MAT25 LECTURE 17 NOTES

NATHANIEL GALLUP

1. Limit Points
Definition 1: Limit Point (Abbott Definition 3.2.4)

Let A be a subset of R. A point x ∈ R is a limit point of A if every -neighborhood V (x) of x intersects A

Note 1: Limit Points

Notice that the definition of a limit point x of A does not say anything about whether or not x ∈ A. It
could be that x ∈ A or that x ∈/ A.

Example 1: Limit Points

(a) Let c < d. The set of limit points of (c, d) is [c, d].
(b) The set of limit points of Q is R since for any point x ∈ R, and any  > 0, there exists a rational
number r ∈ Q satisfying x < r < x +  and hence r 6= x and r ∈ V (x) ∩ Q.
(c) A similar argument shows that the set of limit points of I is R.

Exercise 1: Limit Points

Give an example of a set A ⊆ R and four points x, y, z, w ∈ R such that the following conditions are satisfied.
(a) x is a limit point of A and x ∈ A.
(b) y is a limit point of A but y ∈
/ A.
(c) z is not a limit point of A and z ∈ A.
(d) w is not a limit point of A and w ∈/ A.

Proof. Let A = (0, 2) ∪ {3}.

Theorem 1: Properties of Limit Points (Abbott Theorem 3.2.5)

A point x ∈ R is a limit point of a set A if and only if there exists a sequence (an ) contained in A with
an 6= x for all n ∈ N, and limn→∞ an = x.

Proof.
• (⇒). Suppose that x is a limit point of A. Then for each n ∈ N, we have 1/n > 0, hence there exists some
point an 6= x with an ∈ V1/n (x) ∩ A. Hence (an ) is a sequence with an ∈ A and an 6= x for all n ∈ N. We
claim that (an ) → x. Given  > 0 arbitrary, by the Archimedean Property of R, there exists N ∈ N with
1
N < . Then if n ≥ N , we have
1
 MAT25 LECTURE 17 NOTES 2

an ∈ V1/n (x)
1 1
=⇒ |x − an | < ≤ < .
n N
Hence indeed (an ) → x.
• (⇐). Suppose that (an ) is a sequence of points in A with an 6= x for all n ∈ N, and limn→∞ an = x. Then
for all  > 0, there exists N ∈ N such that if n ≥ N , we have |an − x| < . In particular, this implies that
|aN − x < , and hence aN ∈ V (x) ∩ A. Hence we have shown that for all  > 0, there exists some point
aN ∈ V (x) ∩ A with aN 6= x, so x is a limit point of A.


Definition 2: Isolated Point (Abbott Definition 3.2.6)

A point a ∈ R is called an isolated point of A if it is in A but is not a limit point of A.

Note 2: Isolated Point

The point z from ?? is an isolated point of A.

Example 2: Isolated Points

(a) Q has no isolated points since every element of R is a limit point of Q, and therefore every element
of Q is a limit point of Q.
(b) A similar argument shows that I has no isolated points.

Example 3: Sets of Sequences (Abbott Theorem 3.2.8)

Let A = { n1 | n ∈ N}.
• We claim that every point of A is isolated. For any 1/n ∈ A, let  = 1/n − 1/n + 1 > 0. Then
V (1/n) ∩ A = {1/n}. Hence there exists an -neighborhood of 1/n which only intersects A in {1/n}.
Therefore 1/n is an isolated point for all n ∈ N. This implies that 1/n is not a limit point for any
n ∈ N.
• However, 0 is a limit point of A. First note that since (1/n) → 0, for any  > 0, there exists some
n ∈ N such that 1/n ∈ V (0). Hence 0 is a limit point of A.

Theorem 2: Limit Point Characterization of Closed Sets (Abbott Theorem 3.2.13)

A set F ⊆ R is closed if and only if it contains all of its limit points.

Proof.
• (⇒). Suppose that F is closed and for contradiction, suppose that there exists x a limit point of F with
x∈ / F . Then x ∈ R r F , and since F is closed, R r F is open. Therefore there exists some  > 0 such that
V (x) ⊆ R r F . Therefore, there exists some  > 0 such that V (x) ∩ F = ∅, contradiction that x is a limit
point of F .
• (⇐). Suppose that F contains all of its limit points. Then given any x ∈ R r F , x is not a limit point of
F , hence there exists some  > 0 such that V (x) ∩ F = ∅, which implies that V (x) ⊆ R r F . Therefore
R r F is open, so by definition, F is closed.

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Example 4: Limit Point Characterization of Closed Sets

(a) ?? gives another proof that Q and I are not closed: Since the set of limit points of Q is R, and yet
Q 6⊆ R, Q is not closed. The same is true for I.
(b) The set (c, d) is not closed, since c and d are both limit points of this set, and yet neither is in (c, d).
(c) The set A = {1/n | n ∈ N} is not closed, since 0 is a limit point, yet 0 ∈ / A.

Theorem 3: Cauchy Sequence Characterization of Closed Sets (Abbott Theorem 3.2.8)

A set F ⊆ R is closed if and only if every Cauchy sequence in F has a limit that is also in F .

Proof.
• (⇒). Suppose that F ⊆ R is closed and let (an ) be a Cauchy sequence in F . By the Cauchy Criterion,
(an ) converges to some point x ∈ R. Then by ??, x is a limit point of F , hence by ??, x ∈ F , as desired.
• (⇐). Suppose that every Cauchy sequence in F has a limit that is also in F . Let x ∈ R be a limit point of
F . Then by ??, there exists some sequence (an ) in F which converges to x. However convergent sequences
are Cauchy, therefore (an ) is a Cauchy sequence contained in F , so by hypothesis, its limit x is also in F .
Since x was an arbitrary limit point of F , it follows that F contains all of its limit points, and therefore
by ??, F is closed.

Note 3: Convergent Sequence Characterization of Closed Sets

Since, in R, a sequence is Cauchy if and only if it is convergent, we can restate ?? to say: F is closed if and
only if every convergent sequence in F has a limit that is also in F .

Theorem 4: Density of Q in R (Abbott Theorem 3.2.10)

For every y ∈ R, there exists a sequence of rational numbers that converges to y.

Proof. Let y ∈ R and let  > 0 be arbitrary. Then the density of Q in R theorem states that there exists r ∈ Q
such that y < r < y + . Hence r ∈ V (y), so y is a limit point of Q. By ??, there exists a sequence in Q which
converges to y. 
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