INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
1. Chapter # 1 Introduction
Course Outline
a. Definition, Scope, and Subject Matter
b. Sociology as a Science
c. Historical background of Sociology
Introduction
The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a Frenchman by the name of
Auguste Comte who lived from 1798-1857. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a
combination of two words. The first part of the term is a Latin, socius- that may variously mean
society, association, togetherness, or companionship. The other word, logos, is of Greek origin. It
literally means to speak about or word. Thus, a simple etymological definition of sociology is
that it is the science of society. Sociology is a social or behavioral science that originated in the
19th century in Western Europe; its main concern is discovering the basic laws and principles that
govern human social life, the social world, the working and development of society and its
institutions.
Definitions of Sociology
“Sociology is the study of Social Action.” (Max Weber)
“Sociology is the study of social institutions.” (Emile Durkheim)
“Sociology is the study of structure and function of society.” (Talcott Parsons)
“Sociology is the study of social life.” (Ogburn and Nimkoff)
Scope, and Subject Matter
The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging, from the analysis of passing encounter
between individuals on the street up to the investigation of global social processes. The
discipline covers an extremely broad range that includes every aspect of human social
conditions, all types of human relationships and forms of social behavior. Sociologists are
primarily interested in human beings as they appear in social interaction and the effects of this
interaction on human behavior. Such interaction can range from the first physical contacts of the
newborn baby with its mother to a philosophical discussion at an international conference, from
a casual passing on the street to the most intimate of human relationships. Sociologists are
interested to know what processes lead to these interactions, what exactly occurs when they take
place, and what their short run and long run consequences are.
The major systems or units of interaction that interest sociologists are social groups such
as the family or peer groups; social relationships, such as social roles and dyadic relationships,
and social organizations such as governments, corporations, and school systems to such
territorial organizations as communities and schools. Sociologists are keen to understand,
explain, and analyze the effect of social world, social environment and social interaction on our
behavior, worldviews, lifestyle, personality, attitudes, decisions, etc., as creative, rational,
intelligent members of society; and how we as such create the social reality.
Sociology as a Science
Science is knowledge but every kind of knowledge is not science. Science is a method for the
discovery of uniformities in this universe through the process of observation and re-observation;
the results are organized, systematized, and made part of the body of knowledge. In this way
science is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation. Following
this method we create scientific knowledge, which rests on empirical evidence, that is,
information that we can verify with our senses. Like other sciences, Sociology uses the scientific
method to explain why something happens. It studies the social problems, social interaction, and
social phenomena using the scientific methodology. The results of sociological research are used
to make suitable policies for the welfare of the societies and to control over the social problems.
Any knowledge that is created by applying scientific method is to be called as science. Sociology
uses scientific method for the understanding, identifying the patterns, and predicting the human
behavior. Therefore, sociology is science of human social life.
The Characteristics of Scientific Method of gaining knowledge are as under: -
Characteristics of Scientific Method
1. Empirical The focus of attention is that phenomenon which is observable by using five senses
by the human beings. If one person has observed others can also make that observation which
implies that it is repeatable as well as testable.
2. Verifiable Observations made by any one researcher could be open to confirmation or
refutation by other observers. Others could also use their sensory experiences for the verification
of the previous findings.
3. Cumulative The knowledge created by this method keeps on growing. The researchers try to
develop linkages between their findings and the findings of previous researchers. The new
findings may support the previous research, refute them, or may modify but certainly there is an
addition to the existing body of knowledge. The new researchers need not start from scratch,
rather they have a rich reservoir of knowledge at their disposal, and they try to further build on it.
4. Self-Correcting Possibility of error is always there but the good thing is its identification and
correction. The research findings are shared with other professionals in seminars, conferences,
and by printing these in professional journals. The comments are received and errors, if any, are
corrected. Even the scientists are not categorical in their statements. They would usually make a
statement as is supported by the evidence available at the time.
5. Deterministic Through scientific method the scientists try to explain why things happen?
There could be number of factors producing a particular effect, but the researchers try to find out
the contribution of each factor as well as of different combinations of the same factors. In this
way he tries to identify the factor or combination of factors that produce the maximum effect. In
this way he tries to locate the minimum number of causal factors that explain the variation in the
effect. This is the principle of parsimony. Such an exercise is an effort to determine cause-and
effect relationship.
6. Statistical Generalization Statistics is a device for comparing what is observed and what is
logically expected. They are subjecting information to statistical analysis.
7. Rationalism The collected facts must be interpreted with arguments. Therefore, the scientists
try to employ rigorous rule of logic in their research work.
Historical background of Sociology
There was no sociology as a distinct discipline before the advent of 19th century. As a distinct
discipline it emerged about the middle of the 19th century when European social observers began
to use scientific methods to test their ideas. It looks that three factors led to the development of
sociology.
The first was the Industrial revolution.
By the mid-19th century Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production. There was
the emergence of new occupations as well as new avenues of employment away from the land.
Masses of people migrated to cities in search of jobs. Pull and push factors were instrumental in
such migrations. In the countryside, due to the nature of agricultural society, there were no
occupations that could be alternatives to agriculture. Hence people got pushed to look for new
places whereas the urban/industrial places with new job opportunities provided a pull to the same
population.
At the new places there was anonymity, crowding, filth, and poverty. Ties to the land, to the
generations that had lived there before them, and to the ways of their life were abruptly broken.
Eventually the urban life brought radical changes in the lives of people. The city greeted them
with horrible working conditions: low pay; long and exhausting working hours; dangerous work;
foul smoke; and much noise. To survive the vagaries of life, families had to permit their children
to work in these uncongenial conditions.
People in these industrial cities developed new ideas about democracy and political rights. They
did not want to remain tied to their rulers. Therefore, the ideas about individual liberty,
individual rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness emerged, which actually laid the
foundation to future political revolution.
The second factor that stimulated the development of sociology was
imperialism.
Europeans successfully conquered many parts of the world. They were exposed to radically
different cultures. Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask why cultures
differed.
The third impetus for the development of sociology was the success
of the natural sciences.
People moved to question fundamental aspects of their social world. They started using the
scientific method (systematic observation, objectivity) to the study of human behavior.