been made similar to that for making small shapes for jewelry and other purposes like
CNC machine but it had some limitations that we have tried to overcome in our prototype. A
transistor type FATEK-PLC is used to control and monitor the entire function. The PLC
device is connected with the HMI device and the power supply is applied to the PLC. After
that the PLC is further connected with the motor driver and relay card which takes the input
from the PLC. The motor driver helps the stepper motors to work and perform all the
mechanical tasks properly. The driver is connected with the motors which are further
connected with the cutter actuator, bender and feeder which works according to the input
given by HMI to PLC and gives the desired shape. This whole idea has helped us to build a
mechatronic system that can be time and money efficient by using PLC and HMI.
Keywords: Technology; PLC; HMI; Wire stirrup bender; Power supply

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DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF A NEW THREE LEVEL BRUSHLESS DC

MOTOR

Cemil OCAK
Gazi University, Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Department of Electrical and
Energy
ORCID: 0000-0001-6542-6350

Osman GÜRDAL
Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0001-8315-7342

ABSTRACT
In this study, a new 46-pole brushless DC motor with three-levelled stator and rotor structure
for electric vehicles which are considered to be a permanent part of our daily lives in the
future has been designed and manufactured. The system consisting of three levelled brushless
DC motors with 46 poles has been configured to be used in new generation highly efficient
electric vehicles. The operation of designed multilevel brushless direct current motor is based
on the principle of driving MOSFETs on driver circuit by evaluating data from those three
Hall Effect sensors placed on the stator at a right angle as it is the same for in-wheel
conventional brushless direct current motors. The performance characteristics of designed
prototype have been examined via finite element methods (FEM). The design and simulation
principles followed in manufacturing electrical machines have been applied respectively, and
parametric analysis has been realized. It is proved that the three-levelled motor with that
aforementioned structure and driving scheme is superior to conventional brushless motors
having the same sizes in terms of criteria such as output torque, unit power density and etc.
and the purposed model is particularly well suited for the applications like electric cars and
military applications where high torque is needed.
Keywords: Brushless DC Motor, Electric Vehicle, Three Level, In Wheel, Hub Motor

1. INTRODUCTION
With the development of technology, it has become inevitable to design and use highly
efficient and environmentally friendly products that facilitate human life. Electric bicycles,
electric motorcycles and electric cars whose usage area is increasing day by day in the world,
are among the best examples of these. As a result of the studies recorded especially in the
field of power electronics, brushless direct current machines (BLDC) need less switching
elements compared to other electrical machines, their efficiency is high, their volume and
weight are low and torque/weight ratios are high. Its popularity is gradually increasing in high
torque and speed applications. When electric motors are controlled by power electronics
circuits, torque, speed and acceleration can be improved and efficiency can be increased.
However, the advantages to be obtained in response to the control circuit to be used; it cannot
be used in all areas due to the increase in cost, size and circuit complexity. For this reason, the
usage areas of electronically controlled electric motors have been limited. Simple, low-cost
and reliable control circuits are needed for such motors to find wide use.

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However, permanent magnet brushless direct current motor (PMBLDC), on which many
academic studies have been carried out especially in recent years; it is a candidate to meet this
requirement in many applications, especially in applications where asynchronous or DC
motors have limited use. [1]. After the researches on classical electrical machines such as
induction motors, synchronous motors and direct current (DC) motors reached a certain
saturation, studies on design of special electric motors gained momentum. One of the
machines evaluated in this category is brushless direct current motors (BLDC). Permanent
magnet AC and DC motors have been used frequently in many applications today. PMBLDC
motors are also known as synchronous motors with permanent magnet rotor, multi-phase
(usually three-phase), armature windings on the stator. PMBLDC motor first appeared in
1962 in the work of T.G. Wilson and P.H. Trickey called "DC Machine with Solid State
Commutation". However, under the technological conditions of that day, industrial motors
larger than 5 hp only existed in practice for a while [2]. After the studies and inventions in the
field of high power permanent magnet materials and high voltage transistors in the early 80s,
this type of motors and their control began to be studied much more broadly and entered our
lives in many areas. Since the efficiency of asynchronous motors changes with slip, they need
reactive current and they do not meet the high torque/weight ratio required especially in high
performance applications such as robotics and servos, alternative solutions have been sought
and different motors have been developed for high performance applications in this sense [3].
In recent years, many studies have been carried out in the field of control regarding BLDC
motors in the literature. Hoang and Dessaint proposed an adaptive current control structure for
synchronous motors [4]. Nandam and Sen designed an adaptive observer-based variable
structure controller for PMSM [5]. Bose has proposed an adaptive hysteresis current
controller for alternating current motors. The controller calculates the hysteresis band
modulation based on the system parameters according to the operating conditions [6]. Hemati
et al. performed robust nonlinear inspection of PMSM for robot applications [7]. Raymond
and Jeffrey have done real-time adaptive control of PMSM using microprocessor. For the
created controller, the motor system is linearized, non-linear effects of the inverter and system
dynamics that cannot be modeled are neglected [8]. Pelczewski et al. conducted the optimal
PMSM model follow-up control [9]. Matsui and Ohashi have proposed a DSP-based adaptive
controller for PMSM [10]. Chern and Wu performed the position control of PMSM using a
variable structure controller. The controller is recalculated at any time according to unknown
load and motor parameters [11]. Sharaf and Ghosh proposed a rule-based fuzzy logic
controller for PMSM [12]. Suyitno et al. proposed a variable structure controller for
servomotors using fuzzy logic [13]. Ko et al. proposed a robust digital position controller for
PMSM using an adaptive load moment monitor [14]. Liu and Cheng performed self-tuning,
model-following and model-reference adaptive control of PMSM without detecting rotor
position [15]. Liaw and Cheng proposed a new fuzzy controller for motor drive systems [16].
Cerruto at al. proposed a robust digital position controller for PMSM used in robot
applications [17]. Chung et al. proposed a new instant torque control method. Motor flux
estimation was made using the model reference adaptive system and the controller was
calculated using the mathematical model as a result of this estimation [18]. Bolognani et al.
designed a rotor with a kalman filter and an ecliptic-free digital driver for the estimation of
speed parameters [19].

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Petrovic et al. proposed a new adaptive control method to avoid torque fluctuations. Zadeh
performed constant torque control using DSP on an experimental vector-controlled controller
[20]. Zhao et al. performed DSP-based control of 200000 (rpm) permanent magnet
synchronous motor at very high speeds [21]. In this study, which is based on the structure of
PMBLDC motor, the use of which is increasing day by day in many areas in our daily life and
industry; a new 48 V, 500 rpm three level PMBLDC motor intended to be used in direct drive
and high torque traction systems has been designed and implemented. In addition to the
design, analysis and prototype studies of the motor, the coupling of the driver circuit with the
motor was also carried out.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

An appropriate design should be carried out by considering certain criteria while designing
electric motors. Some design criteria of electric motors are low-cost design, high-efficiency
design, balanced design, and high power density design. The PMBLDC designed within the
scope of this study was realized by considering the four criteria mentioned above. To achieve
this, the materials to be used and the design method must be carefully considered. In the
study, optimum magnet usage was investigated using parametric solution methods and a
design that would ensure the use of magnets as low as possible was realized. On the other
hand, the stack length (L) of the motor is a cost-reducing factor. However, since the increase
in L length after a certain limit will cause a decrease in efficiency, the optimum L length can
be determined in detail by optimization studies. When evaluated in this respect, permanent
magnet brushless direct current motors (BLDC) sold on the market are low-cost and low-
efficiency design criteria within the scope of commercial concern and low cost understanding.
With the optimization of the magnetic circuit, it is possible to keep the cost low and increase
the efficiency. The main goal of this study is to design a PMBLDC with high efficiency and
as light as possible.

2.1. Sizing Calculations

Today, there is a lot of software for the design of electrical machines. However, these
software can generally be used for analysis studies. Sizing studies of electrical machines
require expertise and experience on their own. There is no software that can accept the values
of the machine such as required power, speed and efficiency and perform the sizing. For this
reason, sizing studies can be done by performing analytical calculations in the first place, and
then they are optimized with various software to reach their final dimensions. The most
important parameters to be considered in dimensioning studies are the stator and rotor
diameter dimensions and motor length, which are frequently encountered in the realization of
output equations and performance equations. Other dimensions can be obtained in the light of
parametric solutions, taking into account the performance within the scope of winding studies.
The stator outer diameter of outer rotor PMBLDC motors can be calculated with the help of
the following equation;
D  Dr c  2lm  2 (1)
D given in the equation gives the stator outer diameter, Drc the rotor inner diameter, lm the
magnet thickness and δ the length of the air gap. Slot design is very important in motor
design, depending on the winding configuration and structure. bss1 is the upper slot width
parameter of the stator slot and is calculated with the help of the equation below.

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D  2hs w
bs s1    bt s (2)
Qs
hsw indicates the tooth thickness of the stator core, bts the tooth width of the core, and Qs the
number of stator slots. bss2 is the bottom slot width parameter of the stator slot and is
calculated with the help of the equation below.
D  2hs s
bs s 2    bt s (3)
Qs
The hss expressed in the equation represents the slot length. hsy represents the effective core
thickness and can be calculated with the help of the equation below.
1
hsy  ( D  Dİ  2hss ) (4)
2
Di, which specifies the inner diameter of the stator, is only a parameter for external rotor
PMBLDC motors. Similarly, the thickness of the core, which will provide the magnetic flux
path in the rotor and will be selected from ST-37 steel, can be obtained with the following
equation.
1
hry  ( D0  Drc ) (5)
2
Asl, expressed as the total slot area and can be represented by the equation 6.
1
Asl  (bss1  bss 2 ) *(hss  hsw ) (6)
2
Meanwhile, the ratio of the stator slot opening to the slot width is also a parameter to be
considered and is expressed by the equation below.
b
kopen  so (7)
bss1
The bso given in the equation shows the distance between the stator slots. The choice of the
number of poles in permanent magnet machines is determined according to the rotor speed,
which is the critical factor in the design. The increase in the number of poles for the same
speed value; it will cause an increase in the commutation frequency resulting an increase in
the switching losses and an increase in the iron losses in the stator core. The number of poles
is basically expressed by the following formula.
2 p  120. f (8)
n
The 2p shown in the equation gives the number of poles, f the operating frequency and n the
rotor speed. In order to make the selection of this value easier, it will be very useful to take a
look at the pole-slot number combinations and previous studies on this subject, taking into
account the winding factor. In order for the design processes to proceed properly, the air gap
flux must be properly calculated analytically. The calculation of the air gap is of different
nature for different design geometries. Since the motor considered in the study has a surface
magnet design, calculations have been made considering the studies carried out in the
literature on this subject. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density Bm is calculated
as;
Br kleak
Bm  (9)
 k
1 r C
lm

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Br is the residual magnetic flux density of the magnet, µr is the relative magnet permeability
and kC is the Carter factor and is calculated with the following equation.
Ts
kC 
( kopen bss1 )
2
(10)
Ts 
bss1kopen  5
The stator pitch (Ts) is expressed by the following equation.
D
Ts   (11)
Qs

2.2. Design Model and Specifications

In order to keep the output parameters and physical dimension values of the designed
PMBLDC motor at optimum values and to make the motor values can be traced in a healthy
way, some special parametric analyzes were carried out. These analyzes are divided into two:
analyzes performed depending on the operation of the motor and analyzes performed to
optimize the physical parameters. Operational parametric analyzes include motor efficiency,
losses and changes in output torque depending on the load of the motor, that is, the increase in
output power and the change in motor operating temperature. Various section views of the
designed PMBLDC motor is given in figure 1. Parameters of the PMBLDC whose sizing
studies have been completed are presented in Table 1 for a single level.

Figure 1. Various section views of the designed PMBLDC motor

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Table 1. Basic sizing parameters for a single level

Parameter Value
Stator outer diameter (Do) 196,5 mm
Stator inner diameter (Di) 146,8 mm
Rotor outer diameter 218,2 mm
Rotor inner diameter 199,5 mm
Magnet thickness 3 mm
Stack length (L) 26,5 mm
Rated speed 500 rpm
Source voltage 48V DC
Number of stator slots 51
Pole number 46
Phase number (m) 3

Figure 2. Final 3D views of the designed PMBLDC motor before prototyping

2.3. 2D and 3D Electromagnetic Simulations

One of the most important points of getting maximum efficiency from rotating electrical
machines such as motors and generators is the abundance of comparative analysis and
optimization studies carried out in prototype studies. The more simulation studies are
performed and the optimization parameter is used, the higher the probability of achieving the
best result. When creating electromagnetic analysis models of machines, the finite element
method should be used absolutely. Today, there are many programs for electromagnetic
analysis of machines that perform electromechanical energy conversion, such as motors and
generators. In this study, ANSYS Maxwell was used for electromagnetic, electromechanical
and integrated driver analysis.

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Figure 3. 2D and 3D distribution of magnetic flux density (B) at 400 ms

Figure 4. Distribution of current density and total losses in the windings at 400ms

Figure 5. Variation of motor torque in the range of 0-100 ms

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Figure 6. Variation of motor phase currents in the range of 0-100 ms

2D and 3D distribution of magnetic flux density (B) at 400 ms is given in figure 3.

Distribution of current density and total losses in the windings is given in figure 4. Variation
of motor output torque and motor phase currents for 0-100ms are given in figure 5 and 6,
respectively.

2.4. Experimental Results

As it is known, the study is a large-scale study based on PMBLDC design. Therefore, in the
experiments carried out, a high efficiency 48V, 150A continuous, 350A maximum driver
using the PWM technique was provided. A single driver is used in the system and all three
stages of the motor are controlled by contactors via this driver output. In this section, the
experimental studies on the 48 V, 500 rpm, three level and 3-phase PMBLDC motor are
given. The control unit that acts as the interface between the driver circuit and the motor is
given in figure 7.

Figure 7. Motor Control Unit

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Figure 8. Test setup and dynamometer for measurement of load conditions

Loaded operating tests of the motor also consist of several levels. While the motor was at each
level, the load was gradually increased and torque, current, voltage and speed data were
obtained at each level. A test setup was created for the load experiments as seen in Figure 8.
In the test setup presented, a 20Ah battery bank consisting of 4x12, 48V batteries, an energy
analyzer with a wide range of measurement capabilities, an oscilloscope, and a dynamometer
used for load conditions of the motor and measuring the motor torque and designed three level
PMBLDC motor with 3 kW nominal power is used. The transition process between the motor
levels varies according to the power demanded from the load. The activation or deactivation
of each level depends on the motor efficiency. For example, for a power value that one level
can provide, the second and third level should be disabled, since two or three level will cause
the motor to operate at low efficiency. On the other hand, even if only one level is activated
for a power demand of 1.5 kW, it will lead to low efficiency, although it seems sufficient to
meet the power demand. In this case, it should be switched to two-level operating mode,
which can provide the same power with a higher efficiency value. Similarly, three levels may
be active at this stage, but the efficiency will decrease as the motor will operate at a lower
power than its nominal power. In summary, the levels that can provide the power demanded
from the motor with the highest efficiency value will be activated.

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Figure 9. Efficiency comparison for the new three-level PMBLDC motor with a standard
PMBLDC motor

If figure 9 is examined in detail, the new 3kW PMBLDC motor realized in the study offers
considerably higher efficiency values than the standard 3kW PMBLDC motor up to 2000
watts. Therefore, the decrease in motor efficiency as a result of the motor operating at powers
lower than their rated power can be eliminated with the new three level structure. When the
new PMBLDC motor is evaluated from this point of view, it offers high efficiency values for
almost all output powers compared to standard PMBLDC motors. For example, if the motor is
mainly operated between 0-40% of its rated power; the new motor has an average of 13.5%
higher efficiency compared to the standard motor. As a result, considering that the electric
motors used in electric vehicles are often operated at powers lower than the rated power, it is
thought that the work carried out will meet an important need in this area.

3. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, a new 48 V, 500 rpm, three level PMBLDC motor whose use in many areas in
our daily life and industry is increasing day by day has been designed and implemented for
use in direct-drive and high-torque systems. In addition to the design, analysis and prototype
studies of the motor, the coupling of the driver circuit with the motor was also carried out. On
the other hand, the efficiency increase claimed by the multi-level motor structure, which is the
primary aim of the study, has been experimentally verified by comparing it with a
commercially available standard PMBLDC motor. For example, at the 300W output power of
the motor, the highest efficiency is obtained with only single level activated.

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If a comparison is made over the experimentally obtained results, the efficiency is 75% when
only single level is active, 87% when two levels are active, and 85% when three levels are
active, for an output power of about 1000W. In this case, the two-level operating mode, which
provides the highest efficiency for 1000W output power should be used. As a result, only the
motor levels that will provide the vehicle with the power it needs are activated. Thus, the
motor is operated neither at powers lower than the rated power nor at powers higher than the
rated power. Thanks to this method, the motor is operated at the highest efficiency point as
possible, and depending on the type of use, an efficiency increase of 5.4 to 21.9 % on average
is achieved compared to the standard PMBLDC motor used in electric vehicles.

REFERENCES
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[13] Affanni, A., Bellini, A., Franceschini, G., Guglielmi, P. and Tassoni, C., “Battery
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steel,” IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 43 (6): 1554 – 1564 (2007).

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SMART GLUCO DEVICE

Kalaiyarasi M
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman Institute of
Technology

Aravind Kumar T
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman Institute of
Technology

Sarandeep A
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman Institute of
Technology

Kishorekumar S
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman Institute of
Technology

ABSTRACT
The main method and moto of the “Smart gluco device” is to be individually managable.
According to the normal conventional method, there should be a continuous monitoring of the
level the gluco level in the gluco bottle, in-order to avoid this problem, so that we use the
“load cell method” which will be monitored continuous by according to the level of the
glucose bottle (i.e weight of the glucose bottle), alert message will be received by the
corresponding higher authorities. It is retrofitted device for normal glucose dripping method,
just we want to remove the empty glucose bottle and place the new one, instead of replacing
whole gluco device-it the major benefit of this system. It is one of the user friendly device.
And this method occupies less space and easily fitting device. The main theme of our project
is to provide the immediate alert messages to the concerned persons (nurse, doctors), when
the level of the gluco enters the abundant range. By using the smart gluco device will make us
to know about the number of glucose bottle used by entire hospital. The expected outcome
sources of our project is to prevent the backward flow of blood in the glucose flow tube. And
to provide the information of patient to the concerned person, in the emergency conditions.
The modification is nothing but just an extra-setup in the normal existing saline stand.
Keywords: Smart gluco device, dripping method

379
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
WEB: [Link]
E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

WHEELCHAIR FALLASISTANCE

R. Karthikamani
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering

Deepika.B
UG Students, Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman
Institute of Technology

Hariram.R
UG Students, Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman
Institute of Technology

Arjun.S
UG Students, Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Bannari Amman
Institute of Technology

DISCRIPTION
The project aims to provide immediate assistance or help to the people using wheel chairs at
the time of crisis. While people who use wheelchair being already physically not so
independent condition any minor accident is a big deal. So we plan to detect if the wheel chair
falls or any other problems regarding by monitoring the vibrations, movements and motions
using sensors continually. In case of any unusual pattern in the above criteria the information
will be sent along the location to the care taker, family and any hospital or service centers
nearby if possible. Thereby the support and help will be provided on quickest possible time.
As society ages and people live longer, people use wheelchairs for a variety of reasons. This
popular and safe mobility device is meant to provide the user with independence, comfort and
the capability to enjoy life to the fullest. Using a wheelchair is indeed easy most of the time,
but there would be certain tricky scenario that you need to be careful for wheelchair [Link]
wheelchair despite being help device has its own risks and the need to frame a system to
tackle those risk is really important as the people who use wheel chair are mostly patients or
elderly who struggle for independent physical movement.
Keywords: Microcontroller, Wireless protocols, wheelchair

380
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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NOVEL REVERSIBLE LOGIC GATE BASED HALF ADDER AND FULL ADDER
CIRCUIT DESIGNS

Pendyala V Muralidhar
Aditya Institute of Technology and Management

P. Sowjanya
Aditya Institute of Technology and Management

Manikanta
Aditya Institute of Technology and Management

ABSTRACT
Combinational circuits are the building blocks and basic components in several architecture
found in VLSI, digital signal processing applications. They are versatile components and
mainly used in adders, subtractions, multipliers etc., especially these combinational circuits
basically used in arithmetic and logic units. As we know that any logical operations are
framed appropriately on the basis of truth table so that forming Boolean functions with
suitable gates further modified and realized with universal gates like NAND or NOR. Here in
this proposals modelled a novel logical gate which resemblance the reversible gate and also
realized Half adder, Full adders practically with discrete components. These half adder and
full adders are very useful to implement arithmetic operations in microprocessors it is main
building unit computer. Mainly this gate contains multiplexer and decoder through which it
has been implemented. Important feature of this proposed gate is that, can be realized all
Universal gates like NAND, NOR with simple controlling another terminal. This control
terminal is the key parameter whenever these terminal senses logic high the output gives
NAND logic and if it senses logic low level then output generates NOR logic thus it gives
both above said gates.
Keywords: Reversible gate, Combinational circuits

381
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

REVOLVING SPOOL VALVE MULTIPLIER

Dr. Sci Eugene Sviyazheninov

Institute for Problems in Mechanical Engineering of the Russian Academy of Sciences

ABSTRACT
The invention relates to mechanical engineering and can be used in power systems of internal
combustion engines (ICE), as well as other distribution systems.
Spool, or slide valve – is a device that directs the flow of gas or liquid by displacing the
windows of the moving part relative to the windows in the surface of the fixed part along
which it slides. The moving part is slowly revolving rotor, whereas the fixed part is
motionless stator. Rotor contains a gaseous or liquid medium under pressure and slides along
the inner surface of the stator. Revolving spool fuel dispensers are much simpler in design and
reliable than those used in ICE cam-plunger. The fact is that cam distribution devices are
highly heavily loaded mechanisms. So, the specific pressure in the contact zone of the friction
cam-pusher pair can reach 15,000 kg/cm 2 , and sliding speed – 4 m/s. In addition to wear,
permanent shock loads lead to fatigue failure. Plunger couples have inertia and lose efficiency
in high-frequency operating modes. Traditional fuel supply systems are one of the main
sources of ICE noise.
Spool valves with progressively rotating spools are especially effective thanks to the absence
of reciprocating vibrational movements accompanied by inertial loads whose amplitudes are
proportional to the square of the frequency. Meanwhile, the use of such rotating spool valves
so far has been restrained by the following circumstance. With an increase in the rotational
speed of the spool, the peripheral speed on its outer surface increases, which leads to
increasing the power of the frictional forces. Because of this the sliding mechanism of the
mating surfaces of rotor and stator is complicated by significant heat generation, lubrication
difficulties, wear of the mating surfaces and violations of the tightness of their mutual fit.
Therefore, reduction of the speed of the spool valves while maintaining the same distribution
rate opens up the possibility of wide application of slide valves.
To reduce the speed of the spool valves with preservation of the distribution speed a special
multiplying device has been applied.
Stator is equipped with n windows, where n is the number of cylinders of the internal
combustion engine, and the rotor has mn+1 or mn-1 windows, accordingly for direct or
reverse distribution with respect to the direction of rotation of the rotor, where m is the
multiplication factor – any natural number: m = 1, 2, 3, …With an increase in the
multiplication factor m, the rotor speed decreases while maintaining the same distribution
frequency.
The technical result is a multiple decrease in the rotor speed, an increase in the time of
overlapping of the stator and rotor windows, as well as an increase in the efficiency,
simplicity and reliability of the device.
Keywords: Mechanical Engineering, Internal Combustion Engines, Fuel Distribution For
Cylinders, Sliding Of The Rotor Along The Stator, Rotary Spool Valves, Decreasing The
Sliding Rotor Speed For Reduction The Power Of The Frictional Forces, Distribution Rate
Multiplier.

382
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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NANOFLUIDS AND ITS APPLICATION IN HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR

EFFECTIVE ENERGY TRANSPORTATION

Professor S. N. Kazi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya

ABSTRACT
Conventional heat exchanger liquids (e.g., water, ethylene glycol, oil etc.) provide low heat
transfer performance due to their low thermal conductivities. In the recent past, there has been
a remarkable development in heat transfer liquids with the application of higher thermal
conductive nanofluids (nano suspension coolants). In these investigations, nano-fluid based
coolants were investigated where base fluid was water and at even lower nanoparticle
concentrations elevated thermal conductivities were noticed. and were employed in different
heat exchanging applications such as solar collectors, process heat exchangers, household
applications and electronic cooling systems. Different carbon structured functionalized
nanofluids as heat transfer liquids were investigated in heat exchangers to observe the
convective heat transfer and friction loss performances. Covalently functionalized carbon
nanotubes (C-MWCNTs) and graphene nanoplatelets (CGNPs) dispersed in water were tested
in single tube and annular heat exchangers under turbulent and constant heat flux conditions.
The synthesized fluids were also characterized for their thermophysical properties, stability,
and morphological characteristics. The thermo-physical properties of nanofluids shown good
enhancement compared to those of the base fluids which referred to their application as
suitable heat exchanger liquids. The heat transfer and friction loss were studied
experimentally in the heat exchangers at a constant heat flux and a range of turbulent
Reynolds numbers where significant enhancement in heat transfer and thermal conductivities
were noticed with little frictional loss enhancement. It is worth noting that the significant
increment of the performance index and its upward trend compared to those of conventional
base fluids represents all the nano-coolants have strong potential for use as effective heat
transfer working fluids in various thermal applications.
Keywords: Heat transfer, nanofluids, functionalization, efficiency enhancement, performance
index

383
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

REATTACHMENT LENGTH AND HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF

COVALENTLY FUNCTIONALIZED GRAPHENE NANOFLUID ENCOUNTERED
IN A BACKWARD FACING STEP-A SUSTAINABLE AND SIMPLISTIC
APPROACH

Afrin Jahan
NanoCatalysis and Research Centre, University of Malaya

Zaira Zaman Chhowdhury

NanoCatalysis and Research Centre, University of Malaya

S. N. Kazi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya

Mohd Rafie Johan

NanoCatalysis and Research Centre, University of Malaya

L. Harish Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya

ABSTRACT
Numerical and experimental investigations of nanofluids flow and conductive heat transfer in
a uniformly heated horizontal backward-facing step (BFS) configuration of heat exchanger
tube is presented in this paper. Forced convective heat transfer coefficient in the reattachment
region for the nanofluid flow has been an interest for quite some time, where functionalized
graphene using hazardous acid was used for the enhancement of turbulent heat transfer in the
separation flow. In the present experimental investigation, plant extract treated graphene
nanoparticles were synthesized and applied in separation flow passage for enhanced
performance. The present functionalization method is green and ecofriendly. The
functionalized samples were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,
scanning electron microscopy, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, X-Ray
diffraction and zeta potential analysis to ensure properly synthesized stable form.
Aqueous suspension of clove treated graphene was passed through the BSF tube at the
concentration range of 0.025% to 0.1 wt.% and Reynolds number of 3000 to 18000.
Temperature profile at the top and the bottom walls of the BSF were measured and the
Nusselt numbers were evaluated and compared with the base fluid data. Concentration effect
of functionalized graphene nanofluids was evaluated. The average heat transfer coefficient
ratio was increased significantly (about 30%). The novel correlation between reattachment
length and Nusselt number is developed. Present results ensure that the eco-friendly
functionalized graphene nanofluids with a geometrical surface modification could be the best
alternative for heat transportation in heat exchanger.
Keywords: Heat Transfer, Graphene nanofluid, Separation flow, reattachment length, Eco-
friendly functionalization

384
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

LYAPUNOV EXPONENT PARAMETER OF STIFFENED COMPOSITE

LAMINATED PLATE DUE TO CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD ANALYSIS

Assistant Professor Dr. Louay S. Yousuf

Department of the Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University

ABSTRACT
Nonlinear dynamics in composite laminated plate is an algorithm approach to check for the
physical modelling of the failure analysis due to in-plane compression mechanical load and
shear force. The movement of the buckling modes in the (x and y) directions due to critical
buckling load could be either periodic or non-periodic. In this paper, the nonlinear dynamics
behavior of the critical buckling load of stiffened composite laminated plate is investigated
based on largest Lyapunov exponent parameter. Wolf algorithm is used to quantify largest
Lyapunov exponent in the presence of aspect ratio and fiber volume fraction. When the value
of largest Lyapunov exponent is negative which means that the motion of the buckling modes
is periodic (physical modelling of failure is too far from happenings), while the value of
largest Lyapunov exponent is positive which means that the motion of the buckling modes
could be either non-periodic and chaos (physical modelling of failure is very close from
happenings). The application of this work can be found in vessels with varying suction
pressure, longitudinal tubes in steam boilers, bodies of ships, and submarines space crafts.
The combined loading is in-plane compression mechanical load and shear force. A power
spectrum analysis has been added using the amplitude of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to
detect the non-periodic motion of the stiffened composite laminated plate. The analytic
solution has been done using Higher Order Shear Deformation Theory (HOST). Numerical
simulation is carried out using ANSYS software. The experiment setup has been done using
buckling test machine whereas the upper head is moved downwards by servo hydraulic
cylinder. The value of critical buckling load is checked and verified at different thickness
ratio, number of stiffeners, lamination angle, stiffener depth ratio based on different boundary
conditions. All the values of largest Lyapunov exponent are positive which gives indication to
non-periodic motion. The nonlinear dynamics behavior of stiffened composite laminated plate
is decreased with the increasing of number of stiffeners in which the value of largest
Lyapunov exponent has been decreased. Moreover, the nonlinear dynamics behavior of
stiffened laminated plate is increased with the increasing of aspect ratio and fiber volume
fraction.

385
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ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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(THE PROCEEDINGS BOOK)
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NONLINEAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION OF A CONCENTRIC COMPOSITE

MULTIFERROICS RING

Assistant Professor Dr. Louay S. Yousuf

Department of the Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University

ABSTRACT
Nonlinear Dynamics in multiferroic composite structure is used to check for the movement of
sliding and lift-off in the magnetostrictive material due to AC electric field. The movement of
sliding and lift-off at different bonding contact condition could be either periodic or non-
periodic and chaos by using the approach of largest Lyapunov exponent parameter. Three
different types of interface contact conditions such as bonding, no separation, and standard are
used in the simulation of nonlinear dynamics. In bonding contact condition both lift-off and
sliding are prohibited between surfaces, while no separation allows for sliding but prevents
lift-off. The standard condition allows for lift-off and sliding. Lyapunov exponent parameter
is extracted using Rosenstein method. The value of largest Lyapunov exponent is negative
which means that the movement between the layers of magnetostrictive material is periodic.
The movement of the sliding and lift-off between the layers of magnetostrictive material is
non-periodic motion and chaos when the value of largest Lyapunov exponent is positive.
ANSYS software is used to extract the axial and radial displacements by using modal,
harmonic and transient responses. The element type (Solid 226) is selected from the available
ANSYS library due to its structural and piezoelectric capabilities. Element (Solid 226) has
twenty nodes with four degrees of freedom per node. The voltage degree of freedom is used
as the boundary condition, which is prescribed as zero at the innermost surface and (100)
volts at the outer surface. The outer cylinder is prescribed as an orthotropic (PZT-841) and the
inner cylinder to be elastic isotropic (Terfenol-D). The analytic solution is done using the state
of plane stress of a classical laminate theory of the circular plate. In classical laminate theory,
it has been assumed that the stress and strain are discontinuous at the layer interface (surface
area between orthotropic PZT-841 and isotropic Terfenol-D). Power spectrum analysis of Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) and phase-plane diagram are added to detect the non-periodic
motion and chaos of the axial and radial displacements. The dimensions of the concentric
cylinder structure comprised of outside diameter, interface diameter, inside diameter, and
height of 30 mm, 25 mm, 20 mm, and 5 mm, respectively. The value of largest Lyapunov
exponent is checked and verified for axial and radial responses.

386
 ISPEC 11th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
MUS-TURKEY
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

NOVEL MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES:

APPLICATION TO FURNACES FOR SURFACE TREATMENT OF CRITICAL
COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC AND GAS PLANTS

Pablo Restrepo-Barrientos
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Juan C. Maya
Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Maria E. Muñoz Amariles

Universidad Nacional de Colombia

SUMMARY
In this work, a novel mathematical model that allows the simulation during steady/transient-
state of heat treatment furnaces is presented. This model can determine the evolution of both
temperature profiles and energy consumption, which are the most important thermal variables
in the design of this type of device. The developed model was used to simulate a heat
treatment furnace for critical components of hydroelectric and gas plants, and their predictions
for steady-state were compared with those of a conventional finite element package, in this
case, the heat source is radiant tubes that use natural gas combustion. A maximum deviation
of 20% was obtained between the predictions of the two approaches, but the model of this
paper implies a computational time of around 100,000 times less. It was found that to treat a
65-ton piece, a nominal power of 430 kW is required. In addition, it was concluded that this
nominal power is determined by the heating rates required; therefore, it cannot be calculated
from steady-state simulations. In this sense, the main contribution of the mathematical model
of this work is shown, which allows transient-state calculations for heat treatment furnaces
involving very short computational times and with a moderate deviation to calculations with
conventional software.
Keywords: Furnace, Heat treatment, steady-state, transient-state, heat transfer modeling

FIGURES
Figure 1. 1a Francis impeller 1b. Heat treatment cycle... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.
Figure 2 Insulating shield schematic. .............................. Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.
Figure 3. 3a. Furnace CAD model 3b. Radiation view factor schematic. ... Hata! Yer işareti
tanımlanmamış.
Figure 4. Steady-state results........................................... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.
Figure 5. HONEYWELL INTERNATIONAL software comparison (HONEYWELL, 2020).
......................................................................................... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.
Figure 6. Heating phase diagram. .................................... Hata! Yer işareti tanımlanmamış.
Figure 7. Bogie hearth thermal conductivity sensitivity analysis. .............. Hata! Yer işareti
tanımlanmamış.

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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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INTRODUCTION
The thermal design of insulations for heat treatment furnaces is fundamental in the
construction of these systems. Aiming to support this task for the development of a furnace
for the treatment and repair of critical components from thermal and hydroelectric power
plants in Medellín. Said furnace operates with a capacity of 65 tons and a heat source of
radiant tubes of natural gas up to 750°C and pressure slightly higher than atmospheric.
During the heat treatment, a maximum heating rate of 60 °C per hour must be maintained.
Additionally, the most critical part, considering its mass has 65 tons. Taking this into account:
a steady-state and a transient thermal analysis were carried out to determine the temperature
profile that occurs in the furnace, the power requirements to guarantee the heating rates, and
the correct operation during the treatment.
It is known that CAE (computer-assisted engineering) software provides excellent approaches
to the actual phenomenon; however, mathematical modeling of the phenomenon is done with
the help of EES and MATLAB, to provide a solution that is both efficient and of low
computational cost. The results obtained from this model were compared with commercial
software in a similar arrangement of insulators.

LOADING SCENARIO
The critical part to be treated in this furnace will be a Hidroituango’s Francis impeller, seen in
figure 1a. The piece has a diameter of 5 meters with a height of 2.1 meters and a mass of 65
tons. The cycle of heat treatment for this piece is the one observed in figure 1b. The maximum
temperature reached by the piece is in the range of 620 °C and 750 °C, and the heating rate
can range from 15°C/h up to 60 °C/h. For this study, a heating rate of 23°C/h was chosen
since this piece allows higher heating rates until failure.

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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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Figure 1. 1a Francis impeller 1b. Heat treatment cycle

METHODOLOGY
(i) Provision
Initially, following an analysis of the state of the art of these systems, the arrangement
presented in figure 2 was selected for the furnace infrastructure: ceramic fiber modules in the
most inner side (yellow), followed by layers of metallic or ceramic foil, used to guarantee the
seal of the enclosure. Finally, 1” of ceramic fiber plates are used in the last layer before the
structural components of the furnace.

Figure 2 Insulating shield schematic.

(ii) Radiation modeling

The technology used for the heating of this design is radiant tubes. These components
generate the necessary power to heat the parts through the combustion of natural gas. Then,
the tubes transmit the power to the piece using radiation, which requires computing the
radiation-view factors inside the furnace.

389
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ENGINEERING & NATURAL SCIENCES
Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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E-MAIL: instituteispec@[Link]

Figure 3. 3a. Furnace CAD model 3b. Radiation view factor schematic.

Figure 3 illustrates the CAD model used to calculate the view factors. The model was
processed in the software ANSYS, through the fluent module. The tubes have 2 faces,
denoted by T11 to T71 and T12 to T72. The impeller has 5 surfaces, denoted by R1 to R5.
This process does not require a high computational cost, this is because we did not run the
simulation, we extract the values in the software setup. Additionally, the equation that models

mE = › ∬ q Eq
this phenomenon is presented (Incropera et al., 2001) in equation (1).
3 OP¢∅a OP¢∅a
R} l E (1)
\

(iii) Heat transfer

As previously mentioned, designing insulators and calculating the power that guarantees the
operation conditions of the furnace is the main task in thermal design, first, we analyze the
steady-state behavior of the load and the furnace walls. This is done through a calculation
with thermal resistances, including the heat transfer by radiation between the internal
surfaces, achieved with the use of view factors and the radiosities between the load and the
walls. These interactions are described by equations 1, 2, and 3.

=
0 • l
0[ 0X l
(2)
á∗m + ∗ ∑tE23…m E z*G − *F{† = −I |
• \
•X X2X–\Ÿ
*F = 0x - t + ∑tE23 m E *G(1 − x ) + m á(1 − x )/
(3)
(4)

Equation (1) corresponds to the basic heat transfer model for flat walls, then
the boundary equations involving radiation on the wall (2) and radiosity (3) are presented.
Since the loading conditions can vary between power generation plants, is the simulation is
modeled with a global energy balance. To solve the equations, it is necessary to have
the parameters and physical properties shown in Table 1.

390
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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Table 1. Furnace global parameters and properties

PARAMETER SYMBOLS UNITS VALUE

Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ W/m2 K4 5.67E-08

Total convection heat transfer
h W/m2 K 10
T Η
coefficient
Ambient temperature K 300
LOAD
Material Francis impeller

kg/ms
Mass m1 kg 65000
Density ρ1 7-800
Heat capacity C1 J/kg K 465
External area A1 m2 47.12

T3
Emissivity ε1 - 0.2
Treatment temperature K 893

kg/ms
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Density ρ ac 7800
Heat capacity Cac J/kg K 650
Thermal conductivity Kac W/m K 52.07
Emissivity εac - 0.8
Thickness ea m 0.0241

kg/ms
CERAMIC FIBER INSULATING
Density ρais 280
Heat capacity Cais J/kg K 980
Thermal conductivity Kais W/m K 0.1042
Emissivity εais - 0.8
Thickness eb m 0.4064
BOGIE HEARTH

kg/ms
Material Compound
Density (estimated) ρsol 3000
Heat capacity (estimated) Csol J/kg K 980
Effective conductivity (estimated) Ksol W/m K 1
Thickness esol m 0.8364

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Table 1. Furnace global parameters and properties (continuation)

NOMENCLATURE AND SURFACES
Surface Nomenclature Area
2
Load 1 m 47.12
2
Back wall 2 m 34.968
Door 3 m2 34.968
Side wall 4 m2 31.044
RADIATION VIEW FACTORS
From radiant tubes
To load FT1 - 0.226
To back wall FT2 - 0.2
To door FT3 - 0.163
To sidewall FT4 - 0.2055
From load
To back wall F12 - 0.2505
To door F13 - 0.3165
To sidewall F14 - 0.2165
From back wall
To load F21 - 0.3376
To door F23 - 0.0426
To sidewall F24 - 0.3099
From door
To load F31 - 0.4265
To back wall F32 - 0.0426
To sidewall F34 - 0.2654
From sidewall
To load F41 - 0.3286
To back wall F42 - 0.3491
To door F43 - 0.299

RESEARCH AND FINDINGS:

It was found that for the steady-state the power required by the furnace is 44.064 kW. This
power satisfies the temperature stabilization phase of the furnace. The model also shows that
most of the heat, approximately 24.065 kW are lost through the bogie hearth, this behavior is
because the structural components that maintain the 65 Ton load have relatively higher
thermal properties, enabling a rapid energy transfer through this part of the furnace, (see
figure 4).

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Figure 4. Steady-state results

On the other hand, this calculation is verified using the free software available from the
company HONEYWELL INTERNATIONAL in thermal solutions. The power required for a
similar arrangement is 40 kW, a value close to that from our model. Another piece of
information obtained from the simulation is the losses from the bogie hearth, which also
showed similar behavior to that in our results (see figure 5).

Figure 5. HONEYWELL INTERNATIONAL software comparison (HONEYWELL, 2020).

After this, knowing that the steady-state does not determine the power requirements of the
system, an analysis of the required heating rate was made, the highest power requirement was
given for a piece of 16.7 Tons requiring a heating rate of 60°C/h to reach a stabilization
temperature of 750°C. These conditions resulted in an energy requirement of 430 kW (see
figure 6).

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Figure 6. Heating phase diagram.

Finally, to know the effects of the change in the material of the bogie hearth, a sensitivity
analysis was made with the effective conductivity of this part, for this, the power and
mass were kept constant at 430 kW and 16.7 tons (see figure 7).
For the most critical conditions, which corresponds to a conductivity of 5 W/mK, only a
heating rate of 28.6°C/h is reached, which does not satisfy the requirements of the furnace,
and which allows efforts to be focused on designing the insulation of the bogie hearth.

CONCLUSIONS
o The power conditions of the furnace will be defined by the heating rates required in the
most critical conditions.
o By having a much higher heating rate (60°C/h); other part configurations will consume
more power than the 65 Tons impeller for heating.
o The results shown in the presentation are valid for the current properties of the
system.
o The calculations of the 4 methods (Simplified and detailed in EES and Matlab) are
consistent with the HONEYWELL INTERNATIONAL software.

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Figure 7. Bogie hearth thermal conductivity sensitivity analysis

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the project "DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF PROCESSES OF REPAIR AND PROTECTION OF CRITICAL COMPONENTS
SUBJECTED TO SURFACE DAMAGE IN THERMAL AND HYDRAULIC
GENERATION POWER PLANTS USING THERMAL ASPERSION TECHNOLOGIES
AND UNAL WELDING” Contract EPM-UNAL CW33436, for the financial support to the
development of this research.

REFERENCES
Cengel, Y. A. (2002). Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach with EES CD. Retrieved
from [Link]
HONEYWELL. (2020). HONEYWELL INTERNATIONAL. Retrieved from
[Link]
Incropera, F. P., DeWitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., & Lavine, A. S. (2001). Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer 5th Edition with IHT2.0/FEHT with Users Guides (5th ed.; Wiley,
ed.). Retrieved from [Link]
software, F.-C. (s.f.). EES Engineering Equation Solver.
UNIFRAX. (2020). UNIFRAX. Retrieved from [Link]
category/furnace-lining-products/

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IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF A PEANUT ROASTING MACHINE VIA

SCREW-BARREL CLEARANCE

Oluwo A. A.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering

Idowu D. T.
University of Lagos

ABSTRACT
This study investigated the performance efficiency as influenced by screw clearance for a
peanut roasting extrusion machine. After construction of the design, screw diameters of three
(3) different screw clearances were initiated. The tested screw clearances were 4 mm, 6 mm
and 8 mm. Tested performance efficiency was based on the simple ratio of mass of unbroken
peanuts after roasting to the mass of peanuts fed into the machine via the hopper. Average
performance efficiencies were found to be 85.6%, 71.2% and 68.9% for the 4 mm, 6 mm and
8 mm screw clearances respectively. It was concluded that the highest performance efficiency
of the roasting machine was achieved with the 4 mm screw clearance. In comparison with
literature-based results, the performance achieved by the 4 mm screw clearance was
commendable. The developed peanut roaster can be scaled up for commercial purposes.
Keywords: Design, sample size, screw clearance, peanut, evaluation

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Peanut (Arachidhypogea L) is an important food and cash crop among people of many
countries and its oil is a highly valued vegetable oil (Olaniyan et al., 2017). The peanut is a
species in the legume or bean family (Fabacae). Worldwide annual production of peanuts is
about 30.5 million
tonnes (Soya Tech, 2009). The peanut was first domesticated in the valley of Paraguay
(international journals, Dutt Amit Kumar). Peanut plays a major role in the world food trade.
Research have shown that peanut plays an important role in human diet in many countries.
There are several peanut products that can be derived from peanut. This includes peanut flour
which is made from raw peanut and have been cleaned, blanched and electronically sorted to
select the highest quality peanuts, the nuts are then roasted and naturally processed to obtain a
lower fat peanut flour with a strong peanut flavor. Peanut oil is also another product derived
from peanut. This is made by extracting the oil from shelled and crushed peanut by one or
more combination of the following methods: hydraulic pressing, expeller pressing and solvent
extraction. Other include roasted peanut and peanut butter. Peanuts are further processed for
animal feed.
Roasting is one of the operations in peanuts processing. The effect of roasting techniques is
increasing the nutritional value and overall acceptance (Olaniyan et al., 2017) through the
reduction of anti-nutrition. Roasting significantly imparts the typical flavor many people
associate with peanuts and it also enhances the color, texture and appearance characteristics.
The roasting process which generally takes place at an average temperature of 175°C is of 2
stages, namely the endothermic (initial stage) and an exothermic (final stage). This is an
indication that the roasted products heat themselves in the latter stage (Reamy and Lambelet,
1982).

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World-wide, common roasting machines falling into either the batch or continuous type
operation include drum, hot-air, packed bed, tangential and centrifugal roasters. Peanut
roasting process according to Davids (2003), can last for between 3 to 30 minutes.
In Nigeria, a common method of roasting peanuts involves the use of open sand baths. The
local peanut processors make use of small open sand-bath pan roasters to roast the kernels
Olatunde (2014). The disadvantage of this method is uneven roasting due to unavailability of
accurate temperature regulating devices aside from exposing the peanut to unhygienic
conditions. A second disadvantage is that it is a tedious process involving hand stirring and
exposure to heat.
Manual peanut roasting with stirrers have been constructed (Lawal et al 1990) but a
temperature regulatory device is still not inculcated because this roasters are powered by
means of wood or charcoal.
Akinoso et al. (2004) designed 300kg/h cashew nut roasting machine which uses charcoal as
its source of heat energy. Performance evaluation of the roaster was carried out by roasting
15kg of raw cashew nut (Anarcardium occidentale) in cashew nut shell liquid at different
moisture content of the nut, roasting temperature and time. The result of the evaluation shows
that the roaster could roast 15kg of raw cashew nut having a moisture content of 12% wet
basis in 3minutes at a roasting temperature of 130oC, once this optimum temperature was
attained.
Okegbile et al (2014) showed that electrically powered peanut roasters exist but most times in
combination with peanut oil extraction. The complexity in such equipment increases the cost
of the machine, thus making it unaffordable to street vendors. A second disadvantage is the
sophistication in operation, which may not be conducive for street peanut vendors.
Olaniyan et al., (2017) designed and fabricated a small scale peanut roasting machine. The
design consideration includes efficiency, high roasting capacity and quality of roasted kernel.
Efficiency of the machine was based on mass of raw peanut before roasting and mass of
unbroken peanut after roasting. Results showed that the efficiency of the machine was
averagely 70%. However, the study recommended an improvement in the design of the screw
conveyor which would improve the performance efficiency of the machine.
This paper presents the design and development of a peanut roasting machine with a focus on
optimizing the screw-barrel clearance in the roasting chamber for the purposes of improved
performance efficiency. The roasting machine was manufactured using locally sourced
materials.

2.0 DESIGN PROCEDURE

The following sections highlight the design of the various components that make up the
roasting machine. We first look at the principle of operation of the peanut roaster.

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The machine is majorly made up of feeding hopper, roasting chamber with heating elements
whirled around the chamber, outer chamber with lagging material to prevent heat loss,
machine stand (frame), collection outlet, screw conveyor with uniform pitch. A feeding
hopper is a reservoir in which peanut is poured at intervals and from which it is regularly fed
into a roasting chamber. Inside the roasting chamber is the screw conveyor, the screw
conveyor is made up of a shaft of diameter 20mm and length of 630mm with the screw blade
arranged on the shaft at uniform pitch.

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In the roasting chamber, the peanut get roasted while being conveyed by the screw conveyor.
The cylindrical drum is of diameter 90mm with both ends enclosed.
The outer chamber which is also cylindrical in shape covers the roasting chamber attached
with the heating element which is lagged to prevent heat loss. Heating elements are attached
externally to the roasting chamber that are corrosive with a system of thermocouple. During
operation, the screw conveyor stirs the fresh peanut in the roasting chamber and
simultaneously conveys the roasted peanut along the line of travel and the roasted peanuts are
discharged at the collection outlet.

2.2 Hopper Design

The hopper was designed in form of an inverted truncated pyramid shape as shown in figure
1.

A1

A2

Figure 1: Hopper design.

According to Khurmi and Gupta (2005), the volumetric capacity is expressed as

3
s
V = h (A1 + √A1A2 +A2) --------------- (1)

where A1 = area of the feed section,

A2 = area of the compression section and
h = perpendicular distance between A1 and A2

The volume occupied by peanut as computed by chikelu (2015) is expressed as

Vgoc = Wtg /ρtg ----------------------------------- (2)

where Vgoc = peanut occupied volume (m3),

Wtg = batch output (kg) and
ρtg = bulk density (kg/m3).
Substituting A1= 0.02m3, A2 = 0.0075m3,
Vgoc = 0.001788m3
Hence, h = 0.1349m

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2.3 Length of Barrel

The length of barrel were determined by the expression

„PM_1§ PZ PW¢[ RW OVW1ì§

R l
L= --------------------- (3)

where r = radius of the chamber,

L = length of barrel.
Substituting r = 30mm and
Volume of hopper = 0.001788m3,
Hence, L = 0.63m.

2.4 Screw Design

This section deals with the various parts of the screw.

2.4.1 Load propulsion

Load propulsion is expressed as
+R
u|
V= m/s -------------------------------- (4)

Where s = pitch (m),

n = speed of the shaft (rpm).
Substituting s = 0.04m and n = 8 rpm,
Hence, load propulsion = 0.00573 m/s.

2.4.2 Load per meter length of the screw conveyor

Load per meter length is expressed as
˜
s.u„
q= N/m ---------------------------------------------- (5)

where Q = 0.1N and

v = 0.00573m/s,
Hence, load per meter length = 4.84 N/m

2.4.3 Axial thrust on screw

Axial thrust on screw as expressed by Khurmi and Gupta (2005) is expressed as

Pa = qlh -------------------------------------------------- (6)

Where h = friction factor of material on trough (0.8),

q = load per meter length of the conveyor

Substituting q = 4.84N/m, l = 0.63m and h = 0.8

l = length of barrel.

Hence, axial thrust on screw = 6.195N

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2.5 Pulley and Belt Design

The v-belt and pulley arrangement are used to transmit power from the electric motor the
shaft of the screw extruding unit. The flexibility, simplicity, cost of maintenance and the
ability to absorb shocks against the effect of forces of vibration are the reasons behind the
choices of V-belt drive (Khurmi and Gupta, 2005). The specifications of the driving pulley
and the driven pulley were determined by the expression

N1/N2=D2/D1-------------------------------------------- (7)

where N1 = rated speed of the motor in rpm,

N2 = speed of the shaft in rpm,
D1 = diameter of the motor (driving) pulley and
D2 = diameter of the shaft.

After carefully choosing the diameters for both driven and drive pulley from standards,
D1 = 50mm, D2 = 250mm, N1 = 500rpm
Hence, N2 = 100rpm

Khurmi and Gupta (2005) provided the expressions which was used to determine the belt
speed to drive the screw shaft and the length of the belt of the peanut roaster
R•;
u|
Vbelt = ----------------------------------------------- (8)
3
L = (D1+ D2) +2C+ [(D1+ D2)2]/4c -------------- (9)
3
C = (D1+ D2) + D1 ---------------------------------- (10)

where,Vbelt = belt speed

L = length of belt and
C = center - center distance
After substituting, Vbelt = 6.54m/s,
C = 425mm and
L = 1097mm respectively
R
According to Khurmi and Gupta (2005) the angle of contact for open belt is expressed as
3 |
Ө = (180 - 2α) * rad --------------------- (11)

= sin-1 ( ) ----------------------------- (13)

3 ˆ>ˆ|
Sin = r1 – r2/c ------------------------------------ (12)
t ˆ
where Ө = angle of contact,
= angle of wrap.
0
Hence, = 10.16 and Ө = 2.7925rad

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2.5.1 Tension in the belts

Khurmi and Gupta (2005) provided an expression which relates the tight side and slack side
tension in terms of coefficient of friction and angle of contact

2.3log (T1/T2) = μө ---------------------------------- (14)

where T1 = tension in the tight side,

T2 = tension in the slack side,
μ = coefficient of friction and
ө = angle of contact.
Hence T1 = 268N and T2 = 67.885N

2.5.2 Power Requirement

Power transmitted per belt is expressed as

P = (T1 – T2) v------------------------------------------- (15)

where P = power transmitted,

T1 = tension in the tight side,
T2 = tension in the slack side and
v = speed of belt.
Substituting T1 = 268N,
T2 = 67.885N and
v = 6.54 m/s,
Hence P = 1308.79 kW.
However, a 1.5 kW (2 HP) single phase electric motor was selected so as to cater for any
spike in load.

2.6. Diameter of Shaft

The torque transmitted by the shaft is expressed as
R
3u
T= * τ * d3------------------------------------------- (16)

where T = equivalent twisting moment,

τ = shear stress and
d = diameter of the shaft.
According to standards, allowable shear stress for mild steel is 200 – 300 MPa.
Selecting 200Mpa for shear stress, given that T is 159290Nmm and substituting into the
above equation.
Hence shaft diameter is 15.595mm.
Therefore a mild steel rod of 20mm was selected for the shaft diameter.

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2.6.1 Speed of Shaft

The capacity of the horizontal acting screw conveyor was computed using the equation given
by Khurmi and Gupta (2005) as shown in the equation below

Q = 60n∅pγ (D2- d2) --------------------------------- (17)

R
t

where n = number of screw rotation per minute,

Q = capacity of the screw conveyor in the barrel (KN/h),

∅ = factor induced for horizontal conveyor

P = conveyor pitch (mm),

D = pitch diameter of conveyor (80mm),

d = shaft diameter and
γ = bulk density of peanut (640 kg/m3).

∅ = 0.8,
Given that γ = 640kg/m3,

P = 80mm,
Q = 12.5KN/h
D = 100mm and
d = 20mm.
Hence, speed of shaft is N2 = 2.13 rpm.

2.7 Heating Capacity

To determine the heat transfer rate from the heating shell and that required to roast the peanut
kernel, the equations below adapted from Iloeje (2005) and Eastop and Mcconkey (1993) and
respectively applied.

( 0[ ) gk = Wtg Cgk (Tr – Ta)/ tr --------------------------- (18)

0˜

where ( )gk = heat required to roast peanut kernel (W),

0˜
0[
Tr = roasting temperature / inside temperature of the cylinder (℃),
Cgk = specific heat capacity of peanut kernel (kj/kg ok),
Wtg = weight of targeted output of peanut kernel (kg),
tr = roasting time (s). According to Bitra et al., (2010),
Tr = 1200c,
Ta = 300c,
Cgk = 1900 kj/kg0c,
Wtg = 1.04kg,
tr = 5mins. (According to Onyekwere, 2015),
h = 15w/m2 0k,
K = 1.30w/m 0k.

Substituting all parameters into the above, the heat required to roast the peanut is 1000W.
Figure 2 shows an exploded view of the designed peanut roaster.

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Figure 2: Exploded view of the peanut roaster

Figure 3 shows the pictorial view of the machine after fabrication and assembly. Performance
of the machine was tested in the laboratory, department of mechanical engineering, University
of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.

Figure 3: Pictorial view of the machine after fabrication and assembly.

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3. MATERIALS AND METHODS USED FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Materials specification for the construction is listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Material Specification for Peanut Roasting Machine

Name of machine Peanut roaster
Purpose Roasting of peanuts
Mode of operation Batch type
Overall dimension(mm) 650 * 300 * 700
Roasting chamber
Diameter 90 mm
Length 630 mm
Power unit (Electric unit)
Power rating 2 h.p, single phase motor
Working speed 1410 rpm
Capacity (kg/batch) 1.04 kg/batch
Floor area mm2 650 * 300

Determination of Performance Efficiency

• Raw de-shelled peanuts were obtained from Oyingbo fresh foods market in Lagos
state.
• The peanuts were then rinsed, soaked lightly in warm water and salted.
• Several runs were carried out. Each time, after preheating the peanut roaster for 30
minutes, 1.04kg of raw peanut was introduced into the machine via the hopper.
• The peanut seeds were subsequently conveyed by the screw conveyor and roasted in
the roasting chamber.
• Three (3) different screw conveyors with screw clearances of 4mm, 6mm and 8mm
were tested one after the other.
• Efficiency was computed as the ratio of mass of unbroken peanut seeds after roasting
to the mass of peanut seeds fed into the machine via the hopper.
• Standard Deviation (STD) was computed at the final stage.

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clearance
clearance

Figure 4: Screw conveyor clearance (gap between screw conveyor and barrel)

™W¢¢ PZ _Rì PL§R §WR_[ ¢§§0¢ WZ[§ PW¢[ RW

™W¢¢ PZ Wm §WR_[ ¢§§0¢ ì§ZP § PW¢[ RW
Performance Efficiency = ---------------- (20)

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the roasting process, an insignificant amount of the peanut seeds fed-in to the roasting
machine get burnt as a result of irregular heat distribution (due to either bad design of the
heating surface or heating controller malfunction) over the heating surface. In this study,
performance efficiency is based on the percentage by weight of unbroken roasted peanuts.
Thus, the amount of burnt peanuts was removed from the equation’s numerator while its
equivalent initial counterpart was deducted from the denominator. The singular reason for this
approach was that the roasting efficiency was more a function of physical than thermal
effects.
The results of ten (10) runs carried out in each case of screw clearance are shown in Table 2.
The table shows that the best performances were experienced with the 4mm screw conveyor.
The poorer performance by the other clearances (6mm and 8mm) can be explained away by
the possible trapping of the roasting nuts between the screw conveyor and the barrel after
experiencing shrinkage due to water loss.
This position is further reinforced by the absence of any compression effects in the screw
conveyor system. Thus, breakage of the nuts may simply be adduced to the rubbing action of
the nuts when trapped between the screw conveyor and the barrel wall when being conveyed
along the barrel.

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Table 2: Results of experimental runs.

Screw Screw Screw
Experiment Clearance Clearance Clearance
No. (8mm) (6mm) (4mm)
1 70.8 72.3 84.6
2 71.4 75.6 82.9
3 67.5 68.8 78.3
4 67.5 69.3 83.3
5 72.3 73.4 81.0
6 67.1 67.3 85.5
7 71.9 73.9 92.3
8 68.9 75.7 95.4
9 66.2 69.8 86.7
10 65.4 66.2 85.8

Olaniyan et al. (2017) studied the influence of roasting time on performance efficiency of the
roasting machine. They determined that the average performance efficiencies of the roasting
machine were 73.54%, 71.27% and 69.47% for roasting times of 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 minutes,
respectively. The reason for this trend as posited by the authors is that roasting time had an
adverse effect on the nuts as they become more brittle due to reduction in moisture content.
Brittleness makes the nuts more susceptible breakage during roasting and conveyance. Thus,
roasting time had an inverse effect on the machine performance efficiency. The authors
concluded that the percentage (by weight) of unbroken roasted peanuts decreased as roasting
time increased.
In comparison with Olaniyan et al. (2017) work, the performance achieved by the 4 mm screw
clearance is commendable. Two factors are suspected to be responsible for the improved
efficiency. Firstly, the roasting time employed in this study was the optimal roasting time (5
minutes) from Olaniyan et al. study. Secondly the abrasive effects of the screw conveyor on
the nuts was discouraged via screw/barrel gap design. The combination of these two factors is
most likely responsible for the improved performance efficiency.
Figure 5 shows the variation of performance efficiency as influenced by different screw
clearances in bar chart form.

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100

90

80
Perfoance Efficincy (%)

70

60

50 8 mm clearance

40 6 mm clearance

30 4 mm clearance

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Experiment Number

Figure 5: Variation of performance of the different screw clearances.

Table 3 lists the average performance efficiency for the three clearances tests. The values are
85.6 %, 71.2 % and 68.9 % for the 4mm, 6mm and 8mm screw clearances respectively. The
last column of the table shows the standard deviation of the respective values.

Table 3: Summary of results.

Screw Clearance Efficiency (%)

S/N (mm) Mean (%) STD (%)
1 4 85.6 5.06
2 6 71.2 3.41
3 8 68.9 2.52

5. CONCLUSION
A peanut roasting machine was designed, fabricated and tested. All the construction materials
are available and accessible locally and at affordable prices. The investigation was aimed at
maximizing the peanut roasting efficiency via the screw clearance. In order to achieve this,
the performance efficiency for different screw clearance was sought for. Average
performance efficiency was found to be 68.9%, 71.2% and 85.6%, for 8mm, 6mm and 4mm
respectively. In comparison with literature-based results, the machine is found to have
performed satisfactorily well with the smallest clearance. The machine can be used for small
scale peanut roasting in urban and semi urban areas. The machine can also be scaled up for
industrial application.

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Future Work
Future work should focus amongst others on the improvement in heat distribution over the
heating surface, located in the roasting chamber. This should provide a more uniform heat
distribution and thus impact on the losses due to thermal effects. It will also provide a more
uniform heat distribution and thus impact on the appearance (color) of the peanut after
roasting.

6. REFERENCES
Akinoso, R., Asiru, W. B., & Awoliyi, O. O. (2004). Design, development and
performance evaluation of a manual cashew nut hot oil roasting machine. Nigerian Food
Journal, 22(1), 183-188.
Bitra, V. S., Banu, S., Ramakrishna, P., Narender, G., & Womac, A. R. (2010).
Moisture dependent thermal properties of peanut pods, kernels, and shells. Biosystems
engineering, 106(4), 503-512.
Davids, K. (2003). Home coffee roasting, revised, updated edition: Romance and
revival. Macmillan.
Eastop, T. D. & McConkey, A. (1993): Applied thermodynamics for Engineering
Technologies. 5th edition, Pearson Education Ltd, England.
Iloeje, O. C. (2005); Heat and mass transfer. Mechanical Engineering lecture note (ME
471), UNN.
Khurmi, R. S., & Gupta, J. K. (2005). A textbook of machine design. S. Chand
publishing.
Lawal, A. O., Yiljep, Y. D., & Abubakar, S. Z. National Agricultural Extension and
Research Liaison Services Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Agric. Engineering Series
Extension Bulletin Series, (4).
Olaniyan, A. M., Karim, O. R., & Eromosele, E. O. (2017). Design and development a
small-scale peanut roaster. The Journal of the Association of Professional Engineers of
Trinidad and Tobago, 45(2), 34-39.
Olatunde, O. B., Ajav, E. A., & Fatukasi, S. O. (2014). Design and fabrication of
peanut (Arachis Hypogaea) roaster cum expeller. International journal of science and
technology, 3(3), 177-184.
Raemy, A. (1992). From thermal analysis to safety science. Journal of thermal
analysis, 38(3), 437-443.
Ugwuoke, I. C., Okegbile, O. J., & Ikechukwu, I. B. (2014). Design and fabrication of
peanut shelling and separating machine. International Journal of Engineering Science
Invention, 3(4), 60-66.

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF LOCALLY

AVAILABLE SANDS IN PAKISTAN

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

M.A Khan
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

S. Noshin
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Nazir
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

[Link]
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

K. Riaz
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

H. Ahmad
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

ABSTRACT
The design of structure requires the consideration of many essential factors with regard to soil
classification, and geology and Geotechnical information (GI) of site. Among
GI, Permeability is one of the most important and frequently used properties of soils.
Previously known Grain size Distribution and density influence the permeability of sandy
soils. However, here the objective of this research was to investigate the quantitative
relationships between permeability Coefficient (K) and effective particle size (D10). For this
Purpose, forty samples of sandy soils with different incorporation levels of locally available
sands (Lawrencepur, Ravi and Chenab Sand) were prepared from well graded to poorly
graded and were performed Constant Head Permeability Test in the Soil Mechanics
laboratory of University of Lahore. From the tests performed on forty samples of sand, we
obtained a relationship by regression Analysis as K=0.0684(D10)2 which was compared by
Allen Hazen formula for clean filter sands which is K=C (D10)2 where the value of C is from
1-1.5. While specific gravity and dry density have values 2.1-2.9 and 1.477 to 1.677 g/cm3
respectively.

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Based on the results, it was found that our relation with permeability coefficient and effective
particle size is 95% more as compared to Allen Hazen’s proposed relationship because of our
material ranging from well graded to poorly graded. Beside this, well graded sands have value
of Cc should be between 1and 3, but for the sands sample used for the project have Cc values
is between 0.7-0.9.
Keywords: Permeability, Grain size Distribution, Effective particle size, clean filter sand,
Dry density, Well graded, Poorly graded, Constant Head Permeability Test.

410
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EFFECT OF CARPET FIBER REINFORCEMENT ON UNCONFINED

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CLAYEY SOIL

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

M.A Khan
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

S. Noshin
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Nazir
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

[Link]
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

H. Ahmad
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

K. Riaz
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

ABSTRACT
Determination of strength parameters of a soil sample is highly dependent on the soil density
and its variability across the sample. In this study, the mechanical behavior of cohesive soils
(i.e. clay soils) with comparable concentration of carpet fiber is investigated. To achieve the
target we collected soil samples from Nandipur (District Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan) and
transported it to the University of Lahore lab (Soil Mechanics).For this purpose a total 27
samples with different incorporation levels of carpet fibres from 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%,
12.5%, 15%, 17.5%, 20% were prepared. Then physical properties for soil classification and
later Modified proctor test and Unconfined Compression test were performed on samples.
Carpet was purchased from Nayyar Carpets from Ferozpur road Lahore, Pakistan. The
unconfined samples have dimension 1.5” diameter and 3” length. Because the quality of
Nayyar carpet is less costly and suitable for testing and used in the size 2-5mm length and
diameter 60-100µm.

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Soil Sample having fines content were more than 96%, Liquid limit was 62.2% and plastic
limit was 22.6%, so according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) the soil is
CH while modified dry density (γd) and OMC were 19.85KN/m3 and 10% respectively. In
case of carpet fiber when we add an increasing percentage of carpet fiber the strength
increases up to 10% usage. The results have shown that carpet fibers have a positive effect
(Reinforcing effect) on the shear strength and unconfined compression strength of clay soils
with varying proportions of fiber content.
Keywords: Modified dry Density, Cohesive Soil, Carpet Fiber, Unconfined Compression
Tests, Compression strength, Shear stress, Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit

412
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SYNERGISTIC USE OF BENTONITE AND FLY ASH CLASS (F)

ON THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Khuram Riaz
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Madeeha Iqbal, Sadaf Noshin

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Shabeer Hussain
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology, 1-km defence Road Bhobatian Chowk, Lahore, 54590, Pakistan.

Alireza Khoshkonesh
Bu-Ali Sina University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Water Engineering

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

ABSTRACT
Concrete is a material which is commonly used in the construction field. Concrete is usually
made from different types of sand and gravel that is bonded together by cement and water.
This study is to investigate the compressive strength of concrete with Bentonite and Fly Ash
as additive materials in concrete mixture. For this purpose, total thirty six(36) cylinders
samples having size 150 mm diameter and 300mm height were cast using mix ratio 1:2:4
and water to cement (w/c) is 0.6 for target Compressive Strength 21MPa and tested for slump
and compressive strength at the ages of 7,14,28 days. For preparation of concrete,
Cement was replaced with Bentonite and Fly Ash and prepared four types of sample
as MI(100%Cement,0%Bentonite, 0% Fly Ash), M2 (90%Cement,5%Bentonite, 5% Fly
Ash) , M3(70%Cement,15%Bentonite, 15% Fly Ash) and M4(50%Cement,25%Bentonite,
25% Fly Ash). Then, after normal water curing the samples were cured for 7, 14 and 28 days
before testing. The results showed that workability has a positive effect by the addition of
cementitious materials. Compressive strength has a negative effect on the compressive
strength by the addition of Cementitious materials at early ages due to small pozzolanic effect
while at the ages of 28 days compressive strength comparing to target strength was
achieved for M3 mix which was 22.82MPa.
Keywords: Bentonite, Class F fly Ash, Water Cement Ratios, Curing, Compressive Strength,
Pozzolanic effect

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COMPARISON OF AKDERE FLOW MEASUREMENT STATION DATA BASED

DEEP-LEARNING MODELS IN PREDICTION OF STREAM-FLOW FOR WATER
RESOURCES APPROACH

Asst. Prof. Dr. Huseyin Cagan KILINC

İstanbul Esenyurt University, Engineering Faculty, Civil Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0003-1848-2856

Asst. Prof. Dr. Yunus OZTURK

Kilis 7 Aralık University, Engineering Faculty, Civil Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0001-8032-9292

Prof. Dr. Sudi APAK

İstanbul Esenyurt University, Engineering Faculty, Industrial Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0003-4333-8266

MSc Ebru TARIM

4
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Engineering Faculty, Civil Engineering Department
ORCID: 0000-0001-6980-1891

ABSTRACT
Water is the most important source of life in human life for centuries. Due to the growing
population, the need for water on earth is increasing day by day. In contrast to this increase,
water resources; global warming, drought, climate changes, unplanned consumption is
desiphering and losing sustainability. The forward forecast of river currents is of great
importance in order to ensure sustainability. The input-output account of the waters that have
recently rened in rivers is predicted by forward-looking artificial intelligence (AI) techniques.
The long-term estimates provide suitable planning for both the producer and the user for the
production of water resources for living beings, irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and
the transfer of water to future generations. In this study, the estimation of river currents is
done by creating Deep Learning (DL) model from Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques
using numerical current data measured in flow measurement stations (FMS). Performance
analyses were examined and evaluated using deep learning optimizer and loss functions for
many years of daily flow values of 2 different rasts in the Euphrates Basin, one of the 25
basins in Turkey. The best forecast model is determined by comparing actual data and
forecast models. The highest correlation for Akdere was determined at MAE values using
ADAMAX optimizer.
Keywords ANN, Deep learning, River Stream, Flow measurement station

1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a source of life that is vital for humans and brings life almost to a halt in case of lack.
It faces many negativities that will jeopardize its sustainability day by day. For this reason,
predicting water resources enables water to be used in every future in a planned, efficient and
economical way. Water resources management extends to the rainwater collected in river
basins and the transfer of these rainwater to consumers.

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In the management of river basins, evaluation of land soil is of great importance along with
accurate estimation of current measurement stations. The main goal should be to protect, plan
and sustain river basins. In this context, planning of water resources management can be done
strategically by creating many prediction models. ANN and deep learning models, one of the
AI techniques, are among these prediction methods. Estimates can provide suitable planning
opportunity for both the producer and the user for water resources, living things, irrigation,
hydroelectric power generation and transfer of water to future generations.
Accurate estimation of flow is an necessary component for both water amount and amount
direction. In last years, AI techniques have been evidented as a computer science branch to
model a vast variety of hydrological handle. A number of research studies are conducted to
find a more fruitful approach in terms of correctness and acticality (Mehr et al., 2013).
DL is an develope branch of AI consisting of a large number of layers of neurons that
symbolize the learning handle. DL can get over with large-scale data and excel in several
fields. Accordingly, surveyors pay more notice to investigating DL for intrusion detection
(Aldweesh et al., 2020). DL is one of the developed touches to machine learning and has been
gaining more and more note in last years (Boulemtafes et al., 2020). With the rapid growth of
DL algorithms, many high-correctness models were developed and implemented in the real
world space. DL is parallel and suitable for distributed computing, which can significantly
increase system efficiency. A kind of distributed computing system is proposed for deep
learning. The design concept of cache pre-transmission aims to use reinforcement learning to
train a pre-forward policy to increase the cache hit rate. Due to the characteristics of
reinforcement learning, this policy can be adapted and applied to different computer
environments. Finally, this system has been demonstrated experimentally (Cheng et al.,
2020).
Terzi and Köse (2012), in the flow estimation of Göksu River, ANN models are developed by
using the current values of the stations no.1714, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 days ago and the current
values of the stations no 1719 and 1720 as input. It is observed that the developed model's
coefficient of clarity and average absolute error value gives better conclusions compared to
other models.
Yurdusev et al., (2008), estimation of monthly flows in the closed basin of Akarçay river from
rain and flow observations using the ANN method, models are designed in 4 different
categories depending on the parameters such as the location of the precipitation observation
stations present in the basin and the observation interval. The conclusions obtained are
compared with the conclusions of multivariate regression analysis and it is revealed that ANN
can be successfully applied to the flow prediction problem from the flow and precipitation
observations and produces safe estimates.
The flow rate of the Lower Sakarya River gives the highest determination coefficient (R2) of
the four-day time shift using flow data obtained from Doğançay Current Observation Station
using Feed Forward Back Propagated Neural Networks from ANN models. This study on the
Sakarya river is thought to help future energy planning and flood studies (Kızılaslan et al.,
2013).
An ANN model is developed and applied to the daily flows of the Coruh River in the Coruh
basin. The ANN model created successfully represents the daily flows of the Coruh River;
Thus, it is thought that the developed model structure can be used successfully in the
estimation of daily flows of other river basins (Okkan and Mollamahmutoğlu, 2010).

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Gündüz (2011), daily flow data in 1968-2006 period is used for ANN and wavelet
transformation models developed to estimate river flow in Fırat-Dicle basin. Crosscheck
conclusions show that AI techniques can be used successfully in river flow prediction. It is
observed that the Köprüçay currents estimated by the forward feed backward propagation
ANN method give better conclusions when compared with the conclusions of the linear
regression (LR) model (Demirpençe, 2005).
In this study, estimations of river flows are made with the data obtained from current
measurement stations. Prediction is realized by making use of AImethods ANN and DL
models. As a conclusion of the crosscheck, the best prediction model can be determined and
can be a guide in similar studies.

2. STUDY AREA AND DATA

In this study, the daily streamflow information used was collected from the Euphrates River
located in the southeast region of the Turkey. The daily flow values of a flow measurement
stations in the Fırat Basin, one of the 25 basins in Turkey, were examined and evaluated for
performance analyses using DL optimizers (Figure 1).

Figure1: Location of Euphrates river basin

This basin is located in the eastern part of Turkey with a 127304 km2 area –making it the
biggest wetland area in the country. River Murat and River Karasu are important rivers
supplying Euphrates River with water (Figure 2).The data used in this study was flow
measurement stations taken from General Directorate of State Water Affairs (DSI) which are
the most accurate data in the Euphrates river and they are located at the same basin area.
Euphrates Basin has area of 127 304 km2, with an average elevation of 1009.87m. The
average rainfall is 540.1 mm / year. According to the records in the beginning and middle of
the 20th century, the average annual natural flow of the Euphrates River is 20.9 cubic
kilometers. The station are D21A183 (Akdere Çayı Aşağıköprülü Village). The daily
discharge data taken into account for this study covered the period of 2011-2018 for.
The flow of the river was measured by calculating the water level pressure with a sensor
placed in the target area of the river. In the study, 70% of the flow data was used as training
data and 30% as test data.

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Figure 2: Euphrates river basin and its drainage network

3. METHODOLOGY
In this study, the DL method was performed by Keras library to predict the stream flow.
Standardization of a dataset is a common requirement for many machine learning estimators.
The mentioned machine learning bookcase is actually a bookcase of program the systems.
There is more than one system in the library. Python Deep Learning Aplication (PDLA) is a
python library for deep learning. Besides this bookcase it also works with Tensorflow librariy
which can be helpful for DL usage. Because it is a high-level bookcase, the user can develop
application more easily than Tensorflow. For this reason, it is widely used. This bookcase can
be used by many developers around the world.
Artificial Intelligence
The idea of creating smart machines, especially smart systems that can learn and predict, was
put forward in the 1980s. Artificial intelligence, which has become a part of our daily life
with the development of technology; expert systems have become structures that can learn,
reason, make use of past information, plan, offer suggestions and communicate with fuzzy
logic, genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks. While AI systems are used for
different purposes in many disciplines, the methods developed during this widespread use
continue to contribute to the development of other fields (Arslan, 2020). AI has the
capabilities to analyze complex medical data. The ability of AI methods to reveal meaningful
relationships within a data set is used in many clinical scenarios to predict diagnosis,
treatment and outcome. The main AI methods that are widely used today; expert systems are
fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks (Demirhan et al., 2010).
Deep Learning
The history of DL goes back to 1943, when Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch imitated the
human brain and developed a computer model based on neural networks. They used a
combination of mathematics and an algorithm they called "threshold logic" to imitate the
thinking process. DL allows computational models consisting of multiple processing layers to
learn representations of data with multiple levels of abstraction. These methods have
significantly improved the latest technology in many other areas, such as speech recognition,
visual object recognition, object detection, drug discovery and genomics.

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DL explores the complex structure in large datasets by using the re propagation algorithm to
specify how a machine must change the internal parameters used to calculate the
representation on each layer from the representation in the previous layer. Deep-eve networks
have made breakthroughs in the processing of images, videos, speeches and sounds, while
repetitive networks have shed light on sequentive data such as text and speech (LeCun et al.,
2015). DL has serious potential to change and improve many things in our lives, and research
is supported in every way by making significant investments (Keleş, 2018).
Optimizers
Adam optimization is an algorithm for first order gradient based optimization of stochastic
functions based on predictions of lower order moments. The method can be easily used in
non-stationary problems and has a minimum memory requirement. The success rate is much
higher in efficient parameters. While creating the probability distribution of the outputs, it
statistically optimizes the input-output map (Kingma and Ba, 2014).
Adamax is a variation of Adam dependent on the unendingness standard. It is a variant of
Adam based on the infinity norm. Default parameters follow those provided in the paper.
Adamax is sometimes superior to adam, specially in models with embeddings (Kingma and
Ba, 2015).
Evaluation Criteria

3.1.1. MAD (Mean Absolute Deviation)

It is the average of the absolute deviations of the data at a given information point or simply
the "mean absolute deviation" (MAD) in the data set. In global form, the central point can be
the conclusion of a randomly selected data point associated with the data set given by the
median, mode, mean, or any central trend measure. The absolute values of the difference
between the data points and their central tendencies can be summed and divided by the
number of points in the data set (Konno and Koshizuka, 2005).

3.1.2. MAPE (Mean Absolute Percentage Error)

MAPE, where the actual value is not zero but is quite small, will often get extremely high
values. The precision of this scale makes MAPE insignificant as a measure of error when
using it for low volume data. MAPE is the most commonly used summary measure to assess
the correctness of population estimates. Although MAPE has many desirable criteria, it argues
that, from both normative and relative perspectives, the common practice of using it only to
evaluate population estimates should be changed. It is normally considered that MAPE does
not meet the validity criterion because it exaggerates the error found in a population estimate
as a summary measure (Tayman and Swanson, 1999).

3.1.3. MEAN (Actual / Predicted)

For statistics, a forecast error is the difference between the actual value of a time series and
the predicted or predicted value. With the prediction error derived from the same data scale,
crosschecks between prediction errors of different series can only be made on the same serial
scale.

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3.1.4. STD (Standard deviation)

Standard deviation is a measure used in probability theory and statistical science to
summarize the propagation of data values, a sample, a probability distribution, or a random
variable. In other words, it is a measure that shows how high each data in a study group is
compared to the average and how common the distribution is in another frequency.

3.1.5. Correlation
Correlation analysis is an analysis technique used to examine the relationships between two
sets of variables, each with at least two variables. In analysis, one variable set can be defined
as a descriptive or argument set, and the other can be defined as a dependent variable set.
However, variable sets do not have to be defined in this way. In the broadest sense correlation
is any statistical association, though it commonly refers to the degree to which a pair of
variables are linearly related.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

While analyzing the performance of the model, the proximity between the real values and the
estimated values was examined. Correlation, R2, MSE, MAE, RMSE and MAD, Std, among
the methods used for the evaluation of models in the literature, were used as evaluation
methods. The evaluation conclusions obtained by comparing the deep learning conclusions
with the real conclusions were shown in Table 1. Regression chart, which is one of the most
important charts comparing the real values with the estimated values, were shown in Figure 3
separately according to the training and test conclusions for the 4-shift scenario. The more
linear the actual and predicted values shown in this type of chart, the closer the values are.
According to the chart in the figure, the conclusions with the closest to real values are the
training conclusions of the scenario with the highest correlation value. According to these
conclusions, it can be called that the MAE loss is more accomplished for the test in the DL
model.

1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
-0,2

adam-mae adam-mse adamax-mae adamax-mse

Figure 3: Crosscheck of statistical conclusions for Akdere station

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Table 1: Crosscheck of All Remedial Conclusions for Statistical Evaluation for Akdere
Station
AKDERE
ADAMAX- ADAMAX-
Statistics ADAM-MAE ADAM-MSE
MAE MSE
MAD 0,137982 0,214168 0,134152 0,164533
MSE 0,126381 0,282030 0,124868 0,159106
RMSE 0,356134 0,531065 0,353367 0,398880
MAE 0,183245 0,243009 0,169879 0,228568
MEAN 1,035630 0,917398 1,100508 0,912371
STD 0,550444 0,501119 0,556797 0,841517
Correlation 0,994584 0,987941 0,994630 0,993660

5. CONCLUSIONS
The data set used in this study taken from the daily measurements of DSI flow measurement
station from Akdere, the village of Aşağıçöplü No D21A183 (2011-2018) on the Göksu
River. The data set of 4 time-shifted scenarios, the flow values starting from 4 days before to
one day before were used as input in the 5th day forecast. In the study, the Sequential Model
was created by using Python DL Aplication Bookcase, which is a DL bookcase. The model
used in the study consists of 1 input layer, 4 hidden layers and 1 output layer. The Epoch
(Iteration) number is 1024 for the 4-shift scenario. 70% of the data belonging to 4 shifting
scenarios used for training and 30% for testing. In this study, in the south of Turkey and one
of the major water sources of a DL model to predict current values of the Euphrates River
branch were formed. While analyzing the performance of the model, the proximity between
the real values and the estimated values was examined.
The more linear the actual and predicted values shown in this type of chart, the closer the
values are. According to the chart in the figure, the conclusions with the closest to real values
are the training conclusions of the scenario with the highest correlation value. Correlation
values of the training and test conclusions obtained from the model for the 4-shifting scenario
were found as 0.9946 for Akdere-Adam MAE. One-to-one conclusions were obtained in
places that seem like a single line. The model was run many times by creating hidden layers
with different numbers and properties. As a conclusion of these studies, the conclusions of the
four-shift scenarios were compared separately and the conclusions of the experiment of the
best conclusions were used in the study. In order to examine the realism of the conclusions,
the model using this information was run repeatedly and it was observed that similar
conclusions were obtained in each run.
Considering all the conclusions, it was observed that the success of the 4 translational
scenarios and the DL model was very good. The use of this scenario and the DL model in
future studies will guide the forecast of current values. In this study, an forecast was made
based on single current values and successful conclusions were obtained.

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When the input parameters are increased, it will be useful to use them in future studies with
different scenarios. In addition, with these estimated flow values, an important data was
obtained in terms of designing and feasibility of a potential dam that is planned to be built on
different rivers.

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Artificial Neural Networks and Regression Analysis. Dumlupınar University Journal of the
Institute of Science, (023), 33-48.
Tayman, J., Swanson, D. A. (1999). On the validity of MAPE as a measure of
population forecast accuracy. Population Research and Policy Review, 18(4), 299-322.

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Terzi, Ö., Köse, M. (2012). Current Prediction of Göksu River By Artificial Neural
Networks Method. International Journal of Technological Sciences, 4(3), 1-7.
Yurdusev, M. A., Müserref, A. C. I., Turan, M. E., İçağa, Y. (2008). Estimation of
Akarçay river monthly flows with artificial neural networks. Celal Bayar University Journal
of Science, 4(1), 73-88.

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SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF RC BEAMS WITH GFRP STRIPS USING

DIFFERENT WRAPPING TECHNICS WITHOUT ANCHORING APPLICATION

Ceyhun AKSOYLU
Konya Technical University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Civil Engineering
Department
ORCID: 0000-0002-1574-4251

ABSTRACT
This study investigated the strengthen of rectangular beams of 100x150x1000 mm in size with
1/3 section geometric scale with glass fiber polymer material (GFRP). The study aims to
observe typical bending beam behavior with a minimum GFRP strip width (30mm). For this,
four beams, one of which is a reference and the other three of which are strengthened in
different configurations, were tested under vertical load. Strengthen was applied in the form
of U-shaped (GFRP-1), U-shape+1 lateral strip (GFRP-2), and U-shape+2 lateral strip
(GFRP-3). All strengthen methods were applied without anchorage. In the experimental
study, the reference beam, which was insufficient in shear, suffered direct shear damage with
increasing load. The GFRP-1 specimen exhibited typical bending beam behavior. The load-
carrying capacity of GFRP-2 and GFRP-3 is higher than GFRP-1, and the experiment was
terminated due to shear bending behavior. As a result of the strengthening applications, the
load-carrying capacity increased by 53.1%-72.7% compared to the reference specimen. As a
result of the study, it was seen that GFRP, which is 3 to 5 times more cost-effective than
carbon fiber polymer material, can be used as an alternative for strengthening beams with
shear deficient reinforcement. In addition, it can be said that strengthening applications
without anchorage with GFRP are more practical and effective; however, good labor is
needed.
Keywords: Glass fiber polymer material (GFRP), Non-anchor strengthening, Shear beam

GFRP ŞERİTLER İLE BETONARME KİRİŞLERIN ANKRAJ UYGULAMASI

OLMADAN FARKLI SARMA TEKNİKLERI KULLANILARAK KESME
GÜÇLENDİRMESİ

ÖZET
Bu çalışmada 1/3 kesit geometrik ölçeğine sahip 100x150x1000 mm boyutlarındaki
dikdörtgen kirişlerin cam lifli polimer malzeme (GFRP) ile güçlendirilmesi araştırılmıştır.
Çalışmada minimum GFRP şerit genişliği (30mm) ile tipik eğilme kiriş davranışının
gözlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bunun için biri referans diğer üçü farklı şekillerde güçlendirilmiş
toplam dört kiriş düşey yük altında test edilmiştir. Güçlendirmeler U şekilli (GFRP-1), U
şekil+1 adet yatay şerit (GFRP-2) ve U şekil+2 adet yatay şerit (GFRP-3) şeklinde
uygulanmıştır. Tüm güçlendirme yöntemleri ankrajsız olarak uygulanmıştır. Deneysel
çalışmada kesme yönünden yetersiz olan referans kiriş artan yük ile beraber doğrudan kesme
hasarına uğramıştır. GFRP-1 numunesi tipik eğilme kiriş davranışı sergilemiştir. GFRP-2 ve
GFRP-3’ün yük taşıma kapasitesi GFRP-1’den daha fazla olup kesmeli eğilme davranışı
sonucunda deney sonlanmıştır. Güçlendirme uygulamaları sonucunda yük taşıma kapasitesi
referans numuneye göre %53.1-%72.7 oranında artış sergilemiştir.

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Yapılan çalışma sonucunda maliyeti karbon lifli polimer malzemeye göre 3 ila 5 kat daha
uygun olan GFRP’nin kesme yönünden yetersiz donatıya sahip kirişler için güçlendirme de
alternatif olarak kullanılabileceği görülmüştür. Ayrıca GFRP ile ankrajsız güçlendirme
uygulamalarının daha pratik ve etkili olduğu bununla birlikte iyi bir işçiliğe ihtiyaç olduğu
söylenebilir.
Keywords: Cam lifli polimer malzeme (GFRP), Ankrajsız güçlendirme, Kesme kirişi

INTRODUCTION
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials are used in strengthening applications in the civil
engineering area. FRPs are composite systems produced from materials with high physical
properties such as Carbon, Aramid, Kevlar, Glass, and Basalt. FRP composites have very high
tensile strength and being light. These composite materials are produced as unidirectional,
bidirectional, and different oriented fabrics. Since it is a light and flexible material, it does not
cause an increase in dead load in the structure. One of the first field studies on FRP
composites was conducted in 1991 in Lucerne, Switzerland, on the Ibac bridge, a box-section
bridge [1]. CFRP is widely used in strengthened applications compared to other fiber polymer
materials due to its very high tensile strength. This material is 5 times lighter than traditional
steel material, and its tensile strength is 8-10 times higher [2]. Although GFRP has superior
properties as CFRP, it is less preferred. It is particularly striking that its cost is 3-5 times less
than CFRP [3]. In recent years, studies in which beams with shear deficient are strengthened
with GFRP draw attention. For instance, the shear beam was strengthened with GFRP by the
author's previous [3] study. As a result of the study, it was stated that GFRP contributed
significantly to the load-carrying capacity and ductility of the strengthened beams. Similarly,
Baggio et al. [4] indicated that full U-wrapping with FRP sheets perform better than partial U-
wrapping, and RC beams strengthened in shear with carbon FRP (CFRP) sheets exhibited the
high strength and stiffness compared with the glass FRP (GFRP) and FRCM (fiber reinforced
cementitious matrix) systems. RC beams strengthened by using the U-wrapping method with
one layer of CFRP and two layers of GFRP exhibited similar shear and flexural strengths [5].
Moreover, the shear-strengthening of RC beams with FRP composites includes full-wrapping,
U-wrapping, and side-bonding methods. Due to FRP strip debonding from the beam side
edges[6], RC beams shear strengthened with FRP side strips or U-strips frequently fail.
However, the debonding failure can be prevented by applying anchorage and/or FRP strip
head to the FRP strips ends in case of FRP side-wrapping and U-wrapping [7].
This paper investigates the shear strength of rectangular RC beams of insufficient shear
capacity. Three wrapping types were applied; U-wrapping, U-wrapping+1 longitudinal
bonding strips and U-wrapping+2 longitudinal bonding strips. It is aimed to maximize the
shear strength with minimum FRP strip width.

Material and Method

In this study, a rectangular shear beam was investigated. The beams were designed on a small
scale. All details of the beams are given in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Details of specimens, dimensions are in mm.

In the experiment, 2ϕ10 (ρ=0.0112) and 2ϕ8 (ρ'=0.0071) longitudinal rebar were placed in
both tension and compression zone of all beams. The longitudinal tension and compression
rebar are selected to be less than the balanced rebar ratio (ρ-ρ'=0.0040<ρb=0.0278), and the
rebar type has been designed as B420c to show the ductile failure behavior of the beams.
Stirrup hooks were used at 135º, considering the situation in the existing RC building stock.
The average 28-day characteristic cylinder concrete compression strength is calculated as 39.5
MPa. After the cylinder splitting test, the tensile splitting strength was calculated as 2.089
MPa. The concrete cover was considered 10 mm.
An application was used a unidirectional single layer 1200 gr/m2 glass fiber fabric in 90°
configuration. The effective thickness of the GFRP strip was 1.2 mm. According to the test
method from ASTM D3039M [8] the tension strength of the GFRP strip is 3.5 GPa, the
tensile modulus is 80GPa, and the elongation is 4.37%. This study investigated high-strength
GFRP composites according to the literature [9]. The steps of preparing glass fabrics, wetting
them with F-1564 epoxy resin, hardener F-3486, and applying them to the beam's surface are
given in Fig. 2. Firstly, compressed air was applied to remove dust and loose particles from
the roughed concrete surface. After cleaning with water and the prepared resin + hardener
mixture, CFRP and GFRP strips were applied to the concrete surface to create a good
interface. The mixing ratio (by weight) of resin and hardener was considered as 100/34.
Finally, RC beams applied with GFRP strips were cured at room temperature for at least
seven days before testing to ensure the epoxy resin's complete strength development.

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Fig. 2. The steps of GFRP application

Test setup and instrumentation

Since shear failure was aimed to constitute the predominant mode of failure, the av/d ratio
(shear span to depth ratio) was selected as 2.7. All samples were subjected to monotonic
loading. A spreader beam was symmetrically placed on samples considered as a support span
of 375 mm. The samples were tested under symmetrical two-point loading (Fig. 3). The pre-
test views of the strengthened test specimens are also shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Test setup

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Fig. 4. General view of the specimens

The capacity of the hydraulic piston used in the experimental study is 300 kN. The loading
protocol implemented in the experiments was conducted in 10 kN increases with vertical
monotonic loading. When the beams yield, the loading continued as displacement-controlled.
Cracks were marked during the experiment. Displacements were measured using two linear
variable differential transformers (LVDT's) placed to the maximum moment points. The
strengthenings have a fixed strip width of 30 mm and have been applied in the form of U-
shaped (GFRP-1), U-shape + 1 horizontal strip (GFRP-2), and U-shape + 2 horizontal strips
(GFRP-3).

Experimental Results and Discussion

In the experimental study, the reference beam (RB) terminated due to shear damage. The
GFRP-1 specimen exhibited typical ductile behavior. On the other hand, GFRP-2 and GFRP-
3 specimens exhibited partially ductile behavior. When the load-carrying capacities were
compared, GFRP-1<GFRP-2<GFRP-3 was obtained. The stiffness and ductility values of
each tested specimen were calculated by considering Fig. 5. The results for each specimen are
given in Table 1.

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Table 1. Test results

(0.85*Pmax)
Pmax
Pmax Artış 0.85*Pmax Süneklik Rijitlik Artış Artış
Numuneler Rijitlik
(kN) oranı (kN) (δu/ δy) değeri oranı oranı
(kN/mm)
(kN/mm)
RB 41.85 1 35.57 2.26 10.16 1 8.15 1
GFRP-1 64.06 1.53 54.45 10.95 8.18 0.80 2.59 0.31
GFRP-2 69.71 1.67 59.25 2.49 5.53 0.54 2.48 0.30
GFRP-3 72.31 1.73 61.47 3.00* 6.61 0.65 2.72 0.34

Fig. 5. Comparison of reference and strengthened beams

As shown from Fig. 5 and Table 1, the strengthened beams increased between 53% and
72.7% in load-carrying capacity compared to the reference beam. An increase in the initial
stiffness value was observed in the strengthened beams depending on the number of
horizontal stripes. It is known that the ductility ratio of beams with a sub-balance design is
around 4~5 [3]. The ductility coefficient of the GFRP-1 type strengthened specimen was
calculated as 4.81. This means that the energy dissipation capacity of the GFRP-1 is sufficient
in the event of an earthquake. Moreover, strengthening applications show that the behavior
will be improved by creating a good interface between concrete and GFRP without anchors.
This study presents the performance of shear deficient RC beams strengthened with minimum
GFRP strips width (30mm). The experimental results show that the external bonding of GFRP
strips effectively enhances the RC beam's shear strength. The failure mode is highly
dependent on the placement of strips offered by the wrapping schemes and the mechanical
properties of the epoxy adhesive.

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Besides, it was seen that FRP strips are also effective except for full-wrapping. Finally, it is
recommended to use the GFRP strengthened method more widely since it is cost-effective
than CFRP.

References
[1] Buyukozturk O, Hearing B. Failure behavior of precracked concrete beams
retrofitted with FRP. Journal of composites for construction. 1998;2:138-44.
[2] Garcia R, Jemaa Y, Helal Y, Guadagnini M, Pilakoutas K. Seismic Strengthening
of Severely Damaged Beam-Column RC Joints Using CFRP. Journal of Composites for
Construction. 2014;18:04013048.
[3] Aksoylu C. Experimental analysis of shear deficient reinforced concrete beams
strengthened by glass fiber strip composites and mechanical stitches. Steel and Composite
Structures. 2021;40:267.
[4] Baggio D, Soudki K, Noel M. Strengthening of shear critical RC beams with
various FRP systems. Construction and Building Materials. 2014;66:634-44.
[5] Yuan C, Chen W, Pham TM, Hao H. Bond behavior between basalt fibres
reinforced polymer sheets and steel fibres reinforced concrete. Engineering Structures.
2018;176:812-24.
[6] Dong J, Wang Q, Guan Z. Structural behaviour of RC beams with external flexural
and flexural–shear strengthening by FRP sheets. Composites Part B: Engineering.
2013;44:604-12.
[7] El-Saikaly G, Godat A, Chaallal O. New anchorage technique for FRP shear-
strengthened RC T-beams using CFRP rope. Journal of composites for construction.
2015;19:04014064.
[8] ASTM AM. ASTM D3039-standard test method for tensile properties of polymer
matrix composite materials. Book ASTM D3039-standard test method for tensile properties of
polymer matrix composite materials (ASTM International, 2017). 2017.
[9] Saribiyik A, Abodan B, Balci MT. Experimental study on shear strengthening of
RC beams with basalt FRP strips using different wrapping methods. Engineering Science and
Technology, an International Journal. 2021;24:192-204.

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OPTIMIZATION OF RAINWATER HARVESTING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

DESIGN FOR SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION FARMERS IN SUB-SAHARA
AFRICA

Kevin O. Odhiambo
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Masinde Muliro University of Science and
Technology

Basil. T. Iro Ong’or

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Masinde Muliro University of Science and
Technology

Edwin K. Kanda
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Masinde Muliro University of Science and
Technology

ABSTRACT
Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is emerging as a viable option to mitigate the negative effects
of climate change. It allows for crop production beyond the growing season through
supplemental irrigation. However, small holder farmers in Sub-Sahara Africa are still
grappling with a myriad of challenges hindering them from reaping the benefits of their
investment in RWH systems. To optimize RWH and storage systems design, performance
evaluation was conducted on the existing RWH systems to establish their reliability, techno-
economic feasibility and water saving efficiency. Australian Water Balance Model (AWBM)
was used to simulate the RWH potential of the region. The seasonal irrigation water
requirement for tomatoes in the area was determined using CropWat model. Analysis was
then made on climate, geological, structural and hydraulic design as well as the socio-
economic data to determine the optimal design parameters that would provide maximum
benefits to the study area. The research findings were that; the area has a potential for RWH
with a potential runoff harvest of between 104.496 m3 to 43,646,142 m3 per month. The
seasonal gross irrigation water requirement for tomatoes in the area was established as 378.56
mm per season with a scheme water requirement for a typical 0.607 ha smallholder farm as
2,297.97 m3 per season. The catchment areas and average rainfall distributions were adequate
in meeting the region’s water demands with reliability indices ranging between 0.75 - 0.92.
However, the efficiency of the water pans in collecting and storing runoff was low with the
sampled water pans having a water saving efficiency of range between 5.90% - 40.54%. The
RWH systems in the region were found to be technically and economically viable having a
design annual rainfall of 762.13mm. It was also noted that all the water pans under the study
had positive NPV’s of range between 130,188,370-740,362,018 and B/C ratios of range
between 5.05 - 35.14 indicating that they were economically viable. The results indicated that
RWH systems in the area were inadequately designed and poorly constructed resulting into
poor performance hence an appropriate expansion and rehabilitation is required.
Keywords: Crop Water Requirements; Irrigation; Optimal Design; Rainwater Harvesting
System; Smallholder Farmers

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LANDSLIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHIC

INFORMATION SYSTEM AND SWARA IN FATSA, TURKEY

Dr. Emre TERCAN

General Directorate of Highways, 13th Region, Department of Survey, Project and
Environment
ORCID: 0000-0001-6309-1083

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali DERELİ

Giresun University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Geomatics Engineering
ORCID: 0000-0003-0575-1316

Prof. Dr. Orhan DENGİZ

Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant
Nutrition
ORCID: 0000-0002-0458-6016

ABSTRACT
Landslides occur frequently with the effect of a number of factors such as urban growth,
deforestation, adverse geological conditions, abundant precipitation and pose a great threat to
the natural environment. Preparation of landslide susceptibility maps (LSMs) is an important
preliminary step in order to minimize the problems occasioned by landslides and reduce the
landslide hazard. The purpose of this study is to determine the landslide susceptibility classes
of the lands in Fatsa district of Ordu province through Geographic Information System (GIS)
and Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA). In this study, LSM is presented
on the foundation of available assessment criteria of slope, land use capability, lithology,
average annual rainfall, land use/cover, soil depth, proximity to rivers and streams, and
proximity to roads. The SWARA method is used to assign a weight value to each of the eight
assessment criteria. Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) is used in ArcGIS 10.7v
environment as the decision rule, and LSM is generated. Landslide susceptibility assessment
was made in five classes via the Jenks Natural Breaks approach. It is determined that 36.84%
of the study area includes very high and high susceptibility to landslide, whereas 31.53% of
the study area is in the low and very low susceptibility classes. The LSM presented in this
study can be used as a good data source for experts and policy makers.
Keywords: Landslide susceptibility, GIS, SWARA, MCDM, Spatial planning

1. INTRODUCTION
The destabilization and following mass movement of rock and soil on slopes eventuates
worldwide, causing catastrophic and substantial economic and human losses (Haque et al.,
2019; Whiteley et al., 2019). Landslides pose a major threat due to urban growth, destruction
of forests, climate change, abundant rainfall, global warming and infrastructure development
(Kayastha et al., 2013; Abujayyab and Karas, 2020). The probability of landslides to occur
depends on various complex conditions such as topographic structure, soil types, geological
structure, land cover, rainfall and various geomorphometric factors (Nefeslioglu et al., 2012;
Abujayyab and Karas, 2020).

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Preparation of LSMs is an important preliminary step to minimize the problems occasioned

by landslides and reduce the landslide hazard (Pourghasemi et al., 2012; Kayastha et al.,
2013). Landslide susceptibility mapping relies on highly sophisticated knowledge of slope
movements and the factors controlling them. The trustworthiness of LSMs mainly depends on
the study scale, quality and quantity of available dataset, and methodology (Pourghasemi et
al., 2012). Landslide susceptibility mapping is a critical instrument for disaster avoidance or
mitigation, as it can indicate the landslide potential of a region (Dai et al., 2002; Turan et al.,
2020).
Numerous studies have been carried out in the literature for the preparation of LSMs, and
qualitative and quantitative methods have been proposed (Yalcin, 2008; Yalcin et al., 2011;
Dağ and Bulut, 2012; Kavzoğlu et al., 2012; Kayastha et al., 2013; Demir, 2018; Dereli, 2019;
Huang et al., 2020; Turan et al., 2020; Abujayyab and Karas, 2020; Chen and Chen, 2021). In
both quantitative and qualitative methods, it is essential to process large amounts of
information effectually and rapidly to create LSM. In this context, GIS has emerged as an
important tool in the creation of various thematic maps related to the criteria responsible for
the realization of this phenomenon (Turan et al., 2020). While performing landslide
susceptibility analysis in the GIS environment, many criteria such as topographic,
hydrological, climatic and soil and land use are used. In the determination of landslide
susceptibility, each criterion used has a relatively different level of importance and these
importance levels can be determined through multi-criteria decision making (MCDM)
approaches. The SWARA method is one of the MCDM methods used in different research
domains in the literature (Dehnavi et al., 2015; Panahi et al., 2017; Popovic et al., 2019;
Yücenur and Ipekçi, 2021; He et al., 2021).
To the best of the authors' knowledge, there is no scientific research study in study area on the
creation of LSM using GIS-SWARA methods in the literature. The purpose of this study is to
determine the landslide susceptibility classes of the lands in Fatsa district of Ordu province by
using GIS and SWARA approaches.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

2.1. Study area
The study area is Fatsa district, one of the 19 districts of Ordu province located in the Eastern
Black Sea Region of the Turkey (Fig. 1). The average slope of the study area is 17.79%. The
minimum and maximum elevation of the study area are 0 m and is 1121 m, respectively. It is
located roughly 40.2 km west of Ordu city center and 110 km east of Samsun province. Fatsa
district is surrounded by Altınordu and Perşembe in the east, Ünye in the west, Korgan,
Çamaş, Gürgentepe, Çatalpınar and Kumru districts in the south, and the Black Sea in the
north.

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Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

2.2. Data sources and landslide susceptibility model

A dataset consisting of eight criteria, namely slope, average annual rainfall, land use
capability, soil depth, land use/cover, lithology, proximity to rivers and streams, and
proximity to roads was used. The slope map of study area was generated using the digital
elevation model produced from the 1/25 000 scale topographic maps. In this study, five
meteorological observation stations were used to determine spatial distribution of average
annual rainfall using Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation approach. Average annual
rainfall information was obtained from the Turkish State Meteorological Service. Land use
capability and soil depth datasets were obtained from Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry. The lithology dataset was produced by digitizing the map of the
General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration of Turkey on its Geoscience Map
Viewer and Drawing Editor Version 2.9. In this study, the Corine 2018 dataset was used in
the production of the land cover/use map. Rivers and streams dataset were obtained from the
General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works of Turkey. Road layer was obtained from
Republic of Turkey General Directorate of Highways. In this study, first of all, the assessment
criteria and the classes belonging to the criteria were selected. Detailed comments about the
criteria used in this study is presented in the results and discussion section. The weight values
given for the sub-classes take the value of 4 if the landslide susceptibility level is high, and 1
if the susceptibility is low.

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Values between 1 and 4 vary according to the degree of susceptibility of the parameters to
landslide (Table 1). In this context, the thematic maps of criteria generated in the ArcGIS
10.7v environment are presented in Fig. 2.

Table 1. Landslide susceptibility model

ID Criteria Classes Score
0-15 1
15-25 2
C1 Slope (%)
25-35 3
>35 4
888-935 1
Average annual rainfall 935-970 2
C2
(mm) 970-995 3
995-1025 4
I, II ve V 1
III 2
C3 Land use capability
IV 3
VI, VII, VIII 4
0-20: Very shallow 1
20-50: Shallow 2
C4 Soil depth (cm)
50-90: Moderate 3
>90: Deep 4
Forest, irrigated farm, wetlands, water surfaces 1
Pastures 2
C5 Land use/cover
Croplands 3
Artificial surfaces, barren land 4
Alluvial sediments and deposits 1
Agglomerate, sandstone, andesite, granite,
gabbro, trachyte, basaltic vulcanite, melange,
serpentine, ultra-basic magmatic and eruptive 2
rocks, ophiolitic, metamorphic rocks such as
C6 Lithology schist, shale, phyllite
Dolomite, limestone, marble, conglomerate, old
alluvial sediments, travertine, marine coastal strip 3
dune
claystone, gypsum, marl, mudstone and siltstone,
4
evaporates, volcanic ash, tuff, terrestrial dune
0-100 4
Proximity to rivers and 100-300 3
C7
streams (m) 300-500 2
>500 1
0-150 4
150-300 3
C8 Proximity to roads (m)
300-450 2
>450 1

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2.3. Stepwise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis method

The SWARA, a subjective criterion weighting method, was introduced by Keršuliene et al., in
2010 (Keršuliene et al., 2010). The SWARA method allows experts to include their opinions
on the importance of assessment criteria in the decision-making process, and the importance
rates determined by the experts are the basis of this method. It contains very few pairwise
comparisons compared (for a decision problem with n criteria, only n-1 pairwise comparisons
are sufficient). The method is easy to understand and implement (Ecer, 2020). The steps of
SWARA are summarized as follows (Keršuliene et al., 2010; Panahi et al., 2017; Popovic et
al., 2019; Ecer, 2020; He et al., 2021).

Step 1: The criteria are ranked according to their anticipated relevance from the most
important to least important.

Step 2: Relative significance should be designated for each single factor, starting from the
second. For the observed factor j, relative significance is designated in accordance with the
previous factor (j − 1).

Step 3: The coefficient kj is designated as follows:

1, G=1
IE = ør + 1, G>1
E

Here; j represents the number of the criteria, sj indicates the ratio of the comparative
importance of the average value.

Step 4: The recalculated weight pj is designated as follows:

1, G=1
SE = šIE>3
, G>1
IE

Step 5: The assignment of the criteria weights via the following equation:

SE
,E =
∑1
E23 SE

Here; wj denotes the relative weight of the criterion j, and m represents the total number of the
criteria.

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Fig. 2. The thematic maps of criteria

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The SWARA approach was used to determine the weights/priorities of the assessment criteria
according to authors' opinions. As a result of weighting the criteria with the SWARA
approach, slope (%17.84) come first according to their importance, followed by land use
capability (15.51%), lithology (14.10%), average annual rainfall (12.82%), land use/cover
(%11.87), soil depth (10.32%), proximity to rivers and streams (8.98%) and proximity to
roads (8.55%), respectively.

In this study, the slope criterion was determined as the most important criterion with the
0.1784 weight value. The slope is directly effective in the formation of landslides and
constitutes the foundation of stability studies, and is frequently used in the preparation of
LSMs (Pourghasemi et al., 2012; Dağ and Bulut, 2012; Demir, 2018). As the slope increases,
the susceptibility to landslide generally increases. Land use capability was taken into
consideration as an assessment criterion in this study in terms of containing detailed and basic
information about soil properties, and in this study, it was determined as the second important
critical parameter with a weight value of 0.1551. The land/soil productivity in terms of
agricultural activities increases progressively from grade VIII to I (Tercan and Dereli, 2020).
The first-grade lands can be cultivated in the best, easiest and most economical way without
being exposed to erosion. On the other hand, lands that are not suitable for agriculture, cannot
even be used as meadow or forest land, but can create an environment for natural life or can
be used as resting places and national parks by people are in the VIII class (Topçu, 2012).

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The lithology criterion was determined as the third important criterion with the 0.1410 weight
value. Lithological units vary in mechanical and physical characteristics including durability,
permeability, strength, degree of weathering, type, and density (Henriques et al., 2015;
Youssef and Pourghasemi, 2021). Rainfall and rainfall-related variables are some of the most
critical climate variables (Xu, 2015; Turan et al., 2020). Since the rainfall criterion is one of
the significant and triggering factors for landslides, it was taken into consideration as an
assessment criterion in this study (Erginal et al., 2009; Turan et al., 2020). This criterion was
determined by the authors of the article as the fourth important criterion with a weight value
of 0.1282. Land use/cover was determined as the fifth important criterion with the 0.1187
weight value. Land use/cover of a region is an important indicator in the assessment of the
occurrence and frequency of landslides (Turan et al. 2020). Soil depth was incorporated as
assessment criteria and determined as the sixth important criterion with the 0.1032 weight
value. The spatial distribution of the soil depth is controlled by complex interactions of
multiple criteria, such as topographic conditions, parent material, climatic conditions, and
physical and chemical processes (Kim et al., 2016). Proximity to rivers and streams was
determined as the seventh important criterion with the 0.0898 weight value. Proximity to
rivers and streams is one of the factors controlling slope stability, and the saturation degrees
of the materials has a direct effect on the slope stability (Yalcin et al., 2011). River and
streams destabilize the slopes by eroding the toe of the slope or by saturating the part of the
material forming the slope below the river level with water (Dağ and Bulut, 2012). Proximity
to roads was determined as the factor with the lowest weight value (0.0855). The construction
of roads (especially in mountainous areas) causes changes in topographical and geological
features and weakens the natural support of rock slopes, resulting in adverse effects on
landslide occurrences (Wang et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2019; Youssef and Pourghasemi, 2021).
Accordingly, the proximity to roads can be a potential indicator for landslides.
Finally, the integration of the different causative criteria and classes in a single landslide
susceptibility index (LSI) is given by a procedure based on the weighted linear combination
(WLC). WLC is used in ArcGIS 10.7v environment as the decision rule, and LSM is
generated. The mathematical equation for this technique is as follows (Kayastha et al., 2013):

n
LSI   ( w i.x i )
i 1

Here; LSI denotes landslide susceptibility index, wi denotes the weight value of i parameter, xi
is sub-criterion score for i parameter, n is total number of parameters considered.

Table 2. Landslide susceptibility classes, their distribution and index values.

Landslide Susceptibility Index
Landslide susceptibility classes Area (km2) Ratio (%)
(LSI)
Very low 38.48 10.75 1.28-2.08
Low 74.56 20.78 2.08-2.30
Moderate 113.47 31.63 2.30-2.52
High 90.16 25.13 2.52-2.77
Very high 42.01 11.71 2.77-3.58

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The thematic LSM generated as a result of the LSI classification is presented in Fig. 3.
Landslide susceptibility assessment was made in five classes (low, very low, moderate, high,
very high) via the Jenks Natural Breaks (Jenks, 1967) method. Area and percentage values of
landslide susceptibility classes and LSI index values are given in Table 2. Lands with low and
very low susceptibility to landslide generally include the following characteristics: (i) Slope
values are usually less than 15%. (ii) They are located on I, II, III and V class lands in terms
of land use capability. (iii) The lithological units in these lands are alluvial sediments and
deposits, agglomerate, trachyte, ultra-basic magmatic and eruptive rocks, melange, ophiolitic,
sandstone, basaltic vulcanite, serpentine, gabbro, granite, and andesite, metamorphic rocks
such as schist, shale, phyllite (iv) Average annual rainfall values are generally less than 935
mm. (v) Land use classes are forest, irrigated farm, wetlands, water surfaces, and pastures.
(vi) Soil depths are generally between 0-20 cm. (vii) They are located on lands with a
minimum distance of 300 meters from highway routes, rivers and streams.

Fig. 3. Landslide susceptibility map of study area

4. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, a hybrid model composed of the GIS tools and SWARA method was
constructed to prepare the LSM in Fatsa district of Ordu province, Turkey. Eight assessment
criteria including slope, land use capability, lithology, average annual rainfall, land use/cover,
soil depth, proximity to rivers and streams, and proximity to roads were considered as the
effective criteria in landslide occurrence. The slope, land use capability, lithology, and
average annual rainfall are determined as the most important factors, respectively.

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Thematic maps were presented separately for each assessment factor, and then the LSM of the
study area was generated utilising the WLC approach. It was determined that 36.84% of the
study area includes very high and high susceptibility to landslide, whereas 31.53% of the
study area is in the very low and low susceptibility classes. For this reason, obligatory and
essential planning policies should be developed in order to prohibit and diminish landslide
occurrence in very high/high-risk areas. LSM of study area can be utilised as a prominent
information source for experts and managers to diminish the hazards resulting from this
phenomenon.

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Dai, F. C., Lee, C. F., & Ngai, Y. Y. (2002). Landslide risk assessment and
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Dehnavi, A., Aghdam, I. N., Pradhan, B., & Varzandeh, M. H. M. (2015). A new
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Demir, G. (2018). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri ile Suşehri (Sivas) Heyelan Duyarlılık
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Dereli, M. A. (2019). Giresun iline ait coğrafi bilgi sistemleri destekli heyelan
duyarlılık haritalarının üretilmesi. 4th International Symposium on Innovative Approaches in
Engineering and Natural Sciences, November 22-24, 2019, Samsun, Turkey. SETSCI
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Ecer, F. (2020). Çok Kriterli Karar Verme Geçmişten Günümüze Kapsamlı Bir
Yaklaşım. Seçkin Yayıncılık, ISBN: 978-975-02-6017-9, Mayıs, 2020, Ankara.
Erginal, A. E., Öztürk, B., Ekinci, Y. L., & Demirci, A. (2009). Investigation of the
nature of slip surface using geochemical analyses and 2-D electrical resistivity tomography: a
case study from Lapseki area, NW Turkey. Environmental Geology, 58(6), 1167-1175.
Haque, U., Da Silva, P. F., Devoli, G., Pilz, J., Zhao, B., Khaloua, A., ... & Glass, G.
E. (2019). The human cost of global warming: Deadly landslides and their triggers (1995–
2014). Science of the Total Environment, 682, 673-684.
He, J., Huang, Z., Mishra, A. R., & Alrasheedi, M. (2021). Developing a new
framework for conceptualizing the emerging sustainable community-based tourism using an
extended interval-valued Pythagorean fuzzy SWARA-MULTIMOORA. Technological
Forecasting and Social Change, 171, 120955.
Henriques, C., Zêzere, J. L., & Marques, F. (2015). The role of the lithological setting
on the landslide pattern and distribution. Engineering geology, 189, 17-31.

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Huang, F., Cao, Z., Guo, J., Jiang, S. H., Li, S., & Guo, Z. (2020). Comparisons of
heuristic, general statistical and machine learning models for landslide susceptibility
prediction and mapping. Catena, 191, 104580.
Jenks, G. F. (1967). The data model concept in statistical mapping. International
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Kavzoğlu, T., Şahin, E. K., & Çölkesen, İ. (2012). Heyelan duyarlılığının
incelenmesinde regresyon ağaçlarının kullanımı: Trabzon örneği. Harita Dergisi, 147(3), 21-
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Kayastha, P., Dhital, M. R., & De Smedt, F. (2013). Application of the analytical
hierarchy process (AHP) for landslide susceptibility mapping: A case study from the Tinau
watershed, west Nepal. Computers & Geosciences, 52, 398-408.
Keršuliene, V., Zavadskas, E. K., & Turskis, Z. (2010). Selection of rational dispute
resolution method by applying new step‐wise weight assessment ratio analysis
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Kim, M. S., Onda, Y., Uchida, T., & Kim, J. K. (2016). Effects of soil depth and
subsurface flow along the subsurface topography on shallow landslide predictions at the site
of a small granitic hillslope. Geomorphology, 271, 40-54.
Nefeslioglu, H. A., San, B. T., Gokceoglu, C., & Duman, T. Y. (2012). An assessment
on the use of Terra ASTER L3A data in landslide susceptibility mapping. International
Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 14(1), 40-60.
Panahi, S., Khakzad, A., & Afzal, P. (2017). Application of stepwise weight
assessment ratio analysis (SWARA) for copper prospectivity mapping in the Anarak region,
central Iran. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 10(22), 484.
Popovic, G., Stanujkic, D., Brzakovic, M., & Karabasevic, D. (2019). A multiple-
criteria decision-making model for the selection of a hotel location. Land Use Policy, 84, 49-
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Pourghasemi, H. R., Pradhan, B., & Gokceoglu, C. (2012). Application of fuzzy logic
and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to landslide susceptibility mapping at Haraz
watershed, Iran. Natural Hazards, 63(2), 965-996.
Topçu, P. (2012). Tarım arazilerin kullanılması ve etkin kullanımına yönelik
politikalar, Kalkınma Bakanlığı, İktisadi Sektörler ve Koordinasyon Genel Müdürlüğü,
Uzmanlık Tezi, Mart 2012.
Turan, İ. D., Özkan, B., Türkeş, M., & Dengiz, O. (2020). Landslide susceptibility
mapping for the Black Sea Region with spatial fuzzy multi-criteria decision analysis under
semi-humid and humid terrestrial ecosystems. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 140(3),
1233-1246.
Wang, Y., Song, C., Lin, Q., & Li, J. (2016). Occurrence probability assessment of
earthquake-triggered landslides with Newmark displacement values and logistic regression:
The Wenchuan earthquake, China. Geomorphology, 258, 108-119.
Whiteley, J. S., Chambers, J. E., Uhlemann, S., Wilkinson, P. B., & Kendall, J. M.
(2019). Geophysical monitoring of moisture‐induced landslides: a review. Reviews of
Geophysics, 57(1), 106-145.
Xiao, T., Yin, K., Yao, T., & Liu, S. (2019). Spatial prediction of landslide
susceptibility using GIS-based statistical and machine learning models in Wanzhou County,
Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Acta Geochimica, 38(5), 654-669.

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Xu, C. (2015). Preparation of earthquake-triggered landslide inventory maps using

remote sensing and GIS technologies: Principles and case studies. Geoscience Frontiers, 6(6),
825-836.
Yalcin, A. (2008). GIS-based landslide susceptibility mapping using analytical
hierarchy process and bivariate statistics in Ardesen (Turkey): comparisons of results and
confirmations. Catena, 72(1), 1-12.
Yalcin, A., Reis, S., Aydinoglu, A. C., & Yomralioglu, T. (2011). A GIS-based
comparative study of frequency ratio, analytical hierarchy process, bivariate statistics and
logistics regression methods for landslide susceptibility mapping in Trabzon, NE
Turkey. Catena, 85(3), 274-287.
Youssef, A. M., & Pourghasemi, H. R. (2021). Landslide susceptibility mapping using
machine learning algorithms and comparison of their performance at Abha Basin, Asir
Region, Saudi Arabia. Geoscience Frontiers, 12(2), 639-655.
Yücenur, G. N., & Ipekçi, A. (2021). SWARA/WASPAS methods for a marine
current energy plant location selection problem. Renewable Energy, 163, 1287-1298.

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BIOCHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL AND MODELLING OF AN ACETATE-FED

ANAEROBIC DIGESTER

Dr. Αthanasios Sotirios Dounavis

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia
School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University

ABSTRACT
The present work studies the problem of stabilization of a CSTR type anaerobic digester at
optimal steady state conditions. A two dimensional model based was derived, assuming
Monod kinetics for the biomass growth. On the basis of the model, an output feedback
controller was constructed. Stability analysis was performed based on Lyapunov methods,
leading to precise conditions that guarantee that the system will return to the design steady
state. The ability of the proposed control law to stabilize the system inside the stability region
was tested in a laboratory scale anaerobic digester subject to pulse disturbances in the
concentration of the synthetic solution of acetic acid in the feed of the digester.
Keywords: Automatic control, anaerobic digestion, biogas production rate, methane

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TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM BY USING DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Shadab Kalhoro
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman

Anam Kalhoro
Department of Computer Science, The Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and
Technology (SZABIST)

Junaid-ur-Rehman Abbasi
Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology

Shahbaz Ali
Department of Environmental Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology

ABSTRACT
In the Present, many countries around the world are facing traffic problems. The fact is that
the world population and the number of vehicles on the roads are increasing day by day. The
problem is the growing population and hence the need to control the number of vehicles. One
of the main reasons for such problem is the inefficient technology used for traffic
management such as greenhouse emissions, traffic accidents, health damage, and time spent,
which often leads to traffic congestion. Therefore, an efficient management system is needed
to manage traffic congestion on roads and highways. In the present study, we aim to analyze
the traffic control systems and their image processing techniques to help manage traffic
density. The research has been implemented using MATLAB software. This research
proposed a method of determining traffic congestion on roads using digital image processing
techniques and a model of managing traffic signals based on information obtained from road
images captured by video cameras. A webcam is installed in the traffic lane, which captures
images of the road on which we want to control traffic. Researcher use sub techniques like
RGB to Gray conversion, image resizing, image enhancement, edge detection. Optical
Character Recognition (OCR) was used to convert scanned graphical text into editable
computer text. According to the data processed from the MATLAB, the controller sends a
command to the traffic LEDs to show the specific time to handle the traffic at the signal. Our
suggested system can control the traffic lights centered on digital image processing.
Keywords: Optical Character Recognition, traffic control systems, digital image processing
techniques, RGB to Gray conversion, edge detection, traffic congestion

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DETERMINATION OF WIND LOADS FOR BUILDINGS

WITH PARABOLOID ROOFS

Guilherme Silva Teixeira

Federal University of Mato Grosso, Institute of Exact and Earth Sciences

Marco Donisete de Campos

Federal University of Mato Grosso, Institute of Exact and Earth Sciences

SUMMARY
In the study of wind loads in buildings, the aerodynamics of roofs with parabolic shape, which
causes complex pressure distributions due to their sensitivity to wind, are often omitted. In
this way, computer simulations are a viable and reliable alternative. Here, in a building
constituted of parabolic and circumferential generatrices were estimated the effects of wind
action. For geometry modeling, was used Autodesk AutoCAD software and the models were
placed inside the domain. The simulations were carryout using the Ansys Workbench software
and the RNG K-Epsilon turbulence model. The wind velocity at different heights was
estimated using the power-law approximation. For the results, was simulated the flow of the
Church of Saint Francis of Assisi designed by Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer in Belo
Horizonte, Brazil, which structure is composed of reinforced concrete arches forming two
parabolic domes. Without resorting to others structures, the parabola allowed a single element
from the canopy to the walls. Also, were presented the visualization of the flow around the
geometry from the streamlines, the wind profile, and the analysis of external pressure
coefficient isobaric lines. In the first application, for validation, two cases were considered
and, in literature comparison, the distribution of isobaric lines showed good agreement.
Another application analyzed the influence of the topography surrounding the Church of Saint
Francis of Assisi. In a third application, different directions of incidence were studied (45º,
90º, 180º, and 270º). The most critical situation for suction occurred in the 45º model, with a
Cpe peak in the main dome shell, while the 270º model presented the highest overpressure
value in the main dome shell and sideward arches. These results will represent a helpful guide
to designing roofs with paraboloid shapes.
Keywords: Wind loads, Parabolic roof, Ansys, Pressure coefficients

INTRODUCTION
Paraboloid roofs represent a typical arch-roof form that has been widely used in modern
buildings or storage applications, such as gymnasiums and hangars. Because arch-roof
structures are often of low dead weight, they may fall into the category of wind-sensitive
composition with low payload capacities (Ye Qiu et al., 2018). When using the parabolic shell
as the roof, it has the advantages of beautiful shape, satisfactory force performance, and easy
construction, and so it has wide application in engineering construction. It has a wide range
of applications in Architecture, Power Engineering, daily life, and cosmology because of its
beautiful appearance, powerful compressive strength, and the ruled surface features.
Based on numerical and experimental verification, several authors determined the paraboloid
or hyperbolic-paraboloid roofs pressure distributions.

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Among these papers, Rizzo and Sepe (2015) explored the possibility of defining equivalent
static pressure fields able to reproduce the envelope of dynamic displacements of the cables
net based on experimental wind tunnel tests on hyperbolic paraboloid roofs (Rizzo et al.,
2011) and simplified pressure maps evaluated in Rizzo et al. (2012). The tests were carried
out in the CRIACIV boundary layer wind tunnel in Prato (Italy) to measure pressure fields for
several angles of attack of the incoming wind on different models of hyperbolic paraboloid
roofs. Xu et al. (2020) investigated the mechanical characteristics of the open type hyperbolic-
parabolic membrane structure under wind load and the influences of the wind directions and
wind speeds on the mean wind pressure distribution. The wind load shape coefficients of open
type hyperbolic-parabolic membrane structures were obtained from series of numerical
calculations and compared with the recommended values.
This paper investigates, based on numerical tests performed in Ansys Workbench software on
in-scale models, the wind load on buildings describing the external pressure coefficients for
different angles of wind incidence on significant regions of the paraboloid roof.

The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi

Oscar Niemeyer is Brazilian modernist architecture behind the most important civic
buildings in the Brazilian capital, Brasília. His pared-down aesthetic and undulating lines
first garnered international attention when he completed the Church of Saint Francis of
Assisi in Belo Horizonte in central Brazil. But, the global praise continued for each
building he designed before his death in 2012 at the age of 104 (Allen, 2016). His first
solo project was the Pampulha Building Complex (L'Aa Hs n.3, 2013), located on an
artificial lake in Belo Horizonte. Concerning its buildings, the complex includes the
Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, the Casino (now the Pampulha Art Museum), the Ball
Room (now Center of Reference in Urbanism, Architecture and Design of Belo
Horizonte), and the Yacht Golf Club (today Yacht Tennis Club), constructed between
1942 and 1943 (Fig. 1a). The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi is a small chapel located
in a parabolic nave of a variable section to induce the perspective of the altar in a
trapezoidal plan (Fig. 1b). On top of this is another paraboloid vault displaced from the
first one. Adjacent to the arch of the altar cover, a sequence of three small adjacent
arched roofs shelter the sacristy and its annexes, as well as a small chapel. The bell tower
and its inverted pyramid shape contribute to the entrance marquise support, along with a cross
whose straight lines oppose the curved profile of the vaults that make up the external set (Fig.
1 c-f). Since the second decade of the 20th century, the Swiss civil engineer Robert Maillart
(1872-1940) and the French architect Auguste Perret (1874-1954) researched the curved
concrete shells. But, only at the time of elaboration of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi
project (1943), the concrete parabolic vault was articulated in a sacred building instead of an
industrial shed, a hangar, or an exhibition pavilion. Note that this same vaults succession in
the sacristy and the side chapel extending, at the ends, the parable to the ground (Macedo,
2008, p. 167-181).
Figure 1 – (a) Sketch by Oscar Niemeyer for the Pampulha Building Complex, (b) sketches
by Oscar Niemeyer for the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, (c) architectural components of
the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, (d) front view of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi
with the slope, and aerial photo of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi: (e) main facade and
entrance, and (f) side facade.

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(a) Cogima et al. (2020) (b) Cogima et al. (2020)

(c) (d)

(e) Cogima et al. (2018) (f) Cogima et al. (2018)

METHODOLOGY
Using the fluid flow module (CFX) of Ansys Workbench software and the RNG K-Epsilon
turbulence model, numerical tests determined the external pressure coefficients for different
wind incidence angles in the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi.

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The geometries were modeled with Autodesk AutoCAD software, being composed by the
structure to be analyzed according to Fig. 2a (Macedo, 2008, p. 179-181) and surrounded by
the control volume, whose dimensions are according to Franke et al. (2007): length of
5H+L+15H, a width of 5H+B+5H and a height of H+5H, dependent of the height H of the
building (H = 9.16 m), of the length L of the building in the flow direction and width B (Fig.
2b). The measurements provided by the Google Earth Pro software, the length of 6 m in
projection, and the height of de 5 m, were used for the slope representation. For local refining,
a body of influence was used (Fig. 2c). According to Such (2018), was considered L for the
length of the downstream region and half of this length upstream. Also, twice this dimension
for the width and the height. The pressure histories were determined considering five wind
angles(0°, 45°, 90º, 180º, and 270°), according to Fig 2d.
Figure 2 – (a) Dimensions of the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, (b) geometry and control
volume, (c) geometry and body of influence, and (d) different angles of incidence of the wind
in the Church of Saint Francis of Assisi.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

The wind velocity at different heights was estimated using the power-law approximation

ݍ N
œ
given by:

=? A
› §Z N §Z
being Uz is the wind speed (in meters per second) at height Z (in meters), and Uref is the
known wind speed at a reference height Zref, here adopted as 10 m. The exponent α is an
empirically derived coefficient that varies dependent on the terrain roughness and the time
interval.

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An unstructured mesh with curvature and proximity capture, composed of tetrahedrons, was
applied (Figure 3a-b).

Figure 3 – (a) Side facade and (b) front view of geometry, mesh and control volume used.

(a) (b)

The convergence criterion established was the residual RMS equal to 10-4, and the minimum
and the maximum number of iterations was 400 and 500, respectively. In addition, was
monitored the imbalance (mass difference in inlet and outlet) and presented consistent values
(<1%). Table 1 shows the other boundary conditions adopted.
Table 1. Boundary conditions and non-dimensional parameters.

Condition Parameters
Method of mesh Tetrahedron
Capture curvature and proximity On
Reference pressure 101325 [Pa]
Air temperature 25º [C]
Turbulence intensity Medium (5%)
Flow regime Subsonic
Inlet U/Uref = (Z/Zref)α
Relative pressure of outlet 0 [Pa]
Wall - Lake Free slip (Application 2)
Wall - Slope Rough wall (Application 2)
Wall - Ground Rough wall
Model wall roughness Smooth wall
0.01 [m] (Application 1)
Roughness 0.0025 [m] (Applications 2 and
3)
0.1 [m] (Application 1)
Zref
10 [m] (Applications 2 and 3)
16.7 [m/s] (Application 1)
Uref
30 [m/s] (Applications 2 and 3)
Advection scheme High resolution
Turbulence numeric High resolution

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NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS
Application 1: validation methodology
For the validation methodology, hyperbolic paraboloid roof with the square plan presented by
Rizzo and Sepe (2015) were adopted in this application, defined in Fig. 4a. Here, were
accounted two cases: the first with the wind falling at 0º, orthogonally the face whose
elevation presents a parabola of positive concavity, and the second with the wind falling
obliquely at 45º, reaching the corner of the model (Fig. 4b). In the first case, meshes with
dimensions of 0.07 m in the fluid domain, 0.035 m in the influence body, 0.005 m in the faces
of geometry resulted in 2571471 elements, and 465186 nodes, were used. For the second case,
the meshes had dimensions of 0.1 m in the fluid domain, 0.05 m in the influence body, and
0.01 m in the geometry faces, resulting in 1066180 elements and 190999 nodes. The wind
profile was defined using the power-law approximation for Zref = 0.1 m, α = 0.233, and a wind
speed of 16.7 m/s. As for the terrain roughness was adopted the value of 0.0025 m.
Figure 4 – (a) Geometrical parameters (quotas in meters), and (b) different angles of
incidence.

(a) (b)

For comparison of applications, the local pressure coefficients were calculated, defined by
Cpe=Δp/q where Cpe is the external pressure coefficient; Δp is the difference in external
pressure coefficient, and q is the dynamic pressure. Figure 5 shows the frontal view of the
Cpe contours for both models, in which the color hue represents the pressures acting on the
surfaces corresponding to the ranges of the pressure coefficients: warm colors represent
overpressures, while cold colors represent suctions.
For both cases, the contour distribution is similar to the one proposed by Rizzo. In the case of
an incidence orthogonal to the model (0º), the coverage presented more intense negative cpe
values in the windward region, with magnitudes ranging from -1.2 to -1.4 (Fig. 5b). These
values agreements (-1.14 to -1.33, approximately, in Fig. 5a) with Rizzo and Sepe (2015), as
well as those for the contour. It was also possible to observe that the region close to the
downstream had the highest coverage values. Now, for the case with an incidence angle of
45º, the highest negative values happened near the midpoint of the left edge (top view), with a
magnitude greater (Fig. 5d) than those presented by Rizzo and Sepe (2015). A large area with
Cpe = -0.1 can be observed (Fig. 5d) and compared to that found by Rizzo and Sepe (2015),
with a value of -0.4, approximately (Fig 5c).

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Figure 5 – Cpe contour (a),(b) for 0º, and (c),(d) 45º.

(a) Rizzo and Sepe (2015) (b) Present work

(c) Rizzo and Sepe (2015) (d) Present work

Application 2: the slope interference for the incident wind at 0º

The windward flow of an obstacle is altered with the presence of slopes or hills, generating a
slight reduction in velocity at levels closer to the ground (Barroso, 2019). In this application,
was analyzed the slope interference for the incident wind at 0º. The meshes have dimensions
of 3.5 m in the fluid domain, 1.7 m in the body of influence, and 0.15 m on the faces of the
building. The basic wind speed of 30 m/s, according to Vallis (2019) was adopted. Table 2
presents the results of both models, along with their respective quality metrics.
For the choice of mesh, analyzed the element quality, skewness, and orthogonal quality
(Santana et al., 2020). The element quality is the metric that accounts for a relationship
between element area and border length (recommended values closer to 1 are ).

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The skewness indicates how close to the ideal geometry (in this case, tetrahedron) the mesh
cells or faces are (recommended values between 0 and 0.5). And, finally, the orthogonal
quality metrics the element's orthogonality (recommended values close to 1).

Table 2. Results of models 1 and 2 with their respective quality metrics.

Element Skewnes Orthogonal
Mode
Direction Nodes Elements quality s quality
l
average) (average) (average)
0º
1 (considering 352635 1937941 0.82853 0.23895 0.75989
the slope)
0º
2 (disregardin 349637 1921478 0.82852 0.23909 0.75973
g the slope)

For both models, since the flow occurs over the free water surface, according to Blessmann
(1995), α=0.10 was adopted. Considered this surface as free slip wall, and the slope and rough
wall terrain, with a roughness of 0.01 m. Figure 6 shows the wind power-law profile.

Figure 6: Wind profile using the power-law approximation (α=0.10)

In the facade of the main dome (region A in Fig. 1c) was possible to observe a similar
distribution in the portion of the face that each contour occupies. As well, in the transition of
lower values from the edges to higher values at the center. The higher overpressures in model
1 compared to model 2 are physically coherent, as there is a geometric unevenness (+5.0 m)
due to the presence of the slope and, because of the height, the wind profile speeds intensified.
The main and secondary dome and sideward arches (I-II) (A, B, C, and D in Fig. 1c,
respectively) submitted to low pressures (Figure 7). The main dome shell presented similar
behavior in both situations, with minimum values of Cpe close (Cpe = -0.96 in model 1 and
Cpe = 0.90 in model 2).
In both models, the detachment point occurred at the intersection of the main face with the
main dome shell (region A in Fig. 1c). At this point occurred a reduction in the cross-section.

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At this point, the flow closest to the building slowed down, justifying the low Cpe values
observed in the main dome shell. The other part suffered as it moved away from the
geometry, an acceleration (Fig 8).

Figure 7 – (a) Front view Cpe contour considering slope, (b) front view Cpe contour
disregarding slope, (c) top view Cpe contour considering slope, and (d) top view Cpe contour
disregarding slope.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8 – Velocity contours in the plane crossing the control volume longitudinally (a)
considering the slope and (b) disregarding the slope.

(a)

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(b)

Application 3: different wind incidence angles (45º, 90º, 180º, and 270º)
In this application, we studied the different angles of wind incidence on significant regions of
the paraboloid roof, namely: 45º, 90º, 180º, and 270º. The basic wind speed of 30 m/s,
according to Vallis (2019) was adopted. Model 3 analyzed the distribution of Cpe with the
wind blowing from the 45º. It is falling obliquely on the main dome shell and the sideward
arch (I) (regions A and C in Fig. 1c, respectively), and in the diagonal which the flow is not
intercepted the bell tower (region E in Fig. 1c) before reaching the building. In model 4 (wind
is blowing from 90º), the flow focused orthogonally on the main dome shell and sideward
arch (I). Model 5 (wind is blowing from 180º) simulated the direct action of the wind on the
secondary dome and sidewards arches (I-II) (regions A, B, and C in Fig. 1c, respectively).
The meshes were composed of 4.0 m tetrahedrons in the fluid domain, 2.0 m in the body of
influence, and 0.5 m in the building faces. Table 3 presents the mesh results for these models
with their respective quality metrics.

Table 3. Results of models 3, 4, 5, and 6, with their respective quality metrics.

Element Skewnes Orthogonal
Mode
Direction Nodes Elements quality s quality
l
average) (average) (average)
3 45º 147195 834265 0.81955 0.24946 0.74948
4 90º 109654 615181 0.82166 0.24747 0.75144
5 180º 119801 673748 0.82199 0.2466 0.75232
6 270º 123124 694732 0.82107 0.24804 0.75089

For this application, according to Blessmann (1995), α=0.25 was adopted for the as rough
wall with a roughness of 0.01 m. Figure 9 shows the wind power-law profile.

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Figure 9: Wind profile using the power-law approximation (α=0.25)

Figure 10 presents the top view for the Cpe contour. Flows in which the wind is directly or
partially incident (models 3, 4, and 6) on the parabolic cover (main dome shell, A in Fig. 1c)
presented suction peaks in the shell concrete structure region of inflection. Model 5, the wind
is intercepted by the secondary dome-sideward arches (I-II) and exhibits a more uniform
distribution of negative pressure coefficients. The roofs of models 3, 4, and 6 show two
distinct regions: one under windward overpressures and the other under leeward suction. The
most critical roof suction occurred in model 4 (Cpemin= -1.86), while the least critical situation
was in model 5 (Cpemin = -0.72, approximately). The highest values of roof overpressure were
those of model 6 (0.57, approximately), while the lowest were those of model 5 (0.16).

Figure 10 : Top view for the Cpe contour for (a) model 3, (b) model 4, (c) model 5, and (d)
model 6.

(a) (b)

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(c) (d)

The external pressure coefficient for the different wind incidence directions shows that for
model 3, the main dome face (region A in Fig. 1c) presented a sector with more intense
pressure (Cpe = 0.60) than the main dome shell (Cpe = 0.32). In this case, the sideward arch
(I) (C in Fig. 1c) presented even smaller overpressures, reaching the more intense pressure
Cpe = 0.18 (Fig. 11a).
Models 4 and 6 with on wind incidence on the side of the building presented an analogous
behavior, with more high coefficient values for the lower heights of the building. Towards the
height maximum of the building (Hmax = 9.16 m), there were suction peaks (Fig. 11b-d).
In model 5 (Fig. 11c), the rear face of the secondary dome-sideward arches (I-II) (regions A,
B, and C in Fig. 1c) presented higher Cpe values (0.53) in a small region of the secondary
dome. Also, there was a decrease towards the edges of the sideward arches (I-II) (in the range
between 0.41 and 0.03).

Figure 11: External pressure coefficient isobaric lines for (a) model 3, (b) model 4, (c) model
5, and (d) model 6.

(a) (b)

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(c) (d)

The flow downstream of the simulation of model 3 showed the formation of small vortices
near the main dome (region A in Fig. 1c) and the large-scale vortices near the set of secondary
dome-sideward arches (I-II) (regions A, B, and C in Fig. 1c) (Fig. 12).

Figure 12: Streamline in a horizontal plane at approximately half the height of the building
considering model 3.

Models 4 and 6 had similar behavior to the detachment point, where the upstream fluid
reached the main dome shell, flowed towards the maximum point of the parabolic cover,
detaching downstream, and then a gradient of about 24 m/s to almost 0 m/s (Fig. 13),
suddenly.

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Figure 13: Velocity contour for (a) model 4 and (b) model 6.

(a)

(b)

In model 5, most of the wind falling on the secondary dome-sideward arches (I-II) is
"captured" and deflected downwards towards the ground, forming an upstream recirculation
(Fig 14). This fact justifies the decrease in pressure coefficients as described above (Fig. 11c).
And yet, another part of the flow is driven towards the maximum height of the secondary
dome, where the flow's detachment point occurs, forming a suction zone characterized by the
low values of Cpe in the roof, observed in Fig. 10c.

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Figure 14: Velocity streamlines for model 5.

CONCLUSION
This paper presented pressure coefficients of paraboloid roofs as obtained from Ansys
Workbench software. Numerical tests have been done on the two different geometries and
were obtained the pressure coefficients for different wind angles.
In the first application, for validation, two cases were considered involving hyperbolic
paraboloid roof with the square plan, according to Rizzo and Sepe (2015). The comparison of
the distribution of isobaric lines showed good agreement. The maximum difference occurred
with the wind falling obliquely at 45º. However, the values coincided for a significant number
of contours.
Another application analyzed the influence of the topography surrounding the Church of Saint
Francis of Assisi. Simulations considering the slope showed regions of overpressure on the
main face of the main dome more intense than those that do not consider it. This fact is
justifiable since the presence of the slope inserted a geometric gap between the two situations.
This geometry, thus, was submitted to higher wind speeds, and they increased as a function of
height according to power-law approximation.
The detachment point occurred at the intersection of the face with the shell of the main dome.
Here there was a reduction in the cross-section.
In a third application, different directions of incidence were studied (45º, 90º, 180º, and 270º).
The most critical situation for suction occurred in the 45º model, with a Cpe peak in the main
dome shell, while the 270º model presented the highest overpressure value in the main dome
shell and sideward arches.
These results will represent a helpful guide to designing roofs with paraboloid shapes.

REFERENCES
Allen, E. (2016, March 25). 16 Examples of Stunning Modern Architecture by Oscar
Niemeyer. Architectural Digest. [Link]
modern-architecture-oscar-niemeyer

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Barroso, C. W. (2019), Aplicação do Modelo CBS em Problemas da Engenharia do

Vento Computacional (Master's thesis, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto
Alegre, Brazil). Retrieved from [Link] (in
Portuguese).
Blessmann, J. (1995). O vento na Engenheria Estrutural. Ed. Universidade/UFRGS (in
Portuguese).
Cogima, C. K., Nascimento, R. V. C., Paiva, P. V. V.; Carvalho, M. A. G., & Dezen-
Kempter, E., (2020). Scan-to-hbim aplicado à Igreja da Pampulha de Oscar Niemeyer. Gestão
e Tecnologia de Projetos, 15(1), 117-134. [Link] (in
Portuguese)
Cogima, C. K., Paiva, P. V. V.; Dezen-Kempter, E., & Carvalho, M. A. G. (2018). Digital
scanning and BIM modeling for modern architecture preservation: the Oscar
Niemeyer’sChurch of Saint Francis of Assisi. In E. Blucher (Eds.), Proceedings of the 22th
Conference of the Iberoamerican Society of Digital Graphics. (pp. 457-462).
L'Aa Hs N° 3 (2013). Oscar Niemeyer: Architecte d'un siècle. Archipress (in French).
Macedo, D. M. (2008). Da matéria à invenção: As obras de Oscar Niemeyer em Minas
Gerais, 1938-1955. Câmara dos Deputados (in Portuguese).
Qiu, Y., Sun, Y., Wu, Y., San, B., & Tamura, Y. (2018). Surface Roughness and Reynolds
Number Effects on the Aerodynamic Forces and Pressures Acting on a Semicylindrical Roof
in Smooth Flow. Journal of Structural Engineering, 144(9), 04018140.
[Link]
Rizzo, F., & Sepe, V. (2015). Static loads to simulate dynamic effects of wind on
hyperbolic paraboloid roofs with square plan. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodynamics, 137, 46–57. [Link]
Rizzo, F., D’Asdia, P., Lazzari, M., & Procino, L. (2011).Wind action evaluation on
tension roofs of hyperbolic paraboloid shape. Engineering Structures, 33(2), 445–461.
[Link]
Rizzo, F., D’Asdia, P., Ricciardelli, F., & Bartoli, G. (2012). Characterization of
pressure coefficients on hyperbolic paraboloid roofs. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, 102, 61–71. [Link]
Santana, H. S., Silva, A. G. P., Lopes, M. G. M., Rodrigues, A. C., Taranto, O. P., &
Silva Jr., J. L., (2020). Computational methodology for the development of microdevices and
microreactors with ANSYS CFX. MethodsX, 7, 100765.
[Link]
Such, M. R. (2018). Análise aerodinâmica de um veículo de eficiência energética.
(Undergraduate thesis, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Joinvile, Brazil). Retrieved from
[Link] (in Portuguese).
Vallis, M. T. (2019). Brazilian Extreme Wind Climate. (Doctoral dissertation, Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil). Retrieved from
[Link]
Xu, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Wu, M., Zhou, Y., Lei, K., & Zhang, Q. (2020). Wind-
induced response of open type hyperbolic-parabolic membrane structures. Structural
Engineering and Mechanics, 76(2), 269-278. [Link]

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MOIRÉ EFFECT IN CURVED DISPLAYS

Vladimir Saveljev
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

Jung-Young Son, Jeong Kim

Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

Gwanghee Heo
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

SUMMARY
Nowadays, not only regular planar-screen devices are available but also cured, particularly,
curved autostereoscopic displays. The surface of non-planar displays is typically cylindrical.
One can meet similar geometry in flexible displays too.
Previously, we investigated the on-axis effect in cylinders. Now, we do that in the off-axis
case. Consequently, the conditions for the minimization of the moiré effect in cylindrical
displays became known.
Based on the central projection, we obtained the formulas for the period of the moiré patterns
in a curved device in terms of the moiré magnification factor. We found the regions in the
parameter space, where the minimization can be efficiently made. Particularly, the distance of
an almost constant period was obtained. The experiments confirm the theory. In most cases of
image processing, the regression of the 2nd order can be applied, except for the distances
close to the abovementioned one.
The results can be used in the improvement of the visual quality of displays, particularly to
the minimization of the moiré effect in curved and flexible displays (including the 3D
displays).
Keywords: Moiré Effect, Moiré Minimization, Autostereoscopic 3d Displays, Curved
Displays, Cylindrical Moiré

INTRODUCTION
The moiré is the effect of the formation of patterns of longer periods caused by the point-by-
point interaction between similar periodic structures of shorter periods and the averaging in
the neighborhood of those corresponding points.
The moiré effect in displays is undesirable and should be eliminated or at least minimized
(Amidror, 2000), except for a few very special cases of the displays intentionally based on the
moiré effect (Saveljev, 2014; Mori, 2020).
Flat-screen displays are widely available together with newer curved ones. Curved
autostereoscopic 3D displays are also available (Borjigin, 2021; Guo, 2021). The screen of
such non-planar displays is typically cylindrical. One can meet a similar geometry in flexible
displays.
Previously, we investigated the moiré effect in single- and double-layered cylinders on the
axis (Saveljev, 2017; Saveljev, 2020). The whole cylinders are known in the nanoworld as
nanotubes. However, the screen of a cylindrical display is a partial or incomplete cylinder,
i.e., a half-, a quarter-, or other part of the cylinder. Typically, it is a concave surface.

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The off-axis layout is unavailable in nanoparticles observed under the electron microscope.
However, it is natural for an audience of viewers to watch the displays not only exactly on the
axis but from many other directions too. Therefore, we focused the current research on the
off-axis moiré effect in the coaxial double-layered concave half-cylinders, keeping in mind
the autostereoscopic 3D displays. The previously investigated on-axis effect became a
particular case.

RESEARCH AND FINDINGS

The geometry of the problem is drawn in Fig. 1.

Screen 2
ΔR
Fig. 1. Double-layered concave cylindrical display.

The origin is in the center of the cylinder, the camera (an observer) is at C (L is the distance to
the camera, w is its lateral displacement), the screen is at the origin (the label “Screen” in Fig.
1). Such position of the screen is convenient for analytical calculations.
We calculated the projected period of the moiré patterns in a curved cylinder as an off-axis
camera sees it. We based the analytical calculations on the central projection and 4D
homogeneous transformations. The resulting formula for the projected period of the grating (a
periodic structure comprising repeated parallel lines) bent around a cylinder is as follows,
~
 L
'   (1)
cos 2    1
where λ is the period of the grating, λ’ is its projected period, α is the angle of sight (see Fig.
1), L̃ = L/R is the relative distance (R is the radius of the cylinder), while Λ together with L̃C,
and L̃S are the auxiliary variables defined as follows,

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~
Lc
 ~2 (2)
1  Ls
~ ~ ~ sin 
Lc  L cos   w
~ ~ (3)
L  L sin   w~ cos 
s
where w̃ = w/R is the relative lateral displacement.
In experiments, however, another position of the screen is convenient: the screen at the
nearest cylindrical surface on the axis, see the label “Screen 2” in Fig. 1. The ratio of periods
of the patterns and the grating (the moiré magnification factor) μ calculated for this practically
convenient position of the screen is,
~
 L 1
 ~2 (4)
cos 2   Ls  ~
(1   )(  1)    ~ 2   1R
 1  Ls 
where ρ is the ratio of periods of the gratings, ΔR̃ is the relative difference of the radiuses of
cylinders. The theoretical findings are confirmed in experiments. The period of the moiré
patterns in the concave double-layered cylinders at different distances and lateral
displacements are given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Theoretical (left column) and experimental (right column) period of the moiré patterns
as function of angle at the distances –0.5R, R, 2R, and 4R for various lateral displacements.

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Note the distinct character of the curves (rising and falling) in Fig. 2 for the distances shorter
and longer than 2R. Specifically, the distance of almost constant period was analytically
found; it is near 1.9R. Interesting is that in this case, the moiré patterns in the cylinder behave
very similar to the patterns in a flat screen orthogonal to the line of sight; note an almost flat-
top curve within ±15° for the distance 2R with w̃ = 0 in Fig. 2e. Additionally, note the flat-
bottom curves for -0.5R in the upper row of Fig. 2.
Besides, we got the regions in the parameter space, where the minimization can be made more
efficiently. Two examples of such regions are around the mentioned distances 2R and -0.5R.
At these distances, the variation of the period of the patterns is minimal. Therefore, even if the
moiré effect would not be completely eliminated, it will be less annoying. The influence of
the curvature on visual perception, including fatigue, is considered in (Kyung, 2020).
In most cases (except for the distances near to the abovementioned special distances), the
polynomial approximation can be applied, which is practically convenient.

CONCLUSION
We obtained the formulas for the period of the moiré patterns in the coaxial half-cylinders in
the off-axis case. The experiments with two cylindrical devices confirm the theory.
The results can be applied to the improvement of the visual quality of displays, particularly to
the minimization of the moiré effect in curved displays, including the autostereoscopic 3D
displays.

REFERENCES
Amidror, I. (2000), The Theory of the Moiré Phenomenon, Vol. I: Periodic Layers, 1st
ed. (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands).
Borjigin, G. and Kakeya, H. (2021), Autostereoscopic displays with time-multiplexed
directional backlight using curved lens arrays, ITE Transactions on Media Technology and
Applications, Vol. 9, No 1, pp. 80-85.
Guo, J., Diao, Z., Yan, S., Zhang, E., and Kong, L. (2021), Immersive
autostereoscopic display based on curved screen and parallax barrier, Chinese Optics Letters,
v. 19, No 1, p. 013301.
Kyung, G. and Park, S. (2020), Curved versus flat monitors: interactive effects of
display curvature radius and display size on visual search performance and visual fatigue,
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, DOI:
10.1177/0018720820922717.
Mori, S. and Bao, Y. (2020), Autostereoscopic display with LCD for viewing a 3-D
animation based on the moiré effect, OSA Continuum, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 224-235.
Saveljev, V., Han, W., Lee, H., Kim, J., and Kim, J. (2020), Moiré effect in double-
layered coaxial cylinders, Applied Optics, vol. 59, No 18, pp. 5596-5607.
Saveljev, V., Kim, S.-K. (2014), Three-dimensional moiré display, Journal of the
Society for Information Display, vol. 22, No 9, pp. 482–486.
Saveljev, V., Lee, H., and Kim, J. (2017), Physical model of the moiré effect in
cylindrical structures, Journal of the Korean Physical Society, vol. 71, No. 12, pp. 934-945.

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NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT USING THE MOIRÉ

EFFECT

Vladimir Saveljev
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

Jung-Young Son
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

Hyoung Lee
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

Gwanghee Heo
Public Safety Research Center, Konyang University

SUMMARY
We propose a method to measure the displacement of distant objects based on the moiré
effect. The grating attached to an object is photographed by a video camera, and the video is
processed. The underlying principle is the moiré magnifier; the measured value is the phase of
the moiré patterns. This is the displacement perpendicular to the plane of the grating; the lines
of both gratings are parallel. In this case, the period of the patterns depends on the difference
of the periods of two gratings, photographed and computer-generated. The stable position of
the camera ensures mechanically the constancy of the period of the moiré patterns.
We made experiments under various conditions. The measured magnitude of certainly
detected oscillations was 0.5 mm (peak-to-peak) at the distance 20 m and 1 mm at 30 m; the
measured frequency is up to 6 Hz. The method is self-calibrated and does not need very
special equipment.
The results can be applied to public safety, particularly to measure vibration in bridges.
Keywords: Moiré Effect, Moiré Measurements, Phase Measurement, Moiré Magnifier,
Public Safety

INTRODUCTION
The moiré is the effect of the formation of patterns of longer period caused by the point-by-
point interaction between similar periodic structures of shorter periods and the averaging in
the neighborhood of the corresponding points.
We based the measurements on the method of deferred patterns; the patent is pending
(Saveljev, 2020). First, we take a video of a vibrating grating, a periodic planar structure
comprising repeated parallel lines. Then, a computer-generated grating is applied, and the
moiré patterns are measured.
The underlying principles are the moiré magnifier (Hutley, 1994) and the measurement of the
phase. In terms of linear measurements, the phase means the displacement. We measure the
displacement of the periodic grating perpendicular to the lines. The grating attached to an
object whose displacement we intend to measure is shown in Fig. 1.

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Grating

Object

Fig. 1. Grating attached to object (assumed direction of oscillations shown by arrow). The
measured direction of vibration is vertical.

The period and the orientation of the moiré patterns are known, for example (Amidror, 2000),
and basically depend on the periods of the gratings and the angle between them,
T1T2
TM  (1)
2 2
T1  T2  2T1T cos 
T sin 1  T1 sin  2
 M  arctan 2 (2)
T2 cos 1  T1 cos  2

where T1 and T2 are the periods of the two original gratings and α = θ2–θ1 is the difference
between the angles of the axes of the gratings. In our measurements, the lines of both gratings
are parallel to each other. This case is also described in (Amidror, 2000); particularly, both
angles α = φ = 0, and the denominator of Eq. (1) contains the difference of the periods of two
gratings,
TT
TM  1 2 (3)
T1  T2

Important are the phase and the constancy of the period. The phase indicates the
displacement. The period remains constant in consequence of the unchanged positions of the
reference grating and the camera while taking the pictures.
When the object with the attached grating vibrates; this causes the displacement of the moiré
patterns as shown in Fig. 2 by the double-headed arrow.

Fig. 2. Phase of the patterns in two different moments.

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The phase is measured by the computer program in pixels. As soon as the period of the
grating is exactly known, the phase can be re-expressed in the linear units (mm or cm).
The method is self-calibrated and does not need very special equipment. Particularly, we used
the camera with at least FHD resolution; the grating was printed on a laser printer.

RESEARCH AND FINDINGS

We made several series of experiments under various conditions, in the field and in the lab,
see Figs. 3-7. The vertical scale is in mm, horizontal scale in sec.
For instance, Fig. 3 shows oscillations in a model bridge, with a manual (impact) excitation.

+5

-5

Fig. 3. Measured periodic oscillations.

We can see a kind of transition process, the decayed vibration. Therefore, together with the
frequency of oscillations, the decay rate can be also measured.
Fig. 4 is a test of larger displacement at a longer distance. Here, the average measured
displacement was about 3 cm.

Fig. 4. Aperiodic manual displacement (vertical scale in mm, horizontal scale in sec).

Two other tests are the vibration of the passenger car staying in a parking area, see Fig. 5. The
grating was attached to the number plate.

Camera on the
(a) (b) tripod

Fig. 5. Measurement of vertical and horizontal vibrations in a vehicle.

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Firstly, the vertical vibration of the car was measured, when the hood of the engine room was
opened and closed. Secondly, the horizontal vibration was measured, when the left door was
opened and closed. In both tests, measured were aperiodic displacements, see Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Aperiodic vibrations in the car (vertical scale in cm).

In another test, we made measurements on a road bridge. Fig. 7 shows the displacement of a
road bridge (approx. 2 mm peak to peak) when a loaded truck passes.

Fig. 7. Measured aperiodic displacement in the bridge.

CONCLUSION
The measured magnitude of certainly detected oscillations was 0.5 mm (peak-to-peak) at the
distance of 20 m and 1 mm at 30 m. At shorter distances, it is about 0.01 mm. The frequency
of oscillations was up to 6 Hz.
The results can be applied to public safety, particularly to measure the vibration in bridges.

REFERENCES
Amidror, I. (2000), The Theory of the Moiré Phenomenon, Springer.
Hutley, M.C., Hunt, R., Stevens, R.F., and Savander, P. (1994), Moiré magnifier, Pure
and Applied Optics: Journal of the European Optical Society Part A, vol. 3, No 2, pp. 133–
142.
Saveljev, V., Son, J.-Y., and Heo, G. (2020), Vibration measurement system using
moiré and its measurement method, patent application 10-2020-0109145.

467
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SKETCH BASED DATA RETRIEVAL FROM COLOR IMAGES

Dr. Rupesh Mahajan

D.Y. Patil institute of technology

Dr. Minal Shahakar

D.Y. Patil institute of technology

ABSTRACT
Sketch Based Image Retrieval is branch of image retrieval in which images are searched by
sketches. Data hiding is a watermarking technique for embedding messages into images. The
message can be embedded into color images without changing the grayscale version. This
technique can be used efficiently with Sketch Base Image Retrieval, where images are
searched by sketches. Sketch bridges the gap between imagination and real images. Sketches
are mean to be more powerful searching tool in image retrieval. Embedding of messages used
unchanged gray version. With this same it extracts messages also. This unchanged grayscale
version is maintained from message embedding to extracting process. This concept of
watermarking makes SBIDR valuable, because many applications or algorithms for color
images are based on its corresponding grayscale version. In SBIR, images are searched by
sketches by using preprocessing edge extraction, descriptor generation and constraints
application to select strong or shaping edges. HoG &amp; GF-HoG descriptors are especially
for SBIR. Embedding of data is carried out into in three color channels of color image and in
gray value of Sketch Image. Sketch image is encrypted with key which will require at the time
of message extraction process after SBIR. HLR is used to bridge the gap between line
segments and gives the relationship between line segments. To bridge the large appearance
gap between sketches &amp; real colorful images; only edge extraction is not satisfactory.
Therefore, it goes through first preprocessing where canny edge detection is used for removal
of noisy edges. Then with the help of descriptor &amp; edge extraction process, the images
are extracted by applying some constraints. In this way grayscale invariance is maintained
which will make Sketch Based Retrieval more effective.
Keywords: Sketch Based, grayscale, color channels, invariance, embedding process,
extracting process

468
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COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN APPROACHES ANNOTATION

OF WEB SERVICES

Djihad DJAA
EEDIS Laboratory, Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes

Djelloul BOUCHIHA
EEDIS Laboratory, Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes

ABSTRACT
Web services represent a large-scale evolution of distributed processing. A common set of
technologies such as SOAP1*, WSDL† and UDDI‡ are used; Web services provide a common
platform for multiple applications developed with different programming languages to
communicate with each other via the web. They are based on standards that operate at the
syntactic level, and do not have semantic representation capabilities. Semantics provides
better qualitative and scalable solutions for interoperability, discovery, composition and
orchestration of services. The automation of discovery of web services based on the semantics
of their descriptions is an issue that is currently being researched. WSDL-S defines a
mechanism to associate semantic annotations to Web services described using WSDL
description language web services. This enables the engineering of Semantic Web Services
WSDL-S. In this paper we have presented an approach to semi-automatically annotate WSDL
descriptions of web services. The annotation approach consists of two main processes:
Categorization and Matching. The web services annotation approach is based on ontology
matching techniques and uses measures of similarity between entities, strategies for
calculating similarities between sets and a corresponding threshold for precision. A
fundamental work consists in carrying out a comparative study of this annotation approach in
order to compare the results of the annotation approach according to different similarity
measures (internal comparison), and to compare this approach with other existing approaches
(external comparison) . The internal comparison helps determine which strategy is suitable for
this approach, which metric works best, and which threshold is optimal for the selected metric
and strategy. The external comparison makes it possible to prove the effectiveness of this
approach compared to existing annotation approaches.
Keywords: Engineering; Annotation; web service, semantic web services; ontology; WSDL-
S; ontology matching techniques; similarity measures

* [Link]
† [Link]
‡ [Link]

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EFFECT ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE USING WASTE

WATER FOR MIXING AND CURING OF CONCRETE

S. Noshin
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

M. A khan
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

M. S Aslam
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

K. Riaz
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

M. Haseeb
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

M. Salman
Department of Civil Engineering Technology

A. Ahmad
NTDC Department

ABSTRACT
Concrete is versatile building material which is used in almost all construction works. The
most important constituent of concrete is water. Water is required for the preparation (mixing)
of concrete as it not only to make the concrete place able but also impart strength to the
concrete by the process of cement hydration. Consumption of waste material is increasing day
by day and we face lacking of water in future and considered water play a most important role
for the whole construction period. So, we used waste water and tap water for curing and
mixing of concrete with two mix ratios 1:2:4 and 1:4:8 and w/c is used 0.5 in this research
work. An experimental study is conducted to evaluate the strength of concrete made with
waste water and tap water at the ages of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. In this association, thirty-six
cylinders of two mixes are prepared. Various laboratory test such as workability test,
compressive strength test and rebound hammer test are performed to compare the results. The
test result shows that workability of concrete made with waste water is reduced as compared
to concrete made with tap water. By comparing the values of both rebound hammer test &
compression test, it is concluded that the compressive strength of concrete mixes M1&M3
(made from tap water) is higher than concrete mixes M2&M4 (made from waste water). At 28
days the values of compressive strength of mixes M1&M3 is 9.39% and 12.62% higher than
the values of compressive strength of mixes M2 & M4 (made from waste water).
Keywords: Concrete, Waste water, Tap water, Rebound Hammer test, compression test

470
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Sep 18-19, 2021 / Siirt University
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EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ADDITIVES ON COMPECTION CHARACTEERISTICS

AND UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF FINE SAND

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Khuram Riaz
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Sadaf Noshin
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

ABSTRACT
In engineering term for a sand particle having a diameter which pass through sieve # 100 and
retained on sieve #200 is known as Fine Sand. This study aims to check the effects of
different additives on the compaction characteristics and soil strength of fine sand. For this
purpose, evolution compaction characteristics and unconfined compressive strength of such
soils is investigated before and after the treatment with different additives.
The soil samples for this research work were collected from two distinct sites, one from bed
of River Ravi and other from Orange Line Metro Train Project, Lahore, Pakistan. For the
accomplishment of this research, two base samples and more than one hundred and fifty
treated samples having additive contents varying from 0-12% were tested to check the effect
of additive contents (Lime, marble dust & fly ash). All basic soil classification tests, standard
compaction tests, the unconfined compressive strength tests were performed on treated as well
as untreated soil samples according to the relevant ASTM standards. According to the USCS,
Soil from River Ravi site and from Orange Line Metro Train Project were classified as SP-
SM. It was observed that by adding lime, marble dust and fly ash to sandy soil, the MDD and
unconfined compressive strength goes on increasing up to 10%.The complete experimental
results show that all these additives can be used to stabilize the fine sand.
Keywords: Lime, Marble Dust, Fly Ash, Compaction Characteristics, Unconfined
compressive strength

471
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EFFECT OF FLY ASH AND BRICK POWDER ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

CLAYEY SOIL

Muhammad Waseem Yaseen

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Hafiz Haseeb Ahmad

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Sadaf Noshin
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

Khuram Riaz
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

[Link]
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology

ABSTRACT
Solid particles which are organic and inorganic in nature. The solid particles consist of voids
which may be air or water or both. In engineering terms for a sand particle having a diameter
which passes through sieve #200 is known as clay soil. This study aims to check the effects of
different additives on the compaction characteristics and physical properties of Clay. For this
purpose, evolution of compaction characteristics of soil is investigated before and after the
treatment with different additives. The soil sample for this research work was collected from
Narowal, Pakistan. For the accomplishment of this research, a clay soil sample having
additive contents varying from 4% - 16% was tested to check the effect of additive (Fly Ash
& Brick Powder). All basic soil classification tests, Modified compaction tests were
performed on treated as well as untreated soil samples according to the relevant ASTM
standards. According to the USCS, Soil from Narowal was classified as CL. It was observed
that by increasing the fly Ash and Brick powder the maximum (Optimum) dry density is
considerably acquired at 15% moisture content at 12% and 4% respectively.
Keywords: Fly Ash, Brick Powder, Dry Density, Compaction Characteristic, Modified
compaction tests.

472
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EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANT INDICATORS OF GREEN HOSPITAL FROM THE

PERSPECTIVE OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

Hamidreza Kamalan
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad University

Sahar Moktari
Senior Environmental Expert in Ports and Maritime organization

Amir Abedin Maghanaki

Tehran Province Water and Wastewater Company

Hossein Eskandari
Civil Engineering Department, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad University

ABSTRACT
Consequently, in many countries, buildings account for a considerable proportion of overall
energy consumption, making energy conservation and mitigation of their environmental effect
essential concerns policymakers. Because hospitals consume a considerable amount of energy
to provide medical services and assistance to the general population, they have a significant
negative impact on the environment instead of other types of facilities such as offices or
warehouses.
In light of these concerns, it is essential to understand the critical aspects and indicators
connected with the construction and management of the so-called Green Hospital to reduce its
environmental impact.
Because of this, researchers conducted the current study to explain the critical indicators of
green hospitals from the perspective of construction management. The indicators and their
rankings and priorities were established and prioritized by a panel of experts using the AHP
hierarchical approach and the AHP hierarchical technique.
The data for this purpose were gathered by mailing a questionnaire to ten hospital personnel
who answered the initial questions with a weight of 0.0828. used the Expert Choice program
was to evaluate the data that had been obtained. The researchers determined that the indicators
"environmental compatibility" and "energy consumption management," which were assigned
weights of 0.294 and 0.215, respectively, were the ones of great significance in terms of
relevance after analyzing the study's key indicators. Furthermore, based on the analysis of
sub-indices, it has been determined that the index "supplying Energy Required from Solar
Energy" is ranked first with a weight of 0.0828 and that the index "supplying Energy
Required from Wind Energy" is ranked second with a weight of 0.0828. The index "supplying
Energy Required from Wind Energy" is ranked first with a weight of 0.0828.
Keywords: Green Hospital, solar energy, construction management, AHP

473
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STUDY OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (WORKABILITY, COMPRESSIVE, AND

TENSILE STRENGTH) OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE BY USING ROCK DUST,
FLY ASH AND SLAG CURED AT AMBIENT AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

Asif Nazir
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology (Civil Engineering Technology)

Faisal Amin
Faculty of Emgineering & Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Lahore Leads
University Lahore

Usama Khan
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology (Civil Engineering Technology)

Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam

The University of Lahore, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology (Civil Engineering Technology)

Humaira Kanwal
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology (Civil Engineering Technology)

ABSTRACT
Nowadays, construction activities have been increasing to meet infrastructure demand. It can
be observed that ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete is an essential and broadly used
construction material in most construction activities. The geopolymers are good solutions to
reduce and support the effective use of waste materials. The geopolymers can play a
significant role in reducing the low emission of CO2 in comparison to OPC in the
construction industry
This paper presents the effect of ambient (27°C) and heat (100°C) curing on the properties
viz. workability, compressive, and tensile strength of quarry rock dust (QRD) based
geopolymer concrete (GPC) comprising fly-ash (FA), and slag (SG) as a binder. The SG was
replaced with QRD up to 20% by weight to develop QRD-SG-FA based geopolymer concrete
(QFS-GPC). A total of 12 types (6 cured at ambient and 6 cured at 100°C) of mixes were
prepared and tested. The workability of the mixes was reduced by the replacement of SG with
QRD. The ambient cured GPC-D27°C and oven-cured GPC-D100°C mixes with FA/SG
contents of 50/35% and QRD of 15%, yielded the maximum compressive strength of
33.55MPa and 35.45MPa respectively. The strength properties i.e., compressive, and splitting
tensile strengths of the above optimal mixtures have shown improved strength by curing at
higher temperature and have depicted more strength than the control OPC concrete
specimens.
Keywords: Ambient temperature curing, elevated temperature curing, geopolymer concrete,
quarry rock dust

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FRESH AND HARDENED PROPERTIES OF SELF-CURING CONCRETE AND ITS

COMPARISON WITH CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

Asif Nazir
The University of Lahore, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Technology (Civil Engineering Technology)

ABSTRACT
Concrete is most widely used construction material in the world. Many researches have been
carried out to make it most suitable for the users. The properties like; strength, durability and
economy make concrete, a preferred material for construction. Water is a chief constituent in
the production of concrete.
Concrete technology is a rapidly advancing field. Over the passage of time numerous
innovations in concrete have led to the alleviation of its users. Water is a chief constituent of
concrete. It bears paramount importance even after the placing of concrete; as it requires water
to carry its strength developing reactions. Due to its exposure to atmosphere, the water in
concrete is evaporated, which causes shrinkage cracks and compromises strength. To prevent
this, ‘Curing’ is performed. Curing is the maintaining of suitable moisture content and
temperature in concrete. The time required for curing is a stagnation for building time,
increasing both the cost and efforts. The idea of Self-curing concrete proved to be a promising
solution. The purpose of Self-curing agents is to minimize the water evaporation from
concrete, thereby increasing the ability of concrete to retain water, as compared to
conventional concrete. Over decades, these agents have become a growing demand in the field
of concrete technology. These ‘Self-curing’ agents affect properties of concrete like; Strength,
Workability and durability-both indulgently and drastically. This study includes the
examination of the effect of Polyethylene glycol (PEG-400) in ratios of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%,
2% on compressive strength, split tensile strength and workability of concrete. It has been
observed that ratios 1% and 1.5% have yielded satisfying results.
Keywords: Curing, Self-curing concrete, Hydration, Polyethylene glycol (PEG), Strength and
Workability

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CARBONATION DEPTH PREDICTION OF LIMESTONE FILLER CONCRETE

USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

Hocine AYAT
Geomaterials Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, University Hassiba Benbouali,

Yasmina KELLOUCHE
Geomaterials Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, University Hassiba Benbouali,

Mohamed GHRICI
Geomaterials Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, University Hassiba Benbouali,

ABSTRACT
The partial replacing of ordinary Portland cement (CEM I) by optimum content of
supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) such as the limestone filler (LF), which lowers
the amount of excess clinker, consequently a positive ecological impact on reducing the
amount of primary raw materials used and reduced CO2 emission related to clinker production
are well known. The resistance of the degradation of concrete structures due the carbon
dioxide is great challenges in recent decades. An artificial neural network (ANN) has already
been applied to simulate a wide variety of problems in civil engineering such as to predict the
carbonation depth of concrete is explored. The feed-forward backpropagation (FFBP)
algorithm and Tan-sigmoid transfer function were used for the ANN training in this study.
This research focuses on review the effect of partial replacement of Portland cement with
limestone filler as an additive in properties of concrete by ANN is investigated, and a
parametric study was carried out to study the effect of some essential parameters affecting on
the carbonation depth (Cd) of concrete. The effects and benefits of limestone filler on several
hardened properties of the concrete such as the carbonation depth are well established.
Typically, Limestone filler is well established as SCMs in the concrete mix. The results of this
study revealed that the ANN model showed high validity as a feasible tool and very
efficiently capable of simulating on predicting the carbonation depth of concrete.
Keywords: Carbonation Depth, Artificial neural networks, Limestone filler, Concrete

1 Introduction
Concrete is a composite significant material which most widely used construction material in
civil engineering structures all over the world due to its strong capacity to withstand
aggressive environments compared with other building materials (Alujas and al, 2015). The
design of concrete structures requires consideration to regard the serviceability, meet safety,
aesthetics, and durability throughout their service life. Hence, the durability of concrete is one
of the most important in structures design, which is defined as the capacity of the construction
for maintaining serviceability over a certain time with required safety by resisting the effects
aggressive environment (Bogas and al, 2016). The carbonation of concrete has become one of
the most important durability properties in service ability which causes structural deterioration
due to the external carbon dioxide (CO2). This phenomenon consists of penetration by
diffusion from the external environment of CO2 into the concrete samples, which reacts with
calcium hydroxide (CH) present in cement hydration products to form calcium carbonate
(CaCO3).

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The process of carbonation is related to the reduction of the alkalinity of the concrete to
approximately 8 (pH=8) and leading to the corrosion process of the steel reinforcement bar,
which occurs the degradation of the concrete structure (Meddah and al, 2014). Artificial
neural network (ANN) is soft computing techniques developed to mimic the neural system of
human being in learning from training patterns or data (Yu and al, 2006). An ANN is the
interconnected network of processing information that is capable of solving very complex
problems, such as highly non-linear problems with the help of interconnected computing
elements by approximating the nonlinear input-output relationship for a wide range of
applications (Narendra and al, 2006). It is a powerful tool of learning and generalizing from
examples and experiences, which is capable of solving some of the complicated problems
(Nazari and al, 2012). A review of the literature reveals that ANN have been successfully
used in predicting the proprieties of different types of concrete. Therefore, this study aims at
attempting to create a model for predicting the carbonation depth of limestone concrete with
the artificial neural network. In the literature, several types of research have been effected on
predicting the properties of concrete using the ability ANN for solving these problems and
other concrete. Despite the availability of a large amount of research on predicting the
compressive strength of concrete content of supplementary cementing materials by ANN in
literature, but it's just a few types of research, however, unfortunately, no studies currently
have been focused to predict the carbonation depth of concrete content limestone filler. For
this reason, the current study presents results that include modelling the carbonation depth of
concrete with the ANN approach at various content of cement with a percentage replacement
it by limestone filler for ages of 7,28,90,120,240 and 365 days. In training and testing of the
models of ANN with sets of experimental data consisting of the binder (B), percentage of
limestone filler (LF), binder to the aggregate ratio (B/A), water to binder ratio (W/B), curing
time (Ct), root age (√t); percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2) and relative humidity (RH) were
used as the experimental input variables while the experimental carbonation depth (Cd) result
was used as the output.

2 A brief overview of ANN

ANN is a soft computing technique, which works on the principle of neural networks inspired
by biological nervous systems of living organisms. It can be learned by examples of data,
such as each intelligence model. Typically, the architecture of ANN is composed of a set of
interconnected many computational nodes operating in parallel so-called neurons, that are
usually arranged into groups systematically, for forming layers in the network, which respond
to so-called output from a series of inputs (Boukhatem and al, 2011). Thus, the neural
network might be single layer or multilayer, which is consists of an input layer that has no
computation activities, while it was distributing the information from the environment to one
or more hidden layers of a network, which process the information to provide into the desired
output. The number of neurons in the input and output layer is equal to the variable in the
model, and the hidden and the output layers make use of the activation function except input
layers. For that, all processing of information in the neural network has happens in the hidden
and output layers. The connection strength between the layers is represented by links channels
carrying numeric values so-called weights, that are initially set to a random value and
adjustable during the training process.

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The use of nonlinear activation functions in hidden layers improves the ability of ANN to
learn nonlinear relationships between sets of inputs and outputs data, as shown in Fig.1.
Therefore, an artificial neuron is composed of five main parts: inputs, weights, sum function,
activation function, and outputs (Yu & Liu, 2006).
X1

Net =∑R23(5F. HF + ) f(Net)

W1
X2
W2
Y
Wn
Xn Fig.1 ― Typical neural network architecture
b input component (net)j are calculated by using (Eq. 1) as follows:
The weighted sums of the
Input layer
(1)
Hidden layer Output layer

(net)j= ∑wij xi+ b

Where xi input data; wij the weight of the neural model; b the bias. Among many prototypes
and architectures of ANN used to give a good estimate to solve the engineering applications
problems is a Multilayer Feed-Forward Backpropagation (FFBP) neural network, adopted in
the present works. The FFBP is the effective learning and the most common algorithm used to
training ANN.

3 Database collections
In this study, the main objective is to develop an ANN model based on a comprehensive
database to predict the accelerated carbonation depth of concrete. For this aim, at a first step,
it is needed to collect and select a large variety of pre-existing experimental data and construct
a database reliable for training and testing samples and modelling with ANN. A large number
of databases with 319 cases, were collected and selected from six different distinct sources in
literature, were used to construct the ANN model. The complete list of the data base is
summarized in Table1 by reference within. According to this table, the database contains
ordinary limestone concrete. Besides, the accelerated carbonation tests used plain concrete
specimens, uncracked, with different mixes proportion, exposed to different environmental
condition, as CO2 , and relative humidity content. All of these researchers kept the
temperature at 20C°. To measure the performance of the optimal model obtained by ANN, it
is necessary to use the testing data.

Table 1. Organization of database used

Number of Distribution of Number of Number of
Source of data
total data data training data testing data
(Hainer, 2015) 100 31.3 % 70 30
(Rabehi, 2014) 96 30.1% 67 29
(Bogas and al, 2016) 42 13.2 % 29 13
(Neves, 2015) 37 11.6 % 26 11
(Lollini and al, 2014) 34 10.7 % 24 10
(Meddah and al, 2014) 10 3.1 % 7 3
Total 319 100% 223 96

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The network needs to use the validation dataset to improve the construct network
generalization after the training and testing phases were completed and to specific the
generalization ability of the model chosen on data they did not train on them (Babanajad and
al 2013). To obtain a consistent division, the dataset is divided randomly into three subsets:
223 datasets were allocated for the stages of training, approximately 70% of the database, and
remaining datasets were allocated about 96 datasets for the stages of testing and validation,
approximately 30% of the database. The range of the different input and output variables of
total data sets used in the build of the ANN model are summarized in Table 2. The pre-
processing of the data is very necessary to improve the accuracy of prediction and increase the
speed in the training process, because the data will not entered directly in the ANN by the real
values but were previously scaled. Therefore, the data is scaled asymptotic in the range of [-1,
1], according the hyperbolic tangential sigmoid transfer function which varies between -1 and
+1. A "Tansig" sigmoid type activation function is used for hidden and output layers.
The normalized value is calculated by using Equation (2) in the following:

Xn= 2( − 1)……
•>•ž\]
•ž–¨ >•ž\]
……… …….. (2)
Where Xn is the normalized value, X is the raw data value to be normalized from the dataset,
and Xmin and Xmax are the minimum and maximum raw values from the dataset, respectively.
Therefore, after the training process is evident that must be remapped the corresponding real
values for calculating any prediction. The output values were post-processed and calculated to
convert the data from unnormalized units in the end process by using Equation (3) in the
following:

Y= 0.5 ¥ © + :1 R
Ÿ\ •3
Ÿž–¨ >Ÿž\]
(3)

Where Y and Yi are the i-th components of the output vector before and after translation,
respectively, and Ymax and Ymin are the maximum and minimum values of the real data of all
components of the output vector.

Table 2. Boundary range of inputs and output of model (records)

Component content Abbreviation Unites Minimum Maximum
Binder B (K/m3) 250 592
Limestone Filler LF (%) 0 45
Binder to Aggregate ratio B/A - 0.13 0.44
Water to Binder ratio W/B - 0.3 0.67
Curing time Ct (days) 0 28
Root Age √t (days) 2.65 19.10
Carbon dioxide CO2 (%) 2 50
Relative Humidity RH (%) 55 66
Carbonation depth Cd (mm) 0 66.4

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4 Development ANN model

4.1 Neural Network Architecture
In this research, the ANN model employs the FFBP network; it was trained through a learning
rule based on the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. The computer software was performed to
design the network using neural network toolbox -NNTOOL- available in MATLAB. It was
trained using the "TRAINLM" training function with the "LEARNGDM" adaption learning
function. The ANN model selected consists of four layers: eight neurons in the input layer
corresponds to the variables, two hidden layers with two neurons in the first hidden layer and
nineteen neurons in the second hidden layer, and an output layer with one neuron corresponds
to the (Cd). The neuron numbers in each of the two hidden layers were selected after several
attempts to achieve the desired result since there is not any theory until now determined the
number of hidden layers in to construct the network (Hodhod & Salama 2013). Consequently,
the optimum network architecture is 8-2-19-1, which is contained two hidden layers. The
following variables were used as input parameters to build and train the model namely: the
amount of Binder (B), Limestone filler percentage replacement (LF), binder to the aggregate
ratio (B/A), Water to binder ratio (W/B), curing time (Ct), root age (√t), percentage of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and relative humidity (RH).

4.2 Model training, testing, and validation

To interpret and analysis the results between the carbonation depth by ANN model and those
of the experimental data concrete formulation, with different percentages of LF content (0%-
45%), along with (0.3-0.67) w/b ratio, a simple statistical analysis was performed by ANN
model through the scatter diagram and determined the coefficient of the determination (R2) in
first steps of this analysis. This analysis was carried out after selected the neural network
paradigm, the implementation of ANN submitted to several training parameters such as the
number of iterations (Epochs = 1000), the desired minimum error (Goal = 1e-3), and
frequency of progress displays (Show = 5). The model was trained through the number of
iterations and learning rate and Momentum rate values were determined. Rational results were
obtained from analyzed the results of statistical parameters with the scatter diagram of
predicted and experimental values of carbonation depth for trained, tested, and validated
instances. Several architectures were tried and the best network geometry was selected
according to the highest R2 in neighboring to 1 and hence further substantiates the ANN
model’s accuracy. The results obtained from ANN, are presented in figure 2-(a), (b), and (c) -
on the training, testing, and validation respectively.

Fig.2 ― Evaluation of correlation curves: (a), training set; (b) testing set and (c) validation
set.

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The R2 values and linear fit are shown in these figures for training, testing, and validation
data. These figures show the plot between the actual and predicted the statistical values of
carbonation depth, with the (R2) was found of 0.942, 0.945, and 0.972 for the ANN training,
testing, and validation, respectively. These figures showed that the results of (R2) value better
fit in all phases of the training set, testing set, and validation set. The result of the carbonation
depth prediction suggested a better performance for this data set in all ages. According, to the
R2 values, were obtained through the training, validation, and testing phases as presented in
Figure 2, the proposed ANN model is very close and suitable to that of the experimental
results, it’s indicated that a strong correlation between the input and output parameters of the
model. Consequently, this analysis proves that the experimental results with ANN model
results are all in harmony.

5 Parametric analysis
5.1 Effect the addition of limestone filler content
Fig. 3 shows how influenced the percentage replacement of limestone filler levels (from 0%
to 35%) for different cement dosages of (300 kg/m3 and 400 kg/m3) at various ages on the
carbonation depth of the concrete. The results from this figure can be seen that the
carbonation depth increased proportionally to the increase in the all levels percentage of
limestone filler. At the early age (began from 7 days to 28 days) the remarkable increasing of
the carbonation depth and beyond about 20% of limestone filler addition increased quickly on
carbonation depth was noticed. At a later age, a great increased of the carbonation depth by
increasing the content additions. On the other hand, it’s obvious that the increasing in the
carbonation depth of the concrete due the increase in the cement content (Binder), as to be
expected. This means that the use of an ordinary Portland cement slows the rate of
carbonation based on the compound cement. This result can be explained by its good
compactness reduces the penetration of CO2, clinker dosage and high reserve in Ca(OH)2
(Meddah and al, 2014).

5.2 Effect of water to binder ratio (w/b)

The effect of the water to binder ratio (w/b) on carbonation depth of concrete containing a
percentage replacement of LF level (a=0% and b=30%) at various ages is shown and plotted
in Fig.4. The influence of w/b ratio on carbonation depth of concrete as appears obvious at the
beginning from 7 days, as shown in this figure. It can be clearly seen the first observation
from this figure, that the carbonation depth continuously increasing due to increasing the w/b
ratio and vice versa, as to be expected. On the other hand, it was also can be seen the second
observation demonstrated that the carbonation depth increase with increasing the percentage
replacement of limestone filler. Moreover, the third observation is pertinent to note that the
carbonation depth is increased with increasing the age. The effect of w/b ratio can be
explained by the fact that an increase in the ratio will increase the volume of capillary pores
which will also lead to increase in penetration of carbon dioxide in the microstructure of
concrete will also lead finally to increasing the carbonation depth of concrete (Lollini and al,
2014).

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50
50
C=300 Kg/m3 7 days 7 days
C=400 Kg/m3
28 days

Carbonation Depth (mm)

28 days
40
Carbonation Depth (mm)

90 days 40 90 days
120 days 120 days
30 240 days
240 days 30
360 days
360 days
20 20

10 10

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Limestone Filler Replacement (%) Limestone Filler Replacement (%)

Fig.3: Effect of limestone filler on carbonation depth of concrete at various ages.

50
50 7 days
7 days
28 days
Carbonation Depth (mm)

28 days
Carbonation Depth (mm)

40 90 days
40 90 days
120 days 120 days
240 days 240 days
30 30
360 days 360 days

20 20

10 10

0 0
0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6

w/b ratio w/b ratio

Fig.4: Effect of w/b ratio on carbonation depth of concrete at various ages.

6. Conclusions
This study led to the following conclusions:
 The ANNs is the best method for modeling the complex materials such as the non-linear
property of concrete and which it is considered among the best current computational methods
for predicting the several engineering properties of concrete;
 The ANNs proposed in this current study has shown that her ability to predict the
carbonation depth of limestone filler concrete and the best ANN's architecture of the proposed
model is 8-2-19-1;
 A back-propagation artificial neural network model can be trained to predict the carbonation
depth of concrete while relating the mix design of concrete and age of the specimen;
 The modeling results are very good coinciding well with the experimental values in all
phases of the training, as well as the testing and the validation of the data which clarify the
accuracy of the proposed model. Thus, the ANNs model is a powerful tool for predicting
performance in the carbonation depth of concrete and it’s found that the ANNs provide the
best approximation to the test results.
 Therefore, it can be concluded according this study, the proposed model can be predict the
carbonation-induced corrosion that can be used as a basic tool for service life prediction of
concrete structures.

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REFERENCES
Alujas, A., Fernández, R., Quintana, R.K., Scrivener, L., & Martirena, F. (2015).
Pozzolanic reactivity of low grade kaolinitic clays: Influence of calcination temperature and
impact of calcination products on OPC hydration. Applied Clay Science, 108 (08) , 94-101.
Babanajad, S. K., Gandomi, A.H., Mohammadzadeh, D.S., & Alavi, A.H. (2013).
Numerical modeling of concrete strength under multiaxial confinement pressures using linear
genetic programming. Automation in Construction, 36 (09), 136-144.
Bogas, J. A., Real, S., & Ferrer, B. (2016). Biphasic carbonation behavior of structural
lightweight aggregate concrete produced with different types of binder. Cement and Concrete
Composites, 71(12), 110-121.
Boukhatem, B., Ghrici, M., Kenai, S., & Tagnit-Hamou, A. (2011). Prediction of
Efficiency Factor of Ground-Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag of Concrete Using Artificial
Neural Network. ACI Materials Journal, 108 (09), 55-63.
Hainer, J.S. (2015). Karbonatisierungs verhalten von beton enunterein beziehung
klinker reduzierter zusammensetzungen: PhD Thesis. InstitutfürMassivbau,
TechnischeUniversität Darmstadt-Germany-; Heft, P.317, (Dissertation in Germany)
Hodhod, O.A., & Salama, G. (2013) Simulating USBR4908 by ANN modeling to
analyze the effect of mineral admixture with ordinary and pozzolanic cements on the sulfate
resistance of concrete. HBRC Journal, 09 (09), 109-117.
Lollini, F., Redaelli, E., & Bertolini, L. (2014). Effects of Portland cement
replacement with limestone on the properties of hardened concrete. Cement and Concrete
Composites, 46 (09), 32-40.
Meddah, M. S., Lmbachiya, M. C., & Dhir, R. K. (2014). Potential use of binary and
composite limestone cements in concrete production. Construction and Building Materials,
58(13), 193-205.
Narendra, B. S., Sivapullaiah, P. V., Suresh, S., & Omkar, S. N. (2006). Prediction of
unconfined compressive strength of soft grounds using computational intelligence techniques,
A comparative study. Computers and Geotechnics, 33 (13), 196-208.
Nazari, A ., & Riahi, S. (2012). Computer-aided prediction of the ZrO2 nanoparticles
effects on tensile strength and percentage of water absorption of concrete specimens. Journal
Materials Science and Technology, 28 (13), 83-96.
Neves, R. D. (2015). A permeabilidade ao ar e a carbonataçao do betâo estruturas:
PhD Thesis. Universidade Técnica de lisboa, P.502, (Dissertation in Portugais).
Rabehi, M (2014). Apport à la caractérisation de la porosité ouverte du béton
d’enrobage par l’utilisation des tests d’absorption capillaire: PhD Thesis. Univercite de Biskra
-Algerie-, P.166, (Dissertation in French).
Yu, W-D., and Liu, Y-C. (2006) Hybridization of CBR and numeric soft computing
techniques for mining of scarce construction databases. Automation in Construction, 15(15),
33-46.

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THEORETICAL AND NUMERICAL STUDY OF INTERNAL STABILITY OF DENSE

GRAVITY CURRENT BENEATH AMBIENT STATIC WATER OVER A
SINUSOIDAL TOPOGRAPHIC BOTTOM

Ashraf MASKONI
Université de Bretagne Occidentale. Institut de Recherche Dupuy de Lôme

Noureddine LATRACHE
Université de Bretagne Occidentale. Institut de Recherche Dupuy de Lôme

Blaise NSOM
Université de Bretagne Occidentale. Institut de Recherche Dupuy de Lôme

ABSTRACT
Discharged effluent in ocean (heavy crude oil spill) due to ships overloading is an
environmental disaster represented by the propagation of gravity current. This paper is
devoted to analyze the internal stability of dense gravity current beneath ambient static water.
We considered this work over sinusoidal topographic bottom. This sinusoidal topographic
bottom is described by s( x)= a0 sin( λx) where a0 represent the amplitude of the sinusoidal
topographic and λ its wavelength. We denoted the height of the interface between the two
fluid over sinusoidal topography by h( x, y,t )− s( x) and the upper surface height by
H ( x , y ,t )− s( x) . The flow dynamics are expected to be more complicated over sinusoidal
topographic bottom (Fig 1 ).
z

Figure 1 :Cravity current Over topography sinuso dal Bottom

The flow stability of these flows must be known in order to be able to adjust their physical
properties involved in the flow control parameters .Hear we consider the origins of the
instability by posing questions as to what the possible instability mechanisms might be and
formulating simpler problems that specifically isolate each mechanism. A main quation arises:
is the instability an internal instability, arising from internal dynamics ?
A local analysis in an inner region near the dense current front is performed and matched
asymptotically to the far field. Notably, the large wave number stabilization by transverse
shear stress is investigated in two dynamical regimes : i/ a regime in which the wavelength of
the perturbations is much smaller than the thickness of both layers in which case the
perturbations flow is resisted dominantly by horizontal shear stress and an intermediate
regime in which both vertical and horizontal shear stresses are important ; ii/ the orgins of the
internal instability arising from internal dynamics are analyzed. Then the linear stability of the
steady basic flow is brought out by introducing small disturbances which give the linearized
perturbation fluxes and normal-mode solutions are calculated.

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Exploring the asymptotic behaviour of the perturbations in an inner region of size ε (the small
parameter) and expanding the solution as a series ε, we highlight three flow control
parameters, say the relative density difference D , the viscosity ratio ɱ and the flux ratio Q .
We have shown that the system is stable, at all perturbations, whatever the choice of the these
three dimensionless parameters, also when the amplitude of the sinusoidal topographic
bottomis small for different values of its wavelength.
Keywords : Lubrication Theory , Thin Films

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