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The Recent Developments in Ceramic Glazes

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 bilim makalesi / scientific article

THE RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

IN CERAMIC GLAZES
BEKIR KARASU, GAMZE YÜKSEL and NILPERI UYSAL
Eskisehir Technical University, Faculty of Engineering, Materials Science and Engineering Department, Eskişehir

ABSTRACT ability , self–cleaning andphotocatalytic activity, high mechanical

As a result of the technological developments and social strength and chemical durability, and photoluminescence
expectations, in recent years the studies have intensified on the characteristics are emphasized.
discovery of new functional glazed ceramic products improving
the quality of life with the environmental consciousness. Among
2. HISTORY OF CERAMIC GLAZES
all the innovative ceramics those with antibacterial,antimicrobial
Pottery glazing has been around for almost as long as the human race.
and antifungal ability, self–cleaning efficiency, photocatalytic
It is unknown exactly when people first started glazing their pottery,
activity,mechanical strength, chemical endurance, lightness,
but most archeologists agree that it was sometime between the 9th
anti–slip, and photoluminescence are worth mentioning.
and 8th centuries [Link] is believed that the first glazes were developed
The paper aims to give general knowledge of new functional
around 3500 BC in Eastern Mediterranean countries by potters who
properties and then to summarize the studies recently conducted
tried to imitate the precious blue stone lapis lazuli. For this purpose,
on the functional ceramic glazes.
small beads were sculpted from steatite [Mg3Si4O10(OH)2] and then
Keywords: Ceramic glazes, Innovation, Properties, Developments. coated with azurite or malachite powders, natural ores of copper
with blue and green colors, respectively. When the coated beads
were fired, the coating interacted with steatite to form a thin layer
1. INTRODUCTION of colored glass. Apart from Egypt, ancient glazes have been found
Ceramic glazes are homogeneously ground silicate mixtures that in China, Mesopotamia, and Greece, each of which had developed its
are applied onto a ceramic body surface in wet or dry form and styled glazes according to its geography and material properties.
then fired to shape a thin layer with many desired properties. Egyptian glazes were largely alkaline–based, as were thoseusedin
Glazessupply several advantages to ceramic surfaces such as China and Mesopotamia. Greek and Roman used lead–based or
cleaning facility, increase in the chemicalresistance, strength, and clay glazing. Alkali glazing is one of the oldest forms of ceramic
surface hardness, as well as yielding an aesthetic appearance, all glazing and various materials have been used in glaze contents. In
of which depend on the chemical composition of glaze in the first Mesopotamia, ash was mixed with sand to obtain the glaze on the
place. pottery made in that area. In Greek glazes, a mixture of soda and
There have been many changes in the ceramic industry over the sand was achieved by using extra clay particles. Lead glazing was
years. Especially changes in processing led to a significant alteration first used by the Romans from around the 1st century BC. A mixture
in glaze compositions, mainly due to the shorter firing cycles, of lead oxide and sand was placed over the pottery before it was
new glaze and decoration application methods, and restrictions fired [2–3].
on the use of many glaze raw [Link] in firing cycles, In later periods, potters began experimenting with different
including the increased use of roller furnaces in the ceramic tile, combinations of crushed and ground rock powder mixed with
dinnerware, and sanitaryware industries, have decreased total water to coat the surface of the crocks and pots. Considering that
firing times. There is less time available to burn out organics in they did not have enough knowledge of chemistry at that time, the
the body and glaze, as well as mature the body and glaze at the process of developing the glaze required a long time and much
peak firing [Link] in application like bell waterfall, effort. Over time, potters discovered mixtures that completely
airless spray, dry application, screen printing, roll printing, disc covered the surface of the earthenware with a waterproof glassy
application, and inkjet printing have dictated thechanges to be made layer. Then they managed to produce glazes of different colors
in the composition as well as the suspension of ceramic glazes. and textures by using different multiple firing cycles at different
Additionally, restrictions on the use of barium, lead, cadmium, zinc, temperatures.
or crystalline silica have led to alterationsin glaze composition [1]. In the second millennium BC, lead glazes were developed in
Hereby the recent innovative achievements in ceramic glazes with Babylon. Lead acted as a flux, which allowed the glaze to form at
certain features such as antibacterial, antimicrobial and antifungal lower temperatures. In the 8th century BC, the Assyrians in Iran

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discovered another glaze additive, tin oxide. This additive yields products still need reduction. Glazes are employed in numerous
a white opaque glaze that would completely cover the brown or applications, including:
reddish color of clay earthenware. Tin glazes became very popular • Electrical porcelains
in the Renaissance period, but their use decreased with the
• Refractories
development of lower temperature glazes in the 1700s.
• Tiles–Wall and floor tiles
Initially, potteries were glazed to prevent the permeability of porous
clay containers used for storing and transporting liquids and food. • Tableware–Crockery, mugs, ceramic cups, and dinner plates
Later, thanks to the aesthetic appearance glaze provided, it started • Ornaments–Figurines and giftware
to be used as a decorative coating for the walls in the form of tiles. • Sanitaryware–Bathtubs, toilets, and basins [4–5]
One of the oldest and most important examples of the use of glazed Here mainly the glazes for tiles, sanitaryware (Fig. 2), and tableware
tiles in ancient Mesopotamia is the Ishtar gate (Fig. 1), built on the (Fig. 3) will be [Link] a result of the technological developments
inner walls of Babylon during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II and social expectations, in recent years the studies have intensified
(in the 6th century BC). Blue, gold–plated and reddish tiles were on the discovery of new functional glazed ceramic products improving
used to shape both real and mythological animals [2]. the quality of life with the environmental consciousness. Especially in
the tile industry, it is aimed to obtain improved durability and chemical
resistance, and in the tableware and sanitaryware fields, it is targeted
to develop products with antibacterial and antifungal properties and
also to create more hygienic environments with less water consumption
thanks to self–cleaning coatings. In addition to these, glazes with
photoluminescence features are among the priority studies.

A B

Figure 1. Lion figure depicted in glazed tile on the Ishtar Gate

(Photograph by R. Rincón, taken in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin) [2].

Over time, when potters learned to reach high temperatures, they

began to develop truly permanent ceramic glazes. Thanks to the
use of chemicals and minerals melting above 1100 °C in the glaze C D
composition, the glazes fired at high temperatures became much Figure 2. The combination of wall and floor tiles and sanitaryware:
stronger and durable. When any art museum is visited today, it is (a) From Çanakkale Seramik of Türkiye [6], (b) Vitra Seramik of Türkiye [7],
seen that the tile glazes produced in the ancient Egypt period, the (c) Fabceramishe of Italy [8], and (d) Santa Ceramica of Russia [8].
Greek vases processed with red and black lined glazes, and the
Chinese ceramics made of bright lead glazes and bright celadon
retaining their first–day brilliance. A B

In the late 19th century, German Chemist Hermann Seger developed

the Seger Formula, a glaze calculation method. This method, which
is easier than the various formulas developed for ceramic glaze
calculations, is generally employed in the industry. Seger also
developed the Seger pyramid, which controls the temperature,
making the firing process more accurately done. Today, studies are
mainly being carried out on functional glazes.

3. INDUSTRIALLY PRODUCED GLAZES

Depending on the application being considered, conventional
glazes are not fired less than 950 oC but they can be fired up to
1430 oC. Even though oxidizing are used in many cases certain C D

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E F slaughterhouses, restaurants, industrial facilities raise concerns

in the community, so antimicrobial and antifungal materials
and products are increasingly demanded by a larger market.
The emergence of new generation materials that can meet this
demand can maintain better environmental hygiene and safety
conditions by certain ceramic products with bactericidal and
fungicidal properties whose surfaces can prevent or eliminate
Figure 3. Some selected samples of tableware: (a) From Güral Porselen of the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Thus, to increase
Türkiye [6], (b) Porland Porselen of Türkiye [7], (c) Kütahya Porselen of Türkiye [8], the competitiveness in the ceramic industry innovative products
(d) Jingdezhen Porcelain of China, (e)Tai Serax,and(f)Doki Japanese [9].
with higher quality and high added value started to be developed.
However, there is a significant increase in production costs due to
3.1. THE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES FOR
the introduction of new stages in the production process. Another
CERAMIC GLAZES
problem is that the antibacterial effect of the additives included
3.1.1. ANTIBACTERIAL, ANTIMICROBIAL AND
in the glaze composition by additional heat– or cold–treatment is
ANTIFUNGAL ABILITY
not long–lasting and the protective layer can be removed from the
It has beenrecently demonstrated that highly reactive metal oxide
surfaces by the abrasion forces [15]. Seabra et al. [16] developed
nanoparticles exhibit excellent biocidal action against Gram–
the porcelain stoneware tiles having an antimicrobial efficacy
positive and Gram–negative bacteria. Thus, the preparation,
above 77 % for S. aureus, and 81 %, for E. coli. They reported that
characterization, surface modification, and functionalization of
the antimicrobial action results from the combined effect of silver,
nano–sized inorganic particles open the possibility of formulation
chromium, and iron ions.
of a new generation of bactericidal materials [10]. The antimicrobial
Hydrophobic surfaces are also known to have antimicrobial
activity of silver nanoparticles against yeast, Escherichia coli (E.
effects by restricting the adherence of microorganisms. However,
coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was investigated and
ceramic products are produced by high temperature processes
it was reported that nano–sized silver particles were an effective
resulting in a hydrophilic surface. Özcan et al. modified an
bactericideand have great promise as antimicrobial agents in
industrial ceramic wall tile glaze composition by the inclusion
various fields such as medical devices and antimicrobial systems
of metallic zinc powder in the glaze suspension applied on the
[11–12]. Marambio–Jones and Hoek published a review paper
pre–sintered wall tile bodies by spraying. They reported that the
of the antibacterial effects of silver nanomaterials, including
micro–patterned surface topography of the nanocrystalline ZnO
proposed antibacterial mechanisms and possible toxicity to higher
granules imparted an antimicrobial character to the ceramic tile
organisms. While there is some evidence that silver nanoparticles
surfaces which werewell correlated with the hydrophobicity. The
can directly damage bacteria cell membranes, they appear to
bacterial proliferation on the tiles with the zinc modified glaze was
exert bactericidal activity predominantly through the release of
suppressed up to over 99 % [17].
silver ions followed (individually or in combination) by increased
membrane permeability, loss of the proton motive force, inducing Fig. 4 inhibits the antibacterial sanitaryware product of Creavit
de–energization of the cells and efflux of phosphate, leakage of Co. of Türkiye.
cellular content, and disruption DNA replication [13]. Antibacterial
Ag–doped P2O5–SiO2 monoliths were successfully prepared by
sol–gel method and the porous structure was formed after heating
and it was determined thatthis kind of porous monoliths has a
good antibacterial property to restrain E. coli [14].
Stoneware porcelain tiles (extruded or dry pressed) have high
resistance to deep abrasion, very low (0.5 %) water absorption,
high hardness, and suitable resistance to thermal shock and Figure 4. Sanitaryware product with antibacterial properties [18].
frost. Unfortunately, such ceramic tiles do not have antimicrobial
activity and microorganisms easily grow on their surfaces,
particularly in hot and humid environments, which may cause 3.1.2. SELF-CLEANING AND PHOTOCATALYTIC ACTIVITY
problems to human health. Therefore, the creation of tiles with Self–cleaning surfaces possess an important place in the plastic,
antimicrobial activity has significant practical and commercial metal, textile, and ceramic industries, and many studies have
importance. The most common bacteria in the wet domestic been carried out to improve this feature. The concept of self–
environments are S. aureus and E. coli. These are usually found cleaning glass was first introduced by Watanabe et al. [19] in 1992
on floors and walls covered with glazed ceramic tiles. At present, on titanium–coated ceramic tile. Midtdal and Jelle [20] aimed to
public health is a social concern. News about the contamination give a comprehensive state–of–the–art review of the self–cleaning
of pathogenic microorganisms in critical areas such as hospitals, glazing products available on the market today and investigate

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methods for measuring the self–cleaning [Link]–cleaning under normal conditions, creates hydrophilic surfaces, hydrophobic
products from several manufacturers that utilize two different surfaces can also be formed when TiO2 is used in nanoscale. Fig. 6
self–cleaning technologies of either photocatalytic hydrophilic shows a ceramic washbasin with a self–cleaning glaze.
or hydrophobic capability are presented. The photocatalytic
hydrophilic products in question are self–cleaning glazing products
ready–to–use when purchased, whilst the presented hydrophobic
products are coatings that must be applied to existing glazing
products in order to yield a water–repellent and self–cleaning
surface. Fig. 5 presents the illustration of how self–cleaning glass
works [20].

Figure 5. Illustration of how self-cleaning glass works, in three steps, from Figure 6. Ceramic washbasin with a self-cleaning glaze by Foshan OVS
left to right: (1) activation of the coating by UV radiation and natural dirtying, (2) Sanitaryware Ceramic Co. Ltd. of China [27].
decomposition of the organic dirt, and (3) rainwater washes away the loosened
and degraded dirt (Pilkington Group Limited) [20].
Although increasing industrialization provides economic benefits,
In the self–cleaning process of a hydrophilic surface, water droplets it also brings environmental problems with it. Today, news about
form a thin layer on the surface. This smooth spreading plays diseases that arise due to environmental problems in industrial areas
an important role in removing dirt on the surface. It also allows draw attention. One of the most sensitive issues of the European
the surface to dry faster and become more transparent. In other Union countries is the protection of the environment and hence human
words, it prevents misting/fogging of surfaces. On hydrophobic health. Therefore, the production and development of environmentally
surfaces, water droplets roll on the surface, while carrying dirt friendly products are one of the main topics that have been studied
and showing self–cleaning properties [21–22]. Nanostructures can in recent years. Industrial pollution, in particular, affects both the
be employed to create hydrophobic surfaces, forming air gaps that pollution of the environment and the life of the buildings. Besides,
prevent the contact of the surface with liquid. In this area, SiO2 environmental pollution causes the growth of bacteria and viruses
[23] and CuO [24] additives are used to obtain a lotus–like effect. that adversely affect human health. For this reason, it is essential to
Self–cleaning efficiency increases in outdoor environments where develop self–cleaning, environmentally friendly photocatalytic systems
the material may be exposed to rain and water flow. In this case, the that both reduce air pollution and degrade bacteria, viruses, and toxic
surfaces are required to have a super hydrophilic property. Thus, organic substances. Traditional ceramics do not have antibacterial or
with the reduced water contact angle, it forms a thin water film on photocatalytic effects against microorganisms and organic pollutants.
the surface and makes it possible to wash the impurities that do not The presence and reproduction of these pests on ceramics are
decompose. For this reason, self–cleaning ceramic tile will perform undesirable for human and environmental health [28–30].
better on super hydrophilic surfaces with a high decontamination Photocatalytic systems cause active oxygen formation when
rate. To obtain such surfaces, titanium dioxide (TiO2)is used. exposed to UV. Active oxygen has properties such as oxidation
It decomposes organic pollutants by exhibiting photocatalytic of organic substances on the coating surface, bacteria–killing,
properties and provides a hydrophilic surface to promote water organic stains removal, and removal of unwanted odors in the air
distribution on the surface to complete the self–cleaning process [31]. The cheapest and most powerful photocatalyst employed in
[25].Fujishima et al. [26] reported that the best usage of self– photocatalytic reactions is TiO2 in the anatase form. Since TiO2 is a
cleaning TiO2 surfaces should be on exterior building materials semiconductor, non–reactive, and inactive substance, it remains in
because they are exposed to abundant sun exposure and natural the environment and ensures the cleaning [Link]. 7 exhibits
precipitation. Although TiO2, which is employed in surface coatings self–cleaning mechanism with a photocatalytic effect.

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improving anti–bacterial properties of TiO2. Doping silver can give

rise to the separation of electron–hole pairs and can accelerate
the formations of oxidative species. In addition to this, silver can
reduce particle size which is needed for increasing surface area
of TiO2 [35].

3.1.3. MECHANICAL STRENGTH AND CHEMICAL ENDURANCE

Figure 7. Self-cleaning mechanism with a photocatalytic effect. Stage 1-When Thanks to the glazes applied to ceramic surfaces, surface dirt and
the surface of the tile is exposed to sunlight, it produces a thin layer of active
deposits can be easily cleaned. However, these surfaces that are
oxygen, which reduces the static cling of dirt particles present in the atmosphere.
Stage 2-The active oxygen breaks down the dirt, thusreducing its adhesion resistant to daily environments can wear out over time and lose
capacity/[Link] 3-The exceptional hydrophilic properties of tile facilitate their surface properties when being negatively affected by high
an even distribution of water between the surface of the ceramic material and the or low pH valued environment. At this stage, varying the glaze
layer of dirt; the drag of the water (H&C Tiles of Grespania Ceramica) [32]. content or applying a coating on the glaze surface can be used to
increase and improve the surface resistance [5]. Floor tile glazes
The photocatalytic process is described by six reactions. The are constantly exposed to abrasive effects, especially in public
process begins with irradiating the semiconductors with UV light. areas. Depending on factors such as traffic density and the type
When the semiconductor absorbs energy equal to or superior than of abrasives in such places, high abrasion resistance is expected
the bandgap, an electron is transferred from the valence band from floor tiles. The abrasion resistance of the glaze is one of
to the conduction band. In TiO2→ h++ e–reaction, h+, which has the main factors that determines the life of ceramic coatings due
great reducing power, reacts with water (moisture) to generate to the continuous abrasive effects. This resistance is improved
hydroxyl (OH), which also presents high oxidizing power. On the by increasing glaze hardness. One of the ways to increase the
other hand, e– accomplishes the reduction of oxygen molecule hardness of glaze is the use of suitable glass–ceramic systems
to produce superoxide anion (O2–), which is very effective on in which the harder crystal phase or phases are developed from
pollutants’ [Link] O2– reacts with H+, dissociation from the glassy matrix [36].
water, and forms HO2. From these radicals, pollutants gases, The degree of contamination and cleaning of the glaze surfaces
mainly NOx, are degraded. The final product, HNO3, can be depend on the surface micro– and macro–roughness respective
washed by rainwater[33]. Titania is one of the most widely used to the chemical composition of the phases. Alkaline detergent
benchmark standard photocatalysts in the field of environmental solutions typically used to clean daily living surfaces cause pitting
applications. However, the large bandgap of titania and the massive on surfaces containing wollastonite and pseudo wollastonite. The
recombination of photogenerated charge carriers limit its overall glaze recipes prepared with diopside crystals with high abrasion
photocatalytic efficiency. The former can overcome by modifying properties provide abrasion resistance against acids and bases
the electronic band structure of titania including various strategies as well as surface gloss. Moreover, the sol–gel technique is a very
like coupling with a narrow bandgap semiconductor, metal ion/ versatile method to deposit ceramic coatings in combination with
nonmetal ion doping, co–doping with two or more foreign ions, a dip–coating process. The resulting coatings are of high purity
surface sensitization by organic dyes or metal complexes, and and structural homogeneity. They are mesoporous and very
noble metal deposition. The latter can be corrected by changing thin as well as with defined crystalline structure and generally
the surface properties of titania by fluorination or sulfation or presenting good adhesion to the substrate [37–42].
by the addition of suitable electron acceptors besides molecular In general, glazes show good chemical resistance in aqueous
oxygen in the reaction medium [34]. solutions. However, depending on the composition of the glaze,
TiO2 has three different crystal structures which are anatase, solution, temperature, and other conditions, ion changes,
brookite and rutile. TiO2in the anatase form is the most efficient dissolutions, and absorption reactions can occur on the
of photocatalysts for many applications. The bandgap energy of glaze surface. Corrosion taking place in the glaze results in a
anatase TiO2is 3.2 eV and it can be only activated by UV light. decrease in brightness, discoloration, and leads to pitting or
Although UV light is present in the solar spectrum it is only a very decomposition on the surface. The chemical resistance of glazes
limited part. For practical applications, the photocatalytic activity is often interpreted by the durability of the amorphous phase,
of TiO2needs further improvement. Doping TiO2with transition because the crystal phases in the glaze structure are assumed to
metals or noble metals is an effective way to improve photocatalytic have higher durability. Generally speaking, the reaction kinetics
[Link] the literature, there are several studies thatare related vary depending on the glaze formulation, chemical and mineral
to the doping effect of silver. Researches which are performed on composition, and grain size of the raw material during the firing
the effect of silver dopant are focused on the change of optical process.
and electronical properties of TiO2. Moreover, since silver itself is It is difficult to achieve a desired and controlled surface
known as a strong anti–bacterial agent it is used as a dopant for appearance when using raw glazes in ceramics fired at lower

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peak temperatures or shorter firing cycles typically applied

for glazed tiles. The use of frit formulations has been recently
increasing. However, raw glazes are a low–cost alternative to
fast–fired and fully condensed ceramics, such as frost–resistant
floors and swimming pool tiles, due to their high peak firing
temperatures.

3.1.4. PHOTOLUMINESCENCE EFFECT

Photoluminescence is described as the event that any material
can emit light after absorbing photons. The light emission eventis
called photoluminescence since it is initiated by photoexcitation.
When materials are stimulated with light, their electrons reach Figure 9. Pro-environment photoluminescent ceramic tiles of Pacific Industry
high energy levels, and the stimulated electrons release photons Co. of China, The appearance (a) in daylight (b) in the dark [45].
to return to lower energy and more stable energy levels. At
this stage when photons are released, glare/glow occurs. 4. THE RECENT STUDIES CONDUCTED ON CERAMIC GLAZES
Photoluminescence can be divided into two classes:fluorescence There have been many studies on the development of glazes
and phosphorescence. In both cases,materials absorb light and with new features. Some of those made between the years 2000
emit photons with less energy and shine in dark. However, when and 2020 are summarized below.
the excitation source disappears in fluorescent materials, the Eppler conducted researches on the chemical abrasion
light emission ends immediately. In phosphorescent ones, the resistance of glazes against various chemical solutions and
light emissionoccurring after the excitation source removed concluded that the results depend on firing conditions as well as
can take minutes or [Link] group is generally preferred for glaze composition [46]. Yalçın and Sevinç utilized bauxite waste
applications where phosphorescence pigments continue to emit in ceramic glazes [47].Karasu et al. developed and characterized
light when the stimulation ends. Long–lasting phosphors have zinc crystal glazes used for Amakusa–like soft porcelains [48].
been developed in the SrAl2O4: Eu2+, Dy3+ systems, which emit Çakı and Karasu evaluated albite wastes in stoneware glazes [49].
light in blue, green, bluish–green, and yellowish–green colors, Karasu et al. made compositional modifications to floor tile
have been [Link] glazes are obtained by glazes opacified with zircon [50]. In another work, Karasu et al.
adding photoluminescent pigments to the glaze compositions. studied the effect of albite wastes on the glaze properties and
They are applied to the ceramics, absorb visible light, and gain a microstructure of soft porcelain zinc crystal glazes [51]. Karasu
glowing ability in the dark, consequently adding value to the end and Turan reported the effect of cobalt, copper, manganese, and
products. Such an ability is not only evaluated for decoration in titanium oxide to zinc–containing soft porcelain glazes [52–53].
houses and other buildings but also is used in floor coverings Karasu et al. applied the phosphorescent glazes on bricks and
to prevent confusion and provides guidance in emergencies. roof tiles [54]. Qing et al. investigated the effect of infrared
Photoluminescent ceramics can emit light at certain wavelengths, radiant powder addition on glaze development and antibacterial
which can restrict certain molds and [Link] to this and antifungal activity [55].
feature, it is preferred in kitchen and sanitaryware products. They Karasu and Tosuner microstructurally studied limonite
are resistant to corrosion, friction, burning, and aging[43].Figs. containing satin and opaque wall tile glazes [56]. Torres and
8–9 present luminous ceramic mosaics and pro–environment Alarcon made researches on the effect of additives on the
photoluminescent ceramic tiles respectively. crystallization of cordierite–based glass–ceramics as glazes for
floor tiles [57].
A B Karasu et al. utilized the concentrator wastes of Etibor Kırka
Borax Company of Türkiye in the recipe of an opaque frit used
for wall tile glazes as an acid boric replacement [58], evaluated
these wastes in soft porcelain opaque glazes as an alternative
fluxing agent [59], investigated the effects of the red mud–based
pigment addition on the physical and microstructural properties
of porcelain tiles [60] and used Tunçbilek thermal power plant’s
fly ash in stoneware glazes as a coloring agent [61]. In the study
of Vane–Tempest et al., the chemical resistance of fast–fired
raw glazes in solutions containing cleaning agents, acids, or
Figure 8. Luminous ceramic mosaics of Foshan Miclear Ceramics Technology bases has been examined [62].
Co. Ltd. of China, The appearance (a) in daylight (b) in the dark [44]. Karasu et al. reported the effects of red mud–based pigments

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on wall and floor tile glazes [63] and developed the abrasion–
resistant diopside–based glazes suitable for floor tiles by
compositional modifications [64]. Hupa et al. searched for the
chemical resistance and cleanability of glazed surfaces [65].
Torres and Alarcón published the paper on the pyroxene–based
glass–ceramicglazes for floor tiles [66], and on the effect of
MgO/CaO ratio on the microstructure of cordierite–based glass–
ceramic glazes for floor tiles [67]. Torres et al. investigated the
effects of some additives on the development of spinel–based
glass–ceramic glazes for floor–tiles [68].
Rong has a Ph.D. study on the synthesis, characterization, Figure 10. Influence of the type of coating on microorganism development [79].
and biological applications of inorganic nanomaterials and
determined that silver nanoparticles exhibit more antimicrobial
activity than silver nitrate in the same concentration. This Sun et al. covered the glazed surface with Ag–TiO2 by liquid–phase
finding suggests that low–toxicity silver nanoparticles may deposition method and made sintering at 600 °C, achieving high
be antimicrobial agents [69]. In the works of Yekta et al. floor antibacterial performance against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria
tile glass–ceramic glaze for the improvement of glaze surface [80]. Marcos et al. deposited titania layers by screen–printing in
properties has been examined [70]. Torres et al. worked on the common glazed ceramic tiles [81]. Karasu et al. investigated the
mechanism of crystallization of fast fired mullite–based glass– use of borax solid wastes in the production of fast single firing
ceramic glazes for floor–tiles [71], and also published the paper wall tile opaque glass–ceramic glazes[82].Rincón et al. developed
on the effect of boron oxide on the microstructure of mullite– anti–slip effect in the glass–ceramic glaze of CaO–MgO–Al2O3–
based glass–ceramic glazes for floor–tiles in the CaO–MgO– SiO2system [83].
Al2O3–SiO2 system [72]. Pekkan and Karasu reported the results of their work on the
Agné conducted a study on the silver ion–containing glaze and production of opaque frits with low ZrO2 and ZnO contents and
concluded that sanitaryware glazes obtained by traditional their industrial uses for fast single–fired wall tile glazes [84].
methods can be scratched and damaged with abrasive cleaning Thanks to the additive to the glaze composition between 0.3–0.5
agents such as powder used in the cleaning stage, and the % by weight, it has been observed that 99 % of the bacteria can
property of the glaze may be impaired. Thanks to the easy be eliminated as a result of the antibacterial test [85]. Teixeira
cleaning and chemical resistance of the glazes produced by and Bernardin used titania polymorphs (rutile and anatase) in
the method they developed such problems were eliminated substitution of zirconia as the main component for producing
[73]. Tulyaganov et al. worked on the influence of incorporation white opacity in ceramic glazes for tile coatings [86]. Cannillo
ZnO–containing glazes on the properties of hard porcelains et al. examined several ceramic tiles characterized by different
[74]. Määttä et al. established the effect of different coatings glazes to define the role played by the glassy and crystalline
on the cleanability of glazed ceramics [75], and the effects of phases on the leaching mechanism and the deterioration of the
UV–radiation on the cleanability of titanium–dioxide glazed mechanical properties [87]. Piispanen et al. investigated the
ceramic tiles [76]. Kuisma et al. examined the effect of surface chemical resistance and cleaning properties of coated glaze
topography of different compositions and surface coatings surfaces [88].
of glazed ceramic tiles on their cleanability [77]. Increasing Pekkan and Karasu evaluated of borax solid wastes in the
demands for better cleanability have led to the development production of frits suitable for fast single–fired wall tile opaque
of functional coatings on traditional glaze surfaces. However, glass–ceramic glazes [89].Yoshida et al. investigated the
the chemical and mechanical durability of these coatings is not antimicrobial activities of porcelain glazes with antimicrobial
fully understood. In the work of Kronberg et al. a traditional agents made from clay minerals interlaced with silver chelate
white sanitaryware glaze was coated with both commercial [90]. In the study of Zeng et al., Si–, P– and Zr–modified TiO2
fluoropolymers and new hybrid sol–gel functional coatings [78]. based low temperature glazed ceramics with photocatalytic
Berto has written a paper dealing specifically with the possibility properties were prepared. Modification with Si, P, and Zr was
of using ceramic tiles as supports in which to integrate elements able to effectively prevent TiO2 grains from interacting with the
such as photovoltaic cells, presence sensors for detecting glaze, limiting grain growth, and preventing the transition from
movement, or activating other devices, heat sensors for fire anatase to rutile phase. Ceramics prepared with modified TiO2
detection, electric switches, etc. Other applications already in additive showed effective and durable photocatalytic properties
development were also discussed, relating to the use of glaze [91]. Piispanen et al. covered the glazed surfaces by using three
coatings with self–cleaning, hygienic (Fig. 10), air generating, different methods to increase the strength of the glaze surfaces
bactericidal, anti–grease, or anti–misting properties [79]. and improve their easy cleaning properties. They reported

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that although the fluoropolymer coating was easy to apply, can be obtained by making additives to the glaze compositions or by
its chemical and mechanical strength was poor, but the TiO2 coating over the glaze. Raimondo et al. worked on creating hydrophilic
coating showed excellent cleanability and also inhibited good surfaces with a photocatalytic effect by covering the tile surfaces with
results in chemical and mechanical strength [92]. Sánchez et al. TiO2. The critical point in this study is that TiO2 to be used is in the
published a review paper on the description of the evolution and anatase phase and has a nanoscale grain size. Phase transformation
distribution of research into porcelain tile per country, giving the of anatase and grain growth requires very tight control, especially
major scientific and technological advances, focusing principally during heat treatment [101]. Petrovič et al. examined the photocatalytic
on the developments in raw materials compositions resulting activities of coatings containing different ratios of nano TiO2 by weight
from the introduction of certain key raw materials to enhance on ceramic surfaces. They stated that the photocatalytic activity also
composition quality [93]. Melchiades et al. aimed to identify the increased linearly with increasing nano–TiO2 layer thickness, but nano
causes of transparency loss presented by some ceramic glazes TiO2, which is used at a ratio higher than 1 %, causes the formation
composed of frits with chemical compositions typical of optically of cracks on the surface [102]. Partyka and Lis reported the results
transparent glasses [94]. of the effect of selective grinding of raw materials on the chemical
Kaya et al. characterized the diopside–based glass–ceramic resistance of ceramic glazes. Proper selection of the grain size of
porcelain tile glazes containing borax solid wastes [95]. Anatase, certain raw materials used for the production of ceramic glazes has
which is the most photo catalytically active titania modification, exhibited that glazes with higher surface quality and higher chemical
must be stabilized to achieve a high photocatalytic activity in resistance can be obtained against the effect of both acid and alkaline
ceramic processes at temperatures above 1000 oC. Hofer and solutions of a changing pH [103]. Agrawal et al. discussed the design
Penner prepared thermally stable TiO2 powders by the addition and experimental analysis of the glaze photovoltaic thermal (PVT) tile
of silica and boehmite nanoparticles and deposited on corundum air collector [104]. Casasola et al. have published a review article on
substrates and lead–free glazes [96]. glass–ceramics glazes for ceramic tiles [105].

Yeşilay and Karasu studied the process parameters determination Niederhousern et al. examined the effectiveness of Ag–TiO2 coatings
of phosphorescent pigment added, frit–based wall tiles vetrosa on glazed and unglazed ceramic surfaces. It has been reported that
decorations (Fig. 11) [97], and glass and ceramics with the the hydrophilic property of Ag–TiO2 coated surface increases and
phosphorescence ability [98]. gives a very high antimicrobial performance [106]. Pina–Zapardiel
et al. added the sepiolite with homogeneous zirconia nanoparticles
A distribution to a transparent ceramic glaze to study opacification,
mechanical and wear resistance properties, and observed that
monodispersed zircon single crystals with needle–like shape have
been formed in the ceramic glaze [107]. Murugan et al. made an
effort not only to demonstrate the performance of the self–cleaning
coatings on building materials such as ceramic glazed tiles and
glass windows but also to understand the fundamental issues
B
that are still alive in the field of self–cleaning surfaces based on
photocatalysis [108]. Zang et al. investigated the effects of tetraethyl
orthosilicate modification on microstructure, crystal structure,
hydrophilicity, photocatalytic activity, and stability of the film [109].
Ghosh et al worked on the glazes in the CaO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2
system for future generation floor tiles [110].
Figure 1. The final appearances of decorated, glazed wall tiles in the daylight
and the dark. Decors contain 10 % bluish-green and yellowish-green The formulation of innovative transparent hydro repellent coatings
phosphorescent pigmentsand single fast–fired at 920 oC (a) and 980 oC (b) in is strongly motivated to satisfy the market request and necessity to
VitrA Karo Inc. of Türkiye [97]. improve the cleanability of the sanitarywares. Cacciotti et al. reported
the set–up of the deposition of modified SiO2 coatings on glazed
In the study of Gürbüz et al., to give the products antimicrobial ceramic supports by spraying technique [111]. Ke et al. synthesized
properties, Ag–containing powder synthesis was made and added a photocatalytic TiO2/ZnTiO3 coating on glazed ceramic tiles by the
to the glaze, and environmentally friendly products were obtained sol–gel method and subsequent thermal treatment. The structural
by developing both photocatalytic and antibacterial functions in the and morphological properties were investigated by X–ray diffraction
same product coated with the TiO2 spray method [99]. Baheiraei et (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The result reveals
al. coated the Ag/SiO2 films on glazed ceramic tile by the sol–gel that the photocatalytic coating is composed of anatase TiO2 and
method and examined the antibacterial effectiveness of this process hexagonal ZnTiO3(Fig. 12) [112]. Ghosh et al. used cordierite–based
[100]. One of the most studied topics on functional ceramics is self– glass–ceramics to glaze floor tiles by microwave and conventional
cleaning hydrophilic and photocatalytic glazes. These two features processing techniques [113].

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on glazes for white earthenware body[122].Taşçi et al. developed

the phosphorescent violet/purple glazes on traditional glazed tiles
[123].Silva et al. prepared a 5 mole % Nb2O5 doped TiO2 solution
and applied it to the glazed ceramic tile surface by spraying. They
observed that the Nb2O5 additive used delayed the conversion
of TiO2 from the anatase phase to the rutile phase at annealing
temperatures and could prevent a decrease in the photocatalytic
performance of TiO2 depending on the temperature in the
production of ceramic tiles [124]. Fraga et al. reported the influence
of alkali elements (Na, K) on the morphological, structural, and
optoelectronic properties of CIGS ceramic tile solar cells [125].
Li et al. carried out the studies on the development of a high–
Figure 12. Photocatalytic degradation activity of methylene blue for a-TiO2/ reflectance ceramic tile containing titanite and the reaction sintering
ZnTiO3 coating [112]. mechanism of the tile was confirmed. The relationship between the
crystal content and reflectance was also explained [126]. In the work
Macro–crystalline glazes containing significantly large crystals of Gjek et al., it was aimed to develop new compositions of white
visible to the naked eye are a type of artistic glaze with a decorative glazes without the addition of ZrSiO4 designed for sanitary products
and esthetic performance. The use of raw glaze compositions is a obtained in a 12–h firing cycle at a maximum temperature of 1230 °C
cost–effective alternative for these types of crystal glazes. Pekkan [127]. Tarhan et al. conducted work on protecting natural resources,
studied R2O–RO–(ZnO)–Al2O3–(TiO2)–SiO2–based raw glaze system minimize raw material costs, and manage waste–generated
to produce macrocrystalline glazes for Limoges porcelain bodies pollution by reusing the vitrified sanitaryware waste products [128].
[114]. Tezza et al. examined the effect of sintering temperature on The study of Gajek et al. focused on the results of research on the
the photocatalytic activity of anatase ceramic glazes [115]. Solar development of newly designed white glazes without the addition
reflective materials, so–called cool roofs, can be identified as one of traditional opacifiers such as ZrO2 or ZrSiO4 intended for use
of the most promising solutions to counteract urban heat island. in ceramic sanitary products [129]. Barrachina et al. made an
Ceramic–based products can be an excellent solution combining investigation on the development of a glass–ceramic glaze (Fig.
both good solar properties and higher durability against time, in 13) formulated from industrial residues to improve the mechanical
particular, if glazed. Ferreira et al. used a traditionally engobed properties of the porcelain stoneware tiles [130]. The purpose of
porcelain stoneware tile as a substrate for a new generation of Li et al.’s study was to produce more excellent opaque wall tile
colored glazes characterized by different surfaces reaching glazes by using sapphirine instead of zirconium silicate as an
promising values in solar reflectance [116]. opacifier. To achieve it, the chemical compositions were precisely
adjusted in the system of SiO2–Al2O3–MgO–K2O–Na2O–B2O3 [131].
Mohd and Hasmaliza focused on the performance of rutile addition
Cai et al. examined the feasibility of developing fast–ring opaque
in glaze composition for antibacterial application [117]. Ferreira et
wall tile glazes obtained from zircon–free frits [132].Da Silva et
al. aimed to propose a first overview of several ceramic glazes by
al. overviewed the latest research on photocatalytic ceramic
analyzing their solar properties, in the perspective of creating a
tiles in terms of process parameters, durability, cleanability and
range of solar reflective ceramic glazed tiles [118]. Anatase is one
photoactivity, addressing challenges and solutions reported by
of the common and favorable material use in the manufacturing
academic and industrial sources [133]. Barmeh et al. published a
industry due to its uniqueness and functional performances to
paper on the influence of Ni doping on the self–cleaning properties
humans and the environment. Hasmaliza et al. conducted the
of TiO2 thin film under visible light [134]. Terjék and Dudás aimed
study focusing on the performance of anatase mixed with glaze
to determine the slipperiness of ceramic tiles and to make a
and applied on ceramic tiles by a dip coating method [119]. Knies
comparative analysis of the different measurement methods [135].
et al. developed a new glaze with photoactive oxides, based on the
industrial ZrSiO4 glazes for sanitaryware. When ZnO was used
instead of ZrSiO4, less than 20 nm surface roughness and, super A B
hydrophilic wetting was observed under UV irradiation [120].
In the study of Gün et al., the yellowish–green phosphorescent
pigment–added glazes were applied and fired at different
temperatures, determining that the luminescence is better in the
glaze fired at 870–880oC, and the luminescence was decreased
in the temperature range of 900–910 oCas a result of pigment
degradation [121]. Karasu and Çakı utilized thephosphorescent Figure 13. Scanning electron micrographs of the glass-ceramic glaze on a
pigments prepared by dry mixing and solid–state sintering method porcelain ceramic tile: a) x500, b) x5000 [130].

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Reinosa et al. designed a new glaze for the ceramic tile industry with the 5. CONCLUSIONS
combined layer deposition of standard glazes. It has been found that the During the body development activities, Istanbul Şile clay, Çanakkale
Ca2+ and Zn2+ compounds in the glaze can complement the antimicrobial kaolinite and fired fracture values were kept constant. In the recipes
effect of up to 99.9 % [136]. Barmeh et al. coated the surface of the of the bodies, new compositions were obtained by using granitic
glazed ceramic tile with the spraying method with pure and Al–doped rocks in different proportions instead of Aydın-Çine albite (Table 3).
TiO2 coatings prepared by the sol–gel method. Al in the Al–doped TiO2
According to the recipe values created, the raw materials were
coating acted as an impurity, thereby preventing the conversion of TiO2
weighed by calculating the moisture values. The raw material
in the anatase form to the rutile phase, resulting in better photocatalytic
mixtures were milled with the addition of water and 0.8% sodium
performance [137].
silicate in laboratory-type ball mills until the 45 µm sieve balance
In Selli and Yağyemez studies, they applied the photocatalytic coating reached 2-2.5%. The density (g / lt) and sieve balance (+45 µm) of the
containing TiO2 in the anatase phase obtained by the sol–gel method, to muds obtained were measured and later they were dried at 110 ° C in
the surface of ceramic tiles containing Al2O3, SiO2, B2O3, CaO, MgO, ZnO, a laboratory type kiln. For the pressing process, the dried muds were
K2O, Na2O and ZrO2 [138]. VitrA Photoactive (Eczacıbaşı Vitra) tiles were ground into mortar and powdered into granules and dampened up
covered with nano–sized titanium dioxide. Thanks to the photocatalytic to 5-6%. The granules prepared to obtain a homogeneous moisture
properties of the coating, the self–cleaning tiles also eliminated airborne distribution were kept for a day. These samples were formed by
impurities and bad odors [139]. Erlus Lotus roof tiles break down organic pressing the granules at 50x50 mm dimensions with 400 kg / cm2
dirt particles such as oil, soot, and moss with the help of sunlight and pressure and dried in a kiln at 110 ° C for 1 hour. These samples
remove this dirt from the environment with rain. The duration of these were sintered at the Kaleseramik Granite Factory at 1200 ° C for 56
roof tiles to remain clean is much longer than that of traditional roof minutes of firing time.
tiles [140]. Another important issue for glazed products with functional
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