CHAPTER TWO

2.1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.2 Introduction

This chapter presents the review of related literature. This is carried out under

the following sub-headings: conceptual framework, theoretical framework, review of

previous studies, and summary.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is a written or visual presentation that explains either

graphically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied, such as, the key

factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among them. According

to Mutai (2010), a conceptual analysis is a hypothesized model identifying various

variables and the relationship among them.

2.2.1 Concept of Teacher Productivity

Teacher Productivity

Productivity is a concept often misinterpreted with efficiency by many people.

However, both concepts exhibit similarity, yet they are different economic concepts.

In the formal educational system, both concepts each refer to a different relationship

between inputs and outputs. Inputs are the resources used to produce education, such

10
as per-student expenditures; student-teacher ratios; teacher education, experience, and

salary; school facilities; and administrative factors, the teachers’ time; buildings;

learning materials; equipment; students, time, etc. While outputs are the products of

education such as the number of students who are educated, their qualifications, their

cognitive learning, the cultural, sporting and life skills they have obtained, the

welfare services provided by the schools, etc (Marginson, 2011).

Productivity, in its own right, focuses more on output. Productivity can best be

understood as output per unit of measured input. When comparing productivity, we

hold input constant while output is allowed to vary. For example, we can hold the

service of a teacher constant while expecting his output to increase, that is, we

vary his or her output. Thus, productivity increases when the same input leads to

a greater output than before. Productivity can either be measured in money or

physical terms.

In classical term, productivity can be defined as physical output per unit of

labour time (Kendrick, 2015). Thus, when we talk of higher productivity, it enables

us to evaluate the number of products the worker has produced with the given input

available to the workers. School productivity invariably refers to the results that a

school system is achieving for a given level of inputs.

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 According to Babalola (2012), the general belief is that productivity can be

increased by increasing the labour supply, increasing the hour worked and increasing

wages. However, greater productivity does not come from spending more or from

working harder, but smarter (Ashenden, 2010). The bottom line therefore is that

productivity is concerned mainly with the maximization of output. The question

therefore relates to how many students have we been able to influence positively as

teachers? The greater the number, the greater our productivity in absolute terms.

In this way therefore, we define productivity in terms of the goal satisfaction which

is measured by the relationship between services rendered to our consumers/clients

(students) and the broad objectives of the educational system (Tegle, 2014).

Although these concepts and definitions are not exhaustive, the focus of

productivity in education is centered mainly on the output of the teachers in terms of

their ability to increase the learning achievement of students through an effective

classroom interaction and management.

Reasons for Low Teacher Productivity in Schools

Generally, the research exploring teacher motivational issues in Nigeria shows

that teachers are poorly motivated and are dissatisfied with their living and working

conditions. The key reasons for this are as follows:

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• Low wages when compared with other professionals,

• Low status in the society,

• Lack of career advancement opportunities,

• High student-teacher ratio,

• Poor work environment,

• Inadequate fringe benefits, and

• Irregular payment of teachers’ salaries.

According to the literature, these conditions are responsible for low teachers’

morale and productivity and the difficulty in attracting and retaining quality

personnel into the teaching profession. This has not always been the case. A broad

consensus is that, prior to independence, teaching was considered by almost all

sections of society as a highly respected profession. Teachers played key leadership

roles in local communities and acted as role models. However, after independence,

when the demand for educated labour grew rapidly, many teachers left the profession

to take up jobs elsewhere in the public and private sector.

According to Obanya (2013), this marked the beginning of the teachers’

motivation crisis in Nigeria, as the public began to look down on those teachers who

remained in the classroom as second-string public servants. The growing tendency

for school leavers to opt for teaching only if they are unable to find other more

lucrative public or private sector employment further compounded this problem of

13
lowered professional status (Lawal, 2010). According to Owusu (The Punch

Newspapers, 2004), who once led the accreditation team of the National Commission

for Colleges of Education, remarked that the teaching profession in Nigeria had been

relegated to the background and that teaching is not accorded the respect it deserves.

A major finding in a study by Kazeem (2012) is that teachers and other school

workers tend to remain contented and reasonably motivated as long as salaries are

paid on time and they are promoted regularly. Much earlier, Eton (2014) also

identified the payment of salaries, allowances and promotion as the key factors that

shape teachers’ attitudes towards their work. Similarly, Amadi (2015) also concluded

that the irregular payment of salaries is one of the major problems facing the teaching

profession in Nigeria. According to Mbanefoh (2012), practicing teachers are

particularly concerned about the late payment of salaries and the non-payment of

fringe benefits rather than other non-monetary incentives. School principals often

complained about teachers not willing to work because of delays in payment of their

salaries (Ayeni, 2015). Ubom (2012), found that in Nigeria, prompt payment of

salaries induced greater commitment to teaching.

According to Adelabu (2015), another major source of teachers’ dissatisfaction

in Nigeria arises from disparities between the teaching profession and other profe-

ssions, such as nursing, with respect to the time and mode of payment of salaries,

fringe benefits, promotion prospects and working conditions. However, no consensus

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exists on the extent to which financial inducements are the really critical motivators.

Research has shown that monetary reward in itself has not improved teachers’ low

esteem and their productivity. Youlonfoun (2012), argues that, although good salaries

and their prompt payment are important motivating factors, there is evidence that

other factors can undermine commitment to teaching. It was therefore not a surprise

when Akinwumi (2010) and Ejiogu (2011) found that what the typical low income

earning teacher yearns for is a sizeable salary increase, and they conclude that

the payment of a living wage would significantly enhance their commitment and

performance.

Next to pay is the social status of teachers which has been identified as an

important factor impacting teachers’ morale and motivation (Baike, 2012; Francis,

2013; and Obanya, 2015). Where teachers feel society is dismissive of the profession,

their commitment is undermined. Promoting teachers en masse, without basing it on

an evaluative mechanism linked to job performance, has also been found

to de-motivate many teachers in Nigeria (Yisa, 2015; Obilade, 2016; Sanusi, 2017).

School leadership and management style are also important factors, which can

either motivate or lower teachers’ morale and commitment. Nwankwo (2014) found

that teachers feel highly motivated when they are consulted about decisions regarding

their work. Unfortunately, too high a proportion of school managers (principals and

head teachers) are highhanded and autocratic in their dealings with teachers (Ayeni,
15
2015). The attitude of inspectors towards teachers in supervising their work is

another important work-related motivational factor. Bamisaiye (2018) found that

unfair administrative and supervisory practices tend to undermine teachers’ morale.

The work environment is also an important determining factor in teacher

motivation. The teacher’s working environment in Nigeria has been described as the

most impoverished of all sectors of the labour force (National Postsecondary

Education Cooperative ‘NPEC’, 2016). Facilities in most schools are dilapidated and

inadequate (Adelabu, 2013). Kazeem (2011) recommended that greater attention

should be given to improving work-related conditions of teachers to improve the

quality of education. In particular, there should be improvements in the supply of

teaching and learning materials and general classroom environment to improve

student learning. Kazeem (2011) and Akinwumi (2010) found that private school

teachers appear more motivated than teachers in public schools. Regular payment of

salaries and much lower pupil-teacher ratios are key reasons for this. Muheeb (2014)

found that the conditions for teaching are more conducive in private secondary

schools in Lagos State, especially because the maximum class size is only 30 in

private schools compared to well over 80 in public schools.

Unarguably, this state of disequilibrium will certainly affect the level of

productivity and consequently, the learning outcome in schools. This paper attempts

to provide some probable strategies for improving teachers’ productivity through an

effective classroom interaction and management. This study therefore discusses the

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concepts of productivity (school productivity) as it relates to the teacher, the role of

the teacher and some visible challenges facing the teachers and how these challenges

could be improved upon to guarantee an effective and efficient service delivery

among teachers, especially in our public secondary schools.

Factors that affect Teachers’ Ability to Perform Productively

Frase (2012) identified two sets of factors that affect teachers’ ability to

perform productively: work context factors (the teaching environment, and work

content factors (teaching) as discussed below.

(i) Work Context Factors: Work context factors are those that meet baseline

needs. They include working conditions such as class size, discipline condi-

tions, and availability of teaching materials; the quality of the principal’s

supervision; and basic psychological needs such as money, status, and security.

In general, context factors clear the road of the debris that block effective

teaching. In adequate supply, these factors prevent dissatisfaction. Even the

most intrinsically motivated teacher will become discouraged if his salary

doesn’t pay the mortgage. But these factors may not have an extended motiva-

tional effect or lead to improved teaching. For example, a survey conducted

by Michaeloma (2012) found that teacher compensation, including salary,

benefits, and supplemental income, showed little relation to long-term satis-

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 faction with teaching as a career. According to Frase (2012), content variables

are the crucial factors in motivating teachers to high levels of performance.

(ii) Work Content Factors: Work content factors are intrinsic to the work itself.

They include opportunities for professional development, recognition, challen-

ging and varied work, increased responsibility, achievement, empowerment,

and authority. Tudo-Craig (2012) argued that teachers who do not feel

supported in these states are less motivated to do their best work in the

classroom. Duflo, Dupas & Kremer (2017) confirmed that staff recognition,

parental support, teacher participation in school decision making, influence

over school policy, and control in the classroom are the factors most strongly

associated with teacher satisfaction.

2.2.2 Concept of Teacher Motivation

Teacher Motivation

As one of the most often-researched topics in the field of psychology and

education, motivation has been generally viewed as energy or drive that moves

people to do something by nature. However, given the complexity of motivation,

there seems to be no consensus in the understanding of motivation (Dörnyei &

Ushioda, 2011). Therefore, researchers were rather selective in their study focus by

applying a range of motivation theories. Williams & Burden (2012) differentiated

two aspects of motivation: initiating motivation which was concerned with the
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reasons for doing something and deciding to do something, and sustaining motivation

referring to the effort for sustaining or persisting in doing something. Dörnyei &

Ushioda (2011), identified two dimensions of defining motivation on which most

researchers would agree: direction and magnitude of human behaviour. Accordingly,

motivation specifies the reason why people decide to do something, how long people

are willing to sustain the activity and how hard they are going to pursue the activity.

According to Fredrick (2011), motivation is the desire within a person causing

him or her to act. Robbins and Judge (2011) also believe motivation is concerned

with the strength and direction of behaviour and the factors that influence people to

behave in certain ways. Parley (2014) explained further that the term “motivation”

can refer variously to the goals individuals have, the ways in which individuals

choose their goals and the ways in which others try to change their behaviour.

Bagshawe (2011) defined motivation as the drives within a person that account for

the degree, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. Motivation is a

procedure that initiates through a physiological or psychological want that stimulates

a performance that is intended at an objective. It is the concluding product of inter-

face among personality behaviour and organizational distinctiveness. Motivation is a

set of courses concerned with a kind of strength that boosts performance and is

directed towards accomplishing some definite targets (Quratul, 2011).

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 As for teacher motivation, Sinclair (2016) defined it in terms of attraction,

retention and concentration as something that determines 'what attracts individuals

to teaching, how long they remain in their initial teacher education courses and

subsequently the teaching profession, and the extent to which they engage with their

courses and the teaching profession'. Teacher motivation refers to those variables,

factors that influence teachers to do things. In its more technical usage, teacher

motivation is to be seen as a psychological concept. It is regarded as a process of

organizing behavior  in progress and channeling behaviours into specific course. It is 

a process of stimulating, channeling and sustaining behavior. According to Asemah

(2010), teacher motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives,

desires, needs, wishes and similar forces initiated for teachers, in order to induce

them to act in desirable academically productive manner.

Teacher motivation encompasses forces both within and external to the

individual. According to Hicks (2011), the internal teacher motivation comprises of

the needs, wants and desires which exist within an individual; as such influence the

teachers thought which in turn leads to a positive change behavior toward improving

learning. Teacher motivation entails that the teacher is made to satisfy the life

supporting elements of his physical body like food, water, shelter etc. the teacher

should be able to satisfy needs like insurance, medical allowances, retirement

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benefits etc. The implication is that school management should be more concerned

with providing  meaningful  and  challenging  work,  feeling  or  achievement,  added

responsibility, recognition for accomplishment, opportunities for growth and

advancement as all these, among other motivators drive the teacher to be acting

undesirable way.

Traditional Approaches to Teacher Motivation

Traditional incentive plans designed to recruit, reward, and retain teachers

include: merit pay and career ladders were intended to provide financial incentives,

varied work, and advancement opportunities for seasoned teachers. These, along with

across-the-board pay raises, work environment premiums for difficult assignments,

and grants or sabbaticals for research and study, were expected to improve teacher

performance and motivation. According to Johnson (2016), measures developed to

boost teacher motivation are based on three theories of motivation and productivity:

i. Expectancy theory: Individuals are more likely to strive in their work if there

is an anticipated reward that they value, such as a bonus or a promotion, than if

there is none.

ii. Equity theory: Individuals are dissatisfied if they are not justly compensated

for their efforts and accomplishments.

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iii. Job enrichment theory: Workers are more productive when their work is

varied and challenging.

The first two theories are justification for merit pay and career ladders, and the

third suggests differentiated staffing, use of organizational incentives, and reform-

oriented staff development.

(a) Merit Pay: The idea of merit pay has a straightforward appeal: it provides

financial rewards for meeting established goals and standards. The concern

is that merit pay plans may encourage teachers to adjust their teaching

down to the program goals, setting their sights no higher than the standards

(Coltham 2012). Odden & Kelley (2013) reviewed recent research and

experience and concluded that individual merit and incentive pay programs

do not work and, in fact, are often detrimental. A number of studies have

suggested that merit pay plans often divide faculties, set teachers against

their administrators, are plagued by inadequate evaluation methods, and

may be inappropriate for organizations such as schools that require

cooperative, collaborative work.

(b) Differentiated Staffing and Career Ladders: While merit pay plans

attempt to reward excellent teacher performance with increased financial

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 compensation, career ladders such as mentor teacher and master teacher

programs and differentiated staffing reforms are designed to enrich work

and enlarge teachers’ responsibilities. However, many of these programs

have faltered for largely the same reasons that merit pay plans have failed -

unanticipated costs, teacher opposition, inadequate evaluation methods, and

dissension (Freiberg, 2014).

Types and Dimensions of Motivation

Broadly, motivation may be classified as either extrinsic or intrinsic.

According to Robbins & Judge (2011), extrinsic motivation occurs when things are

done to or for people (employees) to motivate them. These include rewards, increased

pay, promotion, praise, awards, and punishments such as disciplinary action,

withholding of pay or criticism. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is provided

by the work itself and is associated greatly with engagement. It may come in the form

of a feeling of accomplishment or recognition (Robbins & Judge, 2011).

Dörnyei & Ushioda (2011) highlighted the two dimensions of teacher motiva-

tion in accordance with their conceptions of motivation, namely, the motivation to

teach and the motivation to remain in the profession. Their review of literature came

to a conclusion of four featured components of teacher motivation: prominent

intrinsic motivation which was closely related to inherent interest of teaching; social

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contextual influences relating to the impact of external conditions and constraints;

temporal dimension with emphasis on lifelong commitment; and demotivating factors

emanating from negative influences.

Instruments for Assessing Teacher Motivation

The review of teacher motivation research indicates a dominance of quanti-

tative method over qualitative approach in related studies, and a majority of research

adopted quantitative methods in terms of standardized questionnaires to investigate

the relationship between teacher motivation and a number of variables. The

dominance of quantitative method has generated a set of instruments developed by

different researchers to measure teacher motivation under the guidance of SDT

(Roth, 2007), achievement goal theory (Butler, 2012; Retelsdorf., 2010), and work

motivation theory (Taylor, 2009).

With the assumption of considering professional engagement as a primary

indicator of teacher motivation, De Jesus & Lens (2015) proposed an integrated

model of teacher motivation which was constructed from the perspective of

expectancy-value and learned helplessness. The inclusive variables of the model

(professional engagement, goal value, success expectancies, intrinsic motivation,

efficacy expectancy, control-expectancy, success and failure attributions) were

presented recursive and unidirectional, and based on the theoretical meaning of the

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above variables, a self-report instrument was developed to test the model. Empirical

support in terms of analyses of path coefficients and the variance of variables was

offered by a study with a sample of 272 elementary and secondary Portuguese

teachers. Results indicated that several hypotheses derived from the comprehensive

model can account for the recursive and hierarchically sequenced causal relationship

between the inclusive variables proposed by self-efficacy theory and intrinsic

motivation theory (De Jesus & Lens, 2015).

Based on Nicholls’ Motivational Orientations Measure developed for students,

Butler (2012) applied achievement goal theory to formulate and validate a self-report

measure of Goal Orientations for Teaching (GOT) with five factors (mastery goals,

ability-approach goals, ability-avoidance goals, work avoidance goals and relational

goals). The construct validity of the model has been examined by exploration of

relationships between teacher achievement goals and students’ perceptions of

instructional practice, help-seeking perceptions and cheating with sample teachers

from Israel and Germany (Butler, 2007; Butler & Shibaz, 2014; Retelsdorf, 2010).

Additionally, the application of GOT was also supported with tertiary teachers in

Chinese context (Han, Yin, & Wang, 2015, 2016).

In addition to Butler’s work, Nitsche, Dickhäuser, Fasching, & Dresel (2011)

also provided a conceptual extension of Butler’s model by proposing a 36-item scale

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with three competence facets of learning goal orientations (pedagogical knowledge,

content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge) and four types of addressee

groups (principal/instructor, colleagues/fellow teacher trainees, students, self) of

performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. They expected their quest-

ionnaire to be applicable to both in-service teachers and teacher trainees, and applied

the questionnaire to studies of the relationship between teachers’ goals and their work

performance (Dresel, Fasching, Steuer, Nitsche & Dickhäuser, 2013; Nitsche,

Dickhäuser, Fasching & Dresel, 2013).

Roth (2007) developed a Subscales Assessing Four Types of Motivation for

Teaching under SDT framework to examine teachers’ autonomous motivation for

teaching and its correlates in teachers and students. The measurement was arranged

in a task-specific format, and for each teaching-related task, four responses

representing four different types of motivation was assessed: external, introjected,

identified and intrinsic. Subsequent study conducted by Hein (2012) proved the

appropriateness of using the instrument for physical education teachers, and it

confirmed the positive relationship between autonomous teacher motivation and

student-centred or reproductive teaching styles.

As most existing instruments were designed and tested by teachers at primary

and secondary education, Visser-Wijnveen, Stes & Van Petegem (2012) developed a

26
Dutch questionnaire including motivational aspects of efficacy (personal efficacy,

teaching efficacy, and outcome efficacy), interest and effort in response to the lack of

instrument for teacher motivation in higher education, because they believed that

the competition between research and teaching constituted major distinctive features

of the higher education settings. With voluntary university teachers, their 25-item

Dutch-language instrument was validated by analyzing the relationships between

teacher motivation and other educational practice. However, with voluntary partici-

pants who were supposed to be highly motivated, the author indicated that the

questionnaire was subject to be tested with non-voluntary participants.

However, in review of studies conducted in the field of motivation in

educational settings, the focus on students’ learning motivations has generated a

number of instruments to measure student motivation. For example, the Attitude/

Motivation Test Battery (AMTB, Gardner, 1985), the Motivated Strategies for

Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ, Pintrich, Smith, Garcia & Mckeachie, 1993), and

the Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand, 1992). However, instruments of teacher

motivation employed by different researchers are subject to further validation.

Therefore, there is still a large room for future research to develop instruments for

teacher motivation which could facilitate an in-depth understanding of teacher

motivation from various perspectives.

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Problems facing Teachers’ Motivation in Schools

Colthan (2012) and Michaeloma (2012) studies on teacher motivation in deve-

loping countries indicates widespread low or decreasing levels of motivation,

resulting in lower quality of education. For example, sizeable percentages of primary

school teachers are poorly motivated in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The

documented causes of low teacher motivation, what this report referred to as threats

to teacher motivation can be divided into eight interconnected categories which are

mostly applicable in the area of this study too are as highlighted below:

1. Workload and Challenges: There are increasing classroom challenges and

demands placed on teachers, but the following seven motivational supports

teachers need to face these challenges and demands are decreasing or stagnant.

2. Remuneration and Incentives: Teacher salaries are generally low and irregu-

larly paid.

3. Recognition and Prestige: Social respect for teachers has fallen in many

countries.

4. Accountability: Teachers often face weak accountability with little support.

5. Career Development: Teaching is frequently a second-choice job with few.

opportunities for professional development.

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6. Institutional Environment: Teachers face unclear and constantly changing

policies as well as poor management.

7. Voice: Teachers rarely have an opportunity for input into school management

and ministry policy.

8. Learning Materials and Facilities: Teachers have few or poor learning

materials and poor facilities.

The first category, workload, serves as the backdrop against which the seven

remaining categories operate. These seven categories are motivational supports which

give teachers the energy, incentives, purpose, etc. to tackle their workloads with

sincere effort and professionalism. The seven motivational supports are divided

into two types. Those motivational supports that are largely extrinsic, concerning

teachers, external conditions and material incentives. And those motivational

supports that are largely intrinsic, effecting teachers’ internal feelings of esteem,

achievement, and purpose.

(i) Workload and Challenges: Teachers facing heavy workloads need sufficient

motivational supports in order to sustain their effort and professional conduct

on the job. If teachers’ workload is greater than teachers’ motivational

supports, teacher motivation is threatened. Expanding access to education for

all, as many countries are attempting, increases the workload and challenges

29
faced by teachers. Education for all, combined with population growth, often

requires remote deployment of teachers, large class sizes, multiple teaching

shifts, or multiple grade levels within a single class. Michaelowa (2012) finds

that these challenges are negatively correlated with teacher job satisfaction and

positively correlated to absenteeism in Africa. Furthermore, due to political

influence and irrational policies, it is the least qualified teachers who are

most often sent to the most challenging and neediest schools – frequently those

located in rural areas (Bennell & Akyeampong, 2017). In addition, safety and

cultural traditions can severely undermine the motivation of female teachers

to work on rural or remote areas. Living far from school can also contribute

to absenteeism.

In many developing countries, teachers are increasingly asked to perform a

greater range of duties, including health education, distributing food, giving

immunizations, taking census data, and organizing community development

activities. If not properly compensated, these sorts of demands on teachers can

decrease their motivation (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Other de-motivating

challenges include teaching students of a lower social class and recent

regulations banning student corporal punishment (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015).

Finally, not only does a heavy workload negatively impact teachers’ effort, it

also makes teachers resistant to applying new teaching methods.

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(ii) Remuneration and Incentives (Largely Extrinsic): The broad consensus

among occupational psychologists in developed country contexts is that pay on

its own does not increase motivation. However, pecuniary motives are likely to

be dominant among teachers in those least developed countries (LDCs) where

pay and other material benefits are too low for individual and household

survival needs to be met. Only when these basic needs have been met is it

possible for higher-order needs, which are the basis of true job satisfaction can

be realized (Bennell & Akyeampong, 2017). Teacher salaries are generally

low, especially in Africa. Corresponding to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, lack

of a living wage can undermine the foundation of basic need fulfillment

teachers require before they can focus on improving their work. When teachers

do not have enough money to live, they often resort to secondary employment

activities, which can undermine their motivation to perform in their primary

job and lead to increased absenteeism.

One such secondary employment activity, private tutoring, can be especially

harmful to students’ achievement, or at least the distribution of students’

achievement, when teachers cut back on teaching part of the curriculum in

school in order to generate demand for their tutoring services out of school.

Besides resorting to secondary employment, teachers who earn poverty wages

are often unable to eat properly before coming to school. Furthermore, it is

difficult to motivate qualified teachers to work in the neediest schools and in

31
 rural areas without sufficient material incentives. Low pay also alters the

profile of those who are most motivated to become teachers, as the opportunity

cost of joining the poorly-paid teaching force is lowest for the unskilled,

inexperienced, women, and those from rural areas (Umansky & Vegas, 2017).

However, beyond a reasonable salary, there is little evidence that further

pay increases motivate teachers. Michaelowa (2012) does not find a salary

structure to be an obvious determinant of teacher job satisfaction. If teachers

are able to support themselves and their families, how teachers are paid may

be more important than how much they are paid. Teachers are more motivated

when they are paid on time, when retrieving their pay is easy, and sometimes

through performance bonus-pay schemes.

(iii) Recognition and Prestige (Largely Intrinsic): In many developing countries

teaching has historically enjoyed a large degree of prestige. Today, however,

many teachers feel the respect for their profession is decreasing – in the eyes of

students, parents, government, and the larger society. Low salaries play a role,

but so does the assignment of administrative or menial tasks; lower standards

of teaching; increasing demands on schools from communities; and the

creation of large groups of unqualified or even female teachers (Bennell &

Akyeampong, 2017).

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 On the other side, the status of volunteer or community teachers appears to

motivate those types of teachers to perform more so than formal or civil-

servant teachers. In addition, sometimes teachers may simply

not have a good relationship with the community surrounding their school, and

this can be especially true in hierarchical societies with large gaps between

teachers and the students and community (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Lack

of prestige from low remuneration and low autonomy in planning and

teaching, has been associated with private tutoring (Popa & Acedo, 2016) an

activity where teachers often enjoy more professional status, self-esteem, and

better pay. Many teachers feel that another way to increase societal respect for

teaching is to improve the public image of their profession by making the

public more aware of the actual conditions they face (Tudor-Craig 2002).

(iv) Accountability (Largely Extrinsic): Teachers’ accountability is generally

weak where there is low remuneration. Systematic controls are inadequate, and

teachers are rarely inspected and difficult to discipline. When salaries are

deposited to banks, head-teachers cannot withhold them from poorly

performing teachers and face lengthy and ineffective alternate means of

sanctioning them. Furthermore, teacher pay and promotion is rarely linked to

performance. When teachers are inspected, the process is often purely

supervisory with little support or advice for how teachers can improve their

33
 performance. Bennell & Akyeampong (2017) highlighted the need for greater

accountability in order to rein in unprofessional teacher behavior in schools.

Duflo, Dupas & Kremer (2017) find that increased accountability can function

as a strong complement to other methods of improving teacher motivation.

However, combining class size reduction with improved accountability (by

hiring local teachers on short term contract or by increasing parental oversight)

produced larger test score increases than reduced class size alone.

However, accountability that is too harsh or not complemented with support

can just as readily damage teacher motivation. A large number of inspector

visits or large degree of parental oversight decreases teacher job satisfaction,

although these measures also increase student achievement and decrease

teacher absenteeism (Michaelowa, 2012). Finnigan & Gross (2017) warn

against the de-motivating consequences of continually sanctioning of poorly

performing teachers or schools without simultaneously providing support for

those teachers or schools to improve their performance.

(v) Career Development (Largely Intrinsic): While teachers may dislike

external controls on their teaching decisions and behaviour, nearly all teachers

appreciate external professional support. To improve teacher motivation,

Bennell & Akyeampong (2017) highlighted the need for more attractive

career structures and more opportunities for teacher professional develop-

especially when combined with mentoring and observation, and lead to

improved students’ outcomes (Ginsburg, 2009).

Teachers do appear to be confident in their own abilities, but feel they need the

external support, tools, and training to allow them to excel in their work, and

opportunity to progress up the career ladder. Professional development also

enhances teacher motivation through an important and related channel:

observed students’ achievement. Teacher job satisfaction has been found to be

correlated with high-performing students (Michaelowa, 2012), and teachers in

a variety of developing countries have been seen to become more motivated

when witnessing their effort pay off in the form of improved students’

performance. Namely, coaching teachers to set expectations for students, better

manage the classroom, and apply new teaching methods can be very

effective in motivating teachers (Mendez, 2011). Unfortunately, conditions

surrounding career development often undermine teacher motivation. Teachers

are often recruited from lower-performing academic tracks in the education

system; and this not only contributes to a view of teaching as a lower-skilled

profession, but also makes teaching a job of last resort for the skilled – and an

attractive option for the untalented.

35
 Michaelowa (2012) finds that teachers with the highest educational attainment

are the least satisfied with their job, indicating that their preparation is mis-

matched with the reality of their work. When committed, skilled teachers do

enter the system, they face few opportunities for promotion and only infre-

quent, low-quality training that fails to give teachers the tools to overcome

their classroom challenges (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Teachers often rely

on and value the opportunity to network with other teachers, and even the

chance to progress up the career ladder to become formal mentors to other

teachers, but these opportunities are scarce. Because criteria for advancement

are primarily based on qualifications and years of service, both good

and bad teachers are promoted together, further undermining motivation.

Teachers often see their work in the classroom as a stepping stone, and desire

to move on either to school administration or another profession entirely.

However, the current system provides few opportunities for advancement

either within or outside of the classroom (Fanfani, 2014). When teachers do

pursue their post-classroom ambitions, their independent study to increase their

qualifications can lead to increased absenteeism.

(vi) Institutional Environment (Largely Extrinsic): Education policies are often

unclear or subject to corruption or nepotism. Teachers prefer meritocratic

promotion, deployment, and pay; but instead, politics and patronage networks

36
 usually dominate and thus undercut teacher motivation. Teachers have a strong

sense of equality, and become de-motivated when they see other teachers

(frequently math, science, and language teachers) receive what they perceive to

be special treatment (Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). With increased reform,

teachers face constantly changing policies, which can confuse and de-motivate.

In addition, constant transfers mean that teachers are often unable to teach in

the same school long enough to witness the change in students’ achievement

resulting from their efforts.

(vii) Voice (Largely Intrinsic): Teachers often operate in very hierarchical and

authoritarian systems, with limited opportunities for participation and delega-

tion of responsibilities. Teacher perspectives and needs are rarely considered in

education policymaking or project design. Teachers are often seen as passive

implementers or technical inputs rather than partners in reform. Teacher

motivation in many countries is positively related to greater voice in decision-

making. In some places, teachers find expression in unions. In Africa for

example, Union membership increases job satisfaction (Michaelowa, 2012).

However, unionization also carries risks. Even when teachers want to teach,

they may be pressured by unions to strike, which interrupts their teaching and

serves as a source of de-motivation.

37
(viii) Learning Materials and Facilities (Largely Extrinsic): Teachers increas-

ingly have to do more with less a small number of textbooks and other learning

materials are spread thin over many students, while physical infrastructure is

poorly constructed or maintained. In Africa, Michaelowa (2012) finds that

adequate provision of textbooks can improve teacher job satisfaction and

increase student test scores. In fact, she concludes that textbooks are the single

most important determinant of whether or not a teacher desired to transfer

schools, a proxy for job satisfaction.

Teachers are de-motivated by the fact that the school syllabus assumes that

teachers have access to learning materials when in reality such materials are

scarce. Basic amenities such as water and electricity are also very important for

teacher job satisfaction and motivation. For example, sanitary facilities are

especially important to motivate female teachers to work at a given school

(Ramachandran & Pal, 2015). Other problems include slow textbook develop-

ment; restricted space; nonexistent or under-resourced libraries, labs, etc.

However, like pay, learning materials and facilities are merely a necessary

but insufficient factor in teacher motivation; and once these needs are met

only then can intrinsic factors such as recognition, career development, and

voice have a deeper impact on motivating teachers.

38
2.3 Influence of Teachers’ Motivation on Teachers’ Productivity

Teacher motivation is an essential component to enhance classroom

effectiveness (Carson & Chase, 2016). As students’ learning outcomes are highly

dependent on the quality of instruction, teaching effectiveness and productiveness has

been explored in terms of teaching styles, teacher approaches to teaching, teaching

practice and instruction behaviours in relation to teacher motivation factors (e.g.

Butler & Shibaz, 2014; Han, Yin & Wang, 2015; Kunter, 2008; Retelsdorf, Butler,

Streblow, & Schiefele, 2010; Retelsdorf & Günther, 2011; Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort,

Peetsma & Geijsel, 2011).

Inspired by research into students’ goal orientations for learning, for which the

relationship between different personal goals for learning and strategies students used

when learning has been established, the relationships between different goals for

teaching and the teaching behaviours have been explored on the basis of achievement

goal theory. Retelsdorf and his colleagues (2010) proposed that teachers’ goal

orientations for teaching predicted the goals for learning that they emphasized in the

classroom, which in turn influenced students’ goals. However, the links between

teachers’ goal orientations for teaching and their teaching practice were inconsistent

Therefore, Retelsdorf & Günther (2011) opined that 'the degree to which teachers

promote students’ comprehensive learning rather than surface learning might be

39
taken as an indicator for instructional quality, and proposed a model indicating the

sequential relations between teacher goal orientations for teaching, reference

norms and instructional practice. The reference norms were distinguished between

individual reference norms and social reference norm, and the distinction of

instructional practices was made between teachers’ promotion of deep learning and

surface learning in the classroom.

Results of the study supported the indirect effects of mastery goals through the

individual reference norm on comprehensive learning and negative effects through

the social reference norm on surface learning, and the positive indirect effects of

ability-approach and ability-avoidance goals on surface learning through the social

reference norms. In addition, Hein (2012)’s study with physical education teachers

from five countries examined the relationship between teacher motivation and

teaching styles. The study confirmed the hypothesis that teachers’ autonomous

motivation was related to productive (student-centred) teaching styles while non-

autonomously motivated teacher adopted reproductive (teacher-centred) teaching

styles. Based on Leithwood, Jantzi & Mascall’s (2012) framework of educator

performance, Thoonen (2011) developed a model of relations among teacher

motivational factors, school organizational conditions, leadership practices,

professional learning activities and teaching practices. The model assumes that

40
 teacher motivation indirectly influences the quality of teaching practice through

their engagement in professional learning activities. To test this hypothesis, they

conducted a study with a large-scale sample of elementary school teachers in

the Netherlands to examine the impact of teacher motivation on teaching

practice improvement.

The three motivational factors (expectancy, value and affective) were found to

have different effect on teacher engagement in professional learning activities.

Specifically, of all the motivational components, teacher self-efficacy explains most

of the variance in teacher learning and teaching practices; value component indirectly

influences teachers’ sense of self-efficacy and engagement in teacher learning to a

great extent; and the affective component in terms of teacher well-being and job

satisfaction inhibit teachers’ motivation to engage in learning and improve teaching

practice.

2.4 Measures for Improving Teacher Motivation and Productivity

(i) School Reform: Since the goal of current school reform efforts is to improve

student achievement, these efforts are well-aligned with the primary motivator

of teachers - the power to help children learn. Zemmelman, Daniels & Hyde

(2013) write that teachers’ attitudes are crucial to the success of in-depth

curricular innovation. Moreover, the beneficial effort of teachers’ attitudes on

41
 education reform is reciprocal. Freiberg (2014) showed that when principals

effectively used shared governance strategies and participatory management,

teachers feel energized and motivated and their sense of ownership and

empowerment increases. Well-implemented school improvement plans can

increase collegiality and give teachers the satisfaction to committing them-

selves to school improvement goals. Some practitioners believe that such

rewards may be more effective in motivating teachers and improving teaching

practices than individual, extrinsic rewards.

However, Frase & Sorenson (2012) caution that not every teacher will respond

positively to educational reform approaches. Autonomy for one may be

isolation for another; one teacher may welcome feedback, another may see it

as infringement on his or her professionalism; and while one may welcome

collaboration, another may see it as stressful imposition. Opportunities for

participatory management must be differentiated for each teacher.

(ii) Professional Development: The interrelation of teacher motivation and school

reform efforts has also been addressed through the issue of staff development.

Traditionally, staff development has meant encouraging teachers to enhance

pedagogical skills and knowledge of subject matter through advanced acade-

mic study at the graduate level; providing funding for conferences and work-

42
 shops; and developing other training opportunities, including in-service

programs. However, many leading school reformers have called for new

forms of professional development.

Lieberman (2011) argues for a "radical rethinking" of professional develop-

ment that encourages teachers’ growth. She believes that teachers must have

opportunities to try out new practices by new roles and creating a culture of

inquiry. Even traditional staff development models such as workshops can be

motivational if they give teachers control by asking them to set their own

agenda at the beginning of a meeting or in-service, asking for their analysis of

problems in the school or in children’s learning, and respecting their answers.

Many teachers respond with great energy when they are immersed in new

perspectives on their own teaching and learning abilities and provided with

opportunities to express themselves honestly.

(iii) Induction and Support of New Teachers: New teachers enter the profession

intrinsic rewards, but the negative effect of extrinsic conditions may

overwhelm them. They face new and difficult challenges: classroom

management and discipline, adjustment to the physical demands of teaching,

managing instructional tasks, and sacrificing leisure time. Without proper

support and aid, a new teacher’s problems can grow worse.

43
 (iv) Teacher Evaluation: Recognition and feedback have been cited as important

motivators for teachers, so it would seem that evaluation is an obvious vehicle

for using these incentives to direct the teachers on the path towards profess-

ional growth and improvement. However, the most common practices in

evaluation are limited in their capacity to improve teaching, and chiefly serve

as monitors of minimal competency for retention. Peterson (2015) calls for a

new direction in teacher evaluation that will bring better results more allied

to the goals of comprehensive professional development and the goals of

education reform.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

This study was grounded on McClelland’s Achievements Theory (1986). This

theory was considered suitable since the study was based on motives that drive

employees to perform tasks in certain ways which was also McClelland’s major

preoccupation in the theory.

McClelland developed the theory which classified people’s need within the

organization in three categories which he called motivational needs; need for

affiliation, achievement and power. Need for affiliation, was associated with

employees at the lower level of the organizational hierarchy and meant that human

beings need meaningful relationship and places of work are considered to provide the

ground upon which workers seek to strike worthy relationship. Need for achievement

44
 was associated with middle-level employees and entails workers desire to be seen as

achieving more to the organization. Need for power was associated with the top

management and he observed that employees at this level are driven by strong desire

to alter the course of events or make strong impression on others and events hence

want to be in control of situations and people.

Connecting achievement theory to this study, the researcher noted that

motivation played a significant role in influencing teachers’ performance and

productivity as each of the study variables; teacher’ in- service training, teachers’

promotion, and the working environment, was basically seen as a motivation with

significant influence on teachers’ productivity. In order to increase teachers’

productivity in public Secondary Schools, teachers at every level in the hierarchy of

the school administration must be made to feel that their needs are catered for in

order to get motivated for higher performance. Management should also appreciate

that workers ought to be treated on the basis of their needs rather than universally to

boost their performance and productivity.

2.6 Review of Previous Studies

The objective of this section is to search and report related empirical studies on

the subject under review. This is to enhance the quality of the study and; also serve as

evidence for consistency or inconsistency of the findings of this study.

45
 Kwapong, Opoku & Donyina (2015) assessed the effect of motivation on the

performance of teaching staff of Ghanaian polytechnics, with the moderating role of

research experience and highest education attained captured. A quantitative research

technique is employed in this study. The target population of the study was teaching

staff who had taught in Ghanaian polytechnics for at least 2 years, had a minimum of

a second degree, and had some level of research experience. Simple and stratified

sampling procedures were used to select 465 respondents. The study confirms a

significant positive correlation between motivation and performance among teaching

staff of Ghanaian polytechnics, r (408) = .892, p < .05. In this respect, motivation

accounts for 79.5% of the variation in performance. Moreover, highest education

attained and the research experience of teaching staff influence both motivation and

performance. This means that teaching staff of polytechnics in Ghana can maximize

their motivation and performance by improving their education and research

experience. It was recommended that Ghana must improve motivation for their

teaching staff if their performance should be maximized. Moreover, the polytechnics

ought to encourage their faculty members to embark on further education and to

improve their research experience by engaging in formal academic publication.

Ombuya (2016) studied the influence of motivation on teachers’ job

performance in public secondary schools in Rachuonyo South Sub-County. It was

guided by three objectives; influence of in-service training, working conditions and

46
promotion on teachers’ job performance. The study was grounded on the basic

assumptions that respondents would be willing to give information objectively and

honestly, data collection instruments would be valid and reliable in measuring the

desired outcomes and that the study sample would represent the target population in

its major characteristics. The study adopted a quantitative research paradigm

employing a descriptive survey research design. The study targeted a population of

1568 teachers in public secondary schools in Rachuonyo South Sub-County from

which a 10% sample size of 158 respondents was selected using stratified random

sampling techniques. In this study, data was collected using questionnaire, whose

validity and reliability were ascertained before being administered in the field for

actual data collection. Data was analyzed with the aid of SPSS (Statistical

Packages of Social Scientists) using computer in which descriptive statistics such as

frequencies and percentages were generated and presented in frequency distribution

tables. The study, upon data collection realized a good questionnaire response rate of

76.43%, hence a strong justification for analysis.

The study revealed that motivation was crucial in enhancing teachers’ commitment to

job performance, given that most public secondary schools in Rachuonyo South Sub-

County had qualified teachers and were therefore expected to perform their tasks

well, yet this remained a tall order as a result of the presence of motivation gaps. It

was concluded that motivation strategies such as frequent in-service training, regular

47
promotion and the general improvement of the working conditions that formed the

major study variables, were critical in enhancing teacher’s commitment to their tasks

performance. For policy formulation, the study recommended that the administration

of public schools should formulate internal motivation policies for enhancing

commitment to task performance, the government to formulate policies that are

geared towards improving the general working conditions in public schools to

facilitate superior job performance. On further research, the study recommended an

investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on teachers job performance, the

extent to which working conditions alone influence teachers job performance, the

difference in job performance between teachers in Rachuonyo and other areas in

Kenya and an examination of significant negative influences of motivation.

Anthony & Abdulai (2017) carried out a study on “The Effects of Motivation

on Teacher Performance in the Kaladan Circuit of Education in the Tamale

Metropolis”. The research design used was survey. Stratified sampling technique was

used to group all the basic schools in the circuit into four different strata, after which

simple random sampling technique was employed to select a sample size of 120

participants which consisted of 100 teachers and 20 Circuit Education Officials in the

Tamale Metropolis. The researchers used questionnaires to collect data from the

respondents. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequency

counts. Themes were drawn from the responses of the participants. Findings

48
include, the identification of formal performance targets set in the schools;

inadequate motivational packages in the Ghana Education Service for the teachers;

teachers not satisfied with their condition of service; opportunity for further studies as

a very important variable in driving teacher motivation and performance; pay and

fringe benefits as the most important motivators to teachers; and job security as a

pivotal role in motivating the teachers. The outcome of the study would lay bare

some packages available to teachers in the Ghana Education Service, especially those

in the northern region of Ghana. It will also contribute to knowledge and literature on

teacher motivation and performance for researchers, policy makers, academia,

students, human resource experts, and other stake holders interested in the impact of

motivation on organizational development.

Oni, Nwajiuba & Nwosu (2017) investigated the influence of teachers' motiva-

tion on teacher's productivity in secondary schools in Nigeria, with particular focus

on Shomolu Local Government Area of Lagos State. Descriptive survey research

design was used. A self-constructed 25 item questionnaire was used for the research

study. Four hypotheses were tested. The statistical tools used to test the hypotheses

were Pearson's Product Moment correlation coefficient and Multiple Regression

Analysis. The participants in this study were made up of 200 teachers randomly

selected from ten secondary schools in Shomolu Local Government Area of Lagos

State. The results showed that there is a significant relationship between the

49
motivation of teachers and their productivity; while management style has a

significant influence on teachers' motivation and their productivity; there is a

significant influence of teachers' motivation on students’ academic performance.

It was recommended that School authorities or managers should be trained by the

Lagos State Government to improve their management skills. Directly or indirectly,

teachers would be motivated by good management styles. The Lagos State

Government must do something to boost the image of the teaching profession in

order to enhance professionalism in the system of education.

Edo & Nwosu (2018) investigated Working Environment and Teachers’

Productivity in Secondary Schools in Port-Harcourt Metropolis. three research

questions and three hypotheses were drawn for the study. The population of the study

consists of 22 (principals) 440 (teachers) from 22 senior secondary schools in Port-

Harcourt metropolis, Rivers State. The sample size consists of 462 respondents. The

researcher adopted a purposive sampling technique. The instrument was question-

naire titled; working environment and teachers’ productivity questionnaire

(WETPQ). A likert type scale was used and the respondents select one of the four (4)

options: Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A) Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).

Test-retest method was used for the reliability of the instrument. The instrument was

administered to Twenty (20) respondents outside the sample area of the study. The

first and second scores were analyzed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation

50
Coefficient which resulted to 0.78. Findings indicated that adequate lightening,

temperature and space availability significantly influence productivity of the teachers.

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that adequate lightening in the

learning environment, moderate temperature provides comfort and relaxation of the

teachers, spacious offices and classrooms creates opportunity for special learning

activities hence reducing the risk of distraction. It was recommended that the

temperature of the working environment be made moderate through the use of air

condition that can be controlled based on the capacity needed by the individual.

The classroom or offices should be spacious enough to enhance adequate learning

and teaching activities.

Sophie & Ernest (2019) studied Strategies for Enhancing the Productivity of

Secondary School Teachers in South West Region of Cameroon. This study

investigates strategies used by principals for enhancing the productivity of secondary

school teachers in selected government secondary schools in Cameroon. Four major

strategies were examined. These include motivation, conflict resolution, supervisory

and communication strategies and the extent to which they influence teachers’

productivity. Four research questions and hypotheses guided the study. Questionnaire

was used to collect data from 350 teachers selected from a population of 1400

teachers in government secondary schools in Fako Division of the South West

Region of Cameroon. The multi-stage sampling technique was used to select

51
 teachers for the study. Results showed that, principals’ communication, conflict

management, supervisory and motivation strategies influence the productivity of

teachers in Government Secondary Schools. Of the four strategies examined, conflict

management strategy was found to have more influence on the productivity of

teachers. Principals’ strategies have a direct relationship with teachers’ productivity.

Therefore, there is a possible correlation between principals’ leadership and manage-

ment strategies, teachers’ productivity and school effectiveness. In addition, effective

collaboration amongst teachers is necessary for teachers’ effectiveness. It is

recommended that principals should put in strategies that will enhance effective

communication, conflict management, motivation and supervision to improve on the

productivity of teachers.

It is observed from the literatures reviewed above that recent research on the

influence of teachers’ motivation on teachers’ productivity generally are few. Most of

the available literatures are foreign literatures on teachers’ motivation and

productivity. There is need for more local researches in the above subject matter

which is the gap this study is intended to be filled

2.7 Summary

This chapter reviewed literatures that are related to the present study. The

review looked at the conceptual framework which includes; concept of teacher

52
productivity and concept of teacher motivation. The influence of teachers’ motivation

on teachers’ productivity were elicited. Also, the measures for improving teacher

motivation and productivity were discussed. Furthermore, theories related to the

study were discussed. Also, several empirical studies related to this study were

reviewed to show the consistency and the inconsistency of this study and to establish

the gap this study was intended to fill.

53