Pavement

Design
&
2020 Highway
Construction
Lecture (3150613)

Note
Module I
Pavement Material
&
Characterization
Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt
Civil Engineering Department
 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Introduction

PAVEMENT
In general, a paved area or surface is known as pavement. In other ways, a raised paved or asphalted path for
pedestrians at the side of a road or the hard surface of a road or street is known as Pavement. In engineering
terms, a pavement means a man-made surface on natural ground that people, vehicles or animals can cross.

Road Pavement subjected to various conditions

 Weather changes
 Impact loads
 Imposed loads etc.

The pavement should not undergo excessive deformation, settlement and differential settlement as it causes
the failure of pavement. Hence, high compressibility and plastic properties are not desirable for pavement
construction and so good quality soil is required.

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the natural
soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The
pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance,
favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the
transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity
of the sub-grade.

REQUIREMENTS OF A PAVEMENT
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Pavement should have sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil.
 The pavement and its layers have to be structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed
upon it.
 The surface of pavement should have adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.
 It should have smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed.
 The pavement should be designed in a way that it produces least noise from moving vehicles.
 The pavement surface should be so dust proof so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing
visibility.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

 The surface of pavement should be impervious, so that sub-grade soil is well protected.
 The pavement should be designed for Long life with having low maintenance cost.

TYPES OF ROAD PAVEMENT

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two categories, flexible pavements
and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the
aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a
flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-
grade soil by flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete
roads).

PAVEMENT CROSS SECTION

The road pavement consists of different layers mentioned as below:

 Embankment
 Subgrade
 Subbase
 Base
 Wearing course

Embankment

An embankment refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and compacted for the purpose of raising
the grade of a roadway (or railway) above the level of the existing surrounding ground surface. It is also known
as natural sub-grade. A fill refers to a volume of earthen material that is placed and compacted for the purpose
of filling in a hole or depression. The material is spread in relatively thin layers of 150 mm to 200 mm and
each layer is compacted by rolling over it with heavy compaction equipment.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Sub-grade

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers above. It is
essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density, near
the optimum moisture content. The thickness of this layer is varies from 150 mm to 300 mm.

Sub-Base course

The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions are to provide
structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement
structure. A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high
quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations,
sub-base course may not be provided. The thickness of sub base course is varying from 100 mm to 300 mm.

Base course

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it provides
additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be composed of crushed stone,
crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials. The thickness of base course is varying from 100 mm
to 300 mm.

Binder course

This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute load to the base
course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't require quality as
high as the surface course. The thickness of binder course is varying from 50 mm to 100 mm.

 Tack Coat:

Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover
the entire surface, and set very fast.

 Prime Coat:

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular
bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat,
prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Surface course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior quality
materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete. Seal coat is a thin surface
treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid resistance which consist thickness of 25 mm to
50 mm.

The functions and requirements of surface course are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the entrance
of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade,
 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid- resistant riding
surface,
 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.

 Different types of materials are used depending on the layer requirement.

Soil is the main constituent in Subgrade and embankment

Aggregates are used in the Sub base and base layer

Aggregates and binding material in the top layer

Sub grade and embankment provides support for the pavement

Different types of failures such as rutting and shoving in the flexible (bituminous/asphalt) pavements,
cracking in the rigid (concrete) pavements are due to poor subgrade soil.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

SUB-GRADE SOIL

Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties, and their
interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement. Thus, a good understanding of these materials,
how they are characterized, and how they perform is fundamental to understanding pavement. The materials
which are used in the construction of highway are of intense interest to the highway engineer. This requires
not only a thorough understanding of the soil and aggregate properties which affect pavement stability and
durability, but also the binding materials which may be added to improve these pavement features.

Subgrade soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of
rocks or decay of vegetation, that can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or disintegrated
by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory. The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under
courses is called sub grade. Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade. Compacted
sub grade is the soil compacted by controlled movement of heavy compactors.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF SUBGRADE SOIL

The desirable properties of sub grade soil as a highway material are
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse
 Good drainage
 Ease of compaction

Stability
The resistance to permanent deformation under loads is called stability of pavement. The factors affecting
pavement stability are:
1. Vehicle and traffic factors
2. Moisture factors
3. Climatic factors
4. Soil Factors
5. Stress distributed factors
The stability of subgrade soil can be improved by soil stabilization. Sometimes, the thickness of various layers
is increased to improve the stability. When a road is constructed in an embankment, the factor of safety for

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

slope stability should be 1.5. As per IRC recommendations, the side slope for road in embankment equal to
1:2 (1 vertical to 2 horizontal) is required. while in cutting slope of 1:1 to 1/2: 1 is provided.

Incompressibility
The property of soil due to which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive forces is known as the
compressibility of soil. Incompressibility of soil subgrade is desirable as the compression of soil due to
application of loads may cause differential settlement and failure of the pavement surface.

Permanency of Strength
The Subgrade soil must possess sufficient bearing capacity and shear strength. The applied stress on the
subgrade is very low when compared to its bearing capacity the deformation due to load would be elastic or
fully recovered when the load is released. Formation of waves, corrugation and lateral shoving of pavement
near the edge along the wheel path of vehicles is due to insufficient bearing capacity or a shear failure in
subgrade.

Minimum volume changes

Minimum volume changes will ensure minimum variation in differential expansion and differential strength
values. Expansive soils or black cotton soils as a subgrade material are very poor as these soils are expansive
in nature. Such soils should be removed by excavation and subgrade shall be prepared by granular soils.

Good drainage
It is essential to avoid excessive moisture retention and to reduce the potential frost action. Poor drainage
causes waves and corrugations. In some clayey soils, variation in moisture content causes considerable change
in volume of subgrade causing failure of pavement. Excessive moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable
lowering of its stability, the pavement is likely to fail due to subgrade failure. Increase in moisture causes
reduction in strength of stabilized soil and WBM. In case of rigid pavements, presence of water in fine
subgrade soil causes failure due to mud pumping.

Ease of compaction
Ease of compaction ensures higher dry density and strength under particular type and amount of compaction.
Granular soils can be compacted easily giving higher dry density and strength.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

TYPE OF SOIL
The wide range of soil types available as highway construction materials have made it obligatory on the part
of the highway engineer to identify and classify different soils. A survey of locally available materials and
soil types conducted in India revealed wide variety of soil types, gravel, moorum and naturally occurring soft
aggregates, which can be used in road construction. Broadly, the soil types can be categorized as Laterite soil,
Moorum / red soil, Desert sands, Alluvial soil, Clay including Black cotton soil.

Figure: Indian Standard Grain Size classification

Gravel: These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no fines contributing to
cohesion of materials.

Moorum: These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually these are
similar to gravel except presence of higher content of fines.

Silts: These are finer than sand, brighter in color as compared to clay, and exhibit little cohesion. When a
lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and tapped a shiny surface makes its appearance,
thus it is a specific property of such soil.

Clays: These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when dry, and show no dilatancy
(Dilatancy is the volume change observed in granular materials when they are subjected to shear
deformations). Black cotton soil and other expansive clays exhibit swelling and shrinkage properties. Paste of
clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves stain, which is not observed for silts.

TEST ON SOIL
To evaluate the strength properties of soils, the tests used may be broadly divided into three groups:
 Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory. In order to find out the
strength properties of soil, a number of representative samples from different locations are tested. Some of the
commonly known shear tests are direct shear test, triaxial compression test, and unconfined compression test.

Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on sub grade soils in-situ with a load bearing area. The results of
the bearing tests are influenced by variations in the soil properties within the stressed soil mass underneath
and hence the overall stability of the part of the soil mass stressed could be studied.

Penetration tests may be considered as small scale bearing tests in which the size of the loaded area is
relatively much smaller and ratio of the penetration to the size of the loaded area is much greater than the
ratios in bearing tests. The penetration tests are carried out in the field or in the laboratory.

PENETRATION TEST - CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method of
classifying and evaluating soil subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements. CBR test, an
empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for pavement design. Empirical tests measure
the strength of the material and are not a true representation of the resilient modulus.

Equipment Used CBR Apparatus

1. Cylindrical mould with inside diameter of 150 mm
and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable
extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable
perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia. and 47.7 mm in height
along with handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm
(or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450 mm
4. weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted
weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia. with a
central hole 53 mm in diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000 kg
and equipped with a movable head or base that travels
at uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load
indicating device.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia. and minimum of

100 mm in length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.
9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl,
straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan, drying oven,
filter paper and containers.

Procedure

The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading
frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking.

The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption values are
noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed
under the plunger of the loading frame.

Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia. Of 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load
penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm
and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.

CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to
the standard loads mentioned above. Therefore,

Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0 mm penetration, the
former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm,
then the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test again gives similar results, then higher value
obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three test specimens
is reported as the CBR value of the sample.

CBR Calculation

Readings from load dial are taken at different penetration values and plotted as shown in graph of specimen
no. 1. To obtain the CBR value at 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration below calculation has to be follow:

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

From the graph,

Load at 2.5 mm penetration = 32 kg

Load at 5 mm penetration = 49 kg

Standard load at 2.5 mm penetration = 1370 kg

Standard load at 5 mm penetration =2055 kg

 CBR2.5 = (32 /1370) * 100

CBR2.5 = 2.33 %

 CBR5 = (49 /2055) * 100 5

CBR5 = 2.38 % 2.5

EFFECTIVE CBR FOR DESIGN (IRC: 37- 2018)

Sometimes, there can be a significant difference between the CBR values of the soils used in the subgrade and
in the embankment layer below the subgrade. Alternatively, the 500 mm thick subgrade may be laid in two
layers, each layer material having different CBR value. In such cases, the design should be based on the
effective modulus/CBR value of a single layer subgrade which is equivalent to the combination of the subgrade
layer(s) and embankment layer.

The effective modulus/CBR value may be determined as per the following procedure:

(i) Using IITPAVE software, determine the maximum surface deflection (δ) due to a single wheel load of
40,000 N and a contact pressure of 0.56 MPa for a two or three-layer elastic system comprising of a single (or
two sub-layers) of the 500 mm thick subgrade layer over the semi-infinite embankment layer. The elastic
moduli of subgrade and embankment soils/layers may be estimated from its resilient modulus (Mr) formula
using their laboratory CBR values. Poisson’s ratio () value may be taken as 0.35 for all the layers.

(ii) Using the maximum surface deflection (δ) computed in step (i) above, estimate the resilient modulus MRS
of the equivalent single layer using equation

Where,
p = contact pressure = 0.56 MPa
a = radius of circular contact area, which can be calculated using the load applied (40 KN) and the contact
pressure ‘p’ (0.56 MPa) = 150.8 mm

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt

 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

 = Poisson’s ratio (Poisson’s ratio value or subgrade soil may be taken as 0.35.)
It is the effective resilient modulus (MRS) value and not the CBR that is used in the design. However, if
required, the CBR value can be obtained from equations.

In case the borrow material is placed over a rocky foundation, the effective CBR may be larger than the CBR
of the borrow material. However, only the CBR of the borrow material shall be adopted for the pavement
design. Additionally, proper safeguards should be taken against the development of pore water pressure
between the rocky foundation and the borrow material. If the embankment consists of multiple layers of
materials having different CBR values, multilayer analysis can be carried out using IITPAVE software and
the effective resilient modulus can be estimated using the concept discussed above.

RESILIENT MODULUS OF THE SUBGRADE (IRC: 37- 2018)

Resilient modulus, which is measured taking into account only the elastic (or resilient) component of the
deformation (or strain) of the specimen in a repeated load test is considered to be the appropriate input for
linear elastic theory selected in these guidelines for the analysis of flexible pavements.
The resilient modulus (Mr) is the elastic modulus based on the recoverable strain under repeated loads.

Mr = σd / εr
Where,

Mr = Modulus of resilient

εr = recoverable elastic strain

The above figure shows the straining of a specimen under a repeated load test. At the initial stage of load
applications, there is considerable permanent deformation, as indicated by the plastic strain. As the number of
repetitions increases, the plastic strain due to each load repetitions decreases. After 100 to 200 repetitions, the
strain is practically all recoverable, as indicated by εr in the figure.
The resilient modulus of sub grade soils can be determined in the laboratory by conducting the repeated tri-
axial test as per the procedure detailed in AASHTO T307-99.

The following relationships may be used to estimate the resilient modulus of subgrade soil (MRS) from its
CBR value: MRS = 10.0 * CBR for CBR ≤ 5 %

MRS = 17.6 * (CBR)0.64 for CBR > 5 %

Where,
MRS = Resilient modulus of subgrade soil (in MPa).
CBR = California bearing ratio of subgrade soil (%)

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

ROAD AGGREGATE

Granular Sub base

A layer of broken stones, sand, gravel, moorum, etc. of about 30 cm thickness is laid over the compacted
subgrade. This layer is called sub base. Sometimes in sub base course a layer of stabilized soil or selected
granular soil is also used. In some places, boulder stones or bricks are also used as sub base course.

Functions of sub base course

1. To increase the bearing capacity of subgrade.
2. To improve the drainage properly of subgrade by arresting the capillary water.
3. To prevent the subgrade soil penetrating into the base course.
4. To protect the subgrade against frost action.

Granular Base Course

The layer immediately below the wearing course of pavement is called base course. The base course consists
of local soft aggregates, stabilized soil, Water bound macadam (WBM), bricks, slag etc. Its thickness varies
from 10 cm to 30 cm. The width of the base course is normally kept 30 cm more than the width of the wearing
course on each side.

Requirements of base course

1. It should have considerable thickness so that wheel loads can be properly distributed to the subbase and
subgrade.
2. It should have adequate structural stability to resist vertical pressure.
3. It should have sufficient density to resist consolidation pressure
4. It should have enough resistance to the weathering actions.

Functions of base course

(1) In Flexible pavements, to distribute the load coming from upper layers to the subbase and subgrade
(2) To increase the bearing capacity of the pavement
(3) To prevent mud pumping in case of rigid pavement.
(4) To protect the subgrade from frost action
(5) To provide level surface for wearing course

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Aggregates are the prime material used in the flexible pavement construction. Aggregate bear stresses due to
wheel loads coming over the pavement and also they have to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic. They
are used in pavement construction in cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other bituminous
constructions and also as a granular base course underlying the superior pavement layers. Therefore, properties
of the aggregates are of considerable significance to the highway engineers.

Most of the road aggregate are prepared from natural rock. Gravel aggregates are small rounded stones of
different sizes which are generally obtained from river beds. Sand is fine aggregate obtained from weathering
of rock. The properties of the parent rock from which the aggregates are formed depend on the properties of
constituent materials and the nature of bond between them. Based on the origin, natural rocks are classified as
igneous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Texture is an important factor, affecting the property of the rock.
The aggregates are specified based on their grain size, shape. texture and its gradation. Aggregate size is
measured by sieving the aggregates through square sieves of successively decreasing sizes. The required
aggregate sizes are chosen to fulfil the desired gradation.

Fine aggregate (F.A.)

The size of aggregate 4.75 mm and smaller is called fine aggregate, Sand is generally considered to have a
lower size limit of about 0.07 mm. Material between 0.06 mm and 0.002 mm is classified as silt. Particles
smaller than 0.002 mm are termed as clay. Loam is a soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay in about
equal proportions. IS:383-1970 has divided the fine aggregates into four grading zones. The grading zones
become progressively finer from grading zone I to grading zone IV.

Coarse Aggregate (C.A.)

The size of aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm is called coarse aggregate The graded coarse aggregate is described
by its nominal size, i.e. 40 mm. 20 mm. 16 mm and 12.5 mm etc. For example, a graded aggregate of nominal
size 12.5 mm means an aggregate most of which passes the 12.5 mm IS sieve. 80 mm size is the maximum
size that could be conveniently used for making concrete.
Using the largest possible maximum size will result in reduction of the cement content, reduction in water
requirement, reduction of drying shrinkage.

However, the maximum size of aggregate that can be used in any given condition may be limited by the
Thickness of section, spacing of reinforcement, Clear cover, Mixing, handling and placing Techniques.

Based on the strength property, the coarse aggregates are divided into two parts as hard aggregates and soft
aggregates. Generally, for the wearing course of superior pavement types, hard aggregates are preferred to
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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

resist the abrasion and crushing effects of heavy traffic load and also to resist adverse weather conditions. In
case of low-cost road construction for use in lower layer of pavement structures, soft aggregates can also be
used. As of aggregate include moorum, kankar, laterite, brick aggregate and slag.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD AGGREGATE

1. Strength
The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses due to
traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the pavements (wearing courses) have
to be capable of withstanding high stresses in addition to wear and tear.

2. Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subject to constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic.
They should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic. Abrasive action may be
increased due to the presence of abrasive material like sand between the tyres of moving vehicles and the
aggregates exposed at the top surface. This action may be severe in the case of steel tyred vehicles.

Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformation on some types of pavement resulting in relative movement of
aggregate and rubbing of aggregates with each other within the pavement layer. The mutual rubbing of
aggregates is called attrition, which also may cause a little wear in the aggregates.

3. Toughness
The resistance to impact is called toughness, which is another desirable property of aggregates. Aggregates
in the pavement layers are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads. The magnitude of impact
would increase with the roughness of the road surface, speed of the vehicle and other vehicular characteristics.
The resistance to impact is called toughness, which is another desirable property of aggregates.

4. Durability
The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist disintegration due to the action
of weather. The property of the aggregates to withstand the adverse action of weather may be called
soundness. The aggregates are subjected to physical as well as chemical action of rain and groundwater, the
impurities there-in and that of the atmosphere. Hence, it is desirable that the road aggregates should be sound
enough to withstand the weathering action.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

5. Shape of Aggregates

The shape of aggregate may be rounded, cubical. angular, laky or elongated. The flaky and elongated particles
will have less strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
stone. Hence, too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.

Rounded aggregates may be preferred in cement concrete mix due to low specific surface area and better
workability for the same proportion of cement paste and same water cement ratio. However, rounded
aggregates are not preferred in granular base course, WBM construction and bituminous construction as the
stability due to interlocking of rounded particles is less. In such construction angular particles are
preferred. The voids present in a compacted mix of coarse aggregates depends on the shape of aggregates.
Highly angular, flaky and elongated aggregates. have more voids in comparison with rounded aggregates.

AGGREGATE GRADATION

The grading of aggregate is determined by sieve analysis. Sieve analysis is the operation of dividing a sample
of aggregate into various fractions each consisting of particles of the same size. The sieve analysis is conducted
to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate, which is called gradation.

The following sieves are used to determine grading of aggregate

For coarse aggregate - 80 mm. 40 mm, 20 mm. 10 mm, 4.5 mm.
For fine aggregate - 10 mm. 4.7 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18, 600 microns, 300 microns, 150 microns.

If all the particles of an aggregate are of uniform size, the compacted mass will contain more voids and needs
more quantity of line aggregate and cement paste. On the other hand, aggregate comprising particles of various
sizes will give a mass of lesser voids. The particle size distribution of a mass of aggregate should be such that
the smaller particles fill the voids between the larger particles. Such grading is called good grading'.

Smaller particles
The good grading of an aggregate produces dense work as filler
concrete and needs less quantity of fine aggregate and
cement paste. Hence, to produce quality concrete it is
essential that the coarse and fine aggregates be well
graded. The good grading of aggregate provides higher
strength, lower shrinkage. greater durability and
economy of concrete.
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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

In a gradation and size analysis, a sample of

dry aggregate of known weight is separated
through a series of sieves with progressively
smaller openings. Once it gets separated, the
weight of particles retained on each sieve is
measured and compared to the total sample
weight. Particle size distribution is then
expressed as a percent retained/passing by
weight on each sieve size.

Aggregate gradation influences almost every important property including stiffness, stability, durability,
permeability, workability, fatigue resistance, skid resistance and resistance to moisture damage

A widely used equation to describe a maximum density gradation for a given maximum aggregate size. It
was developed by Fuller and Thompson in 1907.

Where,
P = percent passing (%)
d = aggregate size being considered
D = maximum aggregate size
n = parameter which adjusts curve for fineness or coarseness
Fuller assumed shape of aggregate as in spherical particle and the value of gradation index obtained for the
spherical shape is 0.5.

Uniformly graded aggregates refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow size
range. The curve is steep and only occupies the narrow size range specified. All the particles are the same size.
Characteristics of uniformly graded aggregates
Particle-to-particle contact
High void content
Low but variable density
High stability if confined
Low stability when unconfined
Difficult to compact

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Open graded aggregates refer to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in
the small range.
Characteristics of Open graded aggregates
Few particle-to-particle contact
High void content
Low but variable density
High stability if confined
Low stability when unconfined
Difficult to compact

Dense or well-graded aggregates refers to a gradation that is having maximum density and contains optimum
amount of aggregates from all ranges.
Characteristics of Dense graded aggregates
Particle-to-particle contact
Low void content
High density
High stability if confined
High stability when unconfined
Difficult to compact

Gap graded aggregates refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in
the mid-size range.
Characteristics of Gap graded aggregates
No particle-to-particle contact
High void content
Lower density
Low stability if confined
Low stability when unconfined
Easy to compact

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROAD AGGREGATES

Size
The size of coarse aggregate depends on the use so where the concrete has to be applied. For mass concreting
works without complicated reinforcement, larger aggregates of 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm size are used. For
ordinary construction of residential or other buildings, 20 mm is the maximum size that will be used.

In concrete mix design grading of aggregates is done and proportion of each size is determined by using the
grading curves, charts, tables or other methods.

Shape
The shape of aggregate is an important characteristic as it affects the Workability of concrete. It also affects
the strength. In general, angular aggregate is preferable to rounded and smooth aggregate for following
reasons:
1. Angular aggregate shows better interlocking effect, which gives a superior concrete.
2. The total surface area of rough angular aggregate is more than smooth rounded aggregate, hence bond
formation is enhanced giving greater bond strength.

Surface Texture
The surface of the aggregate may be smooth, polished, rough or dull. A rough surface provides more area for
bonding with cement paste and gives more strength. But where workability is required, rough textured
aggregate will be less workable and harsher.

Rounded aggregate with a smooth surface will require less cement paste and hence it increases the yield.
Keeping all this in mind, we can say that overall, rough textured aggregate is to be preferred more than smooth
textured aggregate for road construction, but according to need, smooth textured aggregate can be used for
unimportant work.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of aggregate is the ratio of its density to the density of Water. This is used for concrete mix
design and if not specified, the specific gravity is taken as 2.7 as the specific gravity of majority of aggregates
obtained from different sources falls between 2.6 and 2.8.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Bulk Density
Bulk Density refers to the density of aggregate considered along with volume of voids or empty spaces
between the particles. The density of sand (fine aggregate) falls between 17 to 25 KN/m3.

Water Absorption
The water absorption of coarse aggregate is measured by the percent increase in weight of an oven dry sample
after immersion in water for 24 hours. But this does not give the true picture, and many times, the absorption
for a period equal to the final setting time of cement is measured. It gives a more realistic result water
absorption will decrease the water content in concrete and the concrete will require a higher water / cement
ratio. The water absorption will depend upon the porosity of aggregate, and more water absorption will affect
both workability and durability of the concrete.

Soundness
Soundness refers to the resistance offered by the aggregates, to any type of volume change. The volume change
may be in temperature, may be in alternate wetting and drying in Potable water (comes from surface and
ground sources and is treated to levels that meet state and federal standards for consumption. This is sometimes
called drinking water), or may be in alternate wetting and drying in sea water. Aggregates which are porous
are unsound, and those are more liable to attack by chemicals, Also, these aggregates will get broken if
subjected to alternate cold and heat.
The soundness is measured by immersing the aggregate in either sodium or magnesium sulphate and oven
drying it under specified conditions. The average loss of weight after 10 such cycles of drying the aggregate
should not exceed 12% if tested with sodium sulphate and 18% if tested with magnesium sulphate respectively.

Aggregate Crushing Value

The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
crushing load.

To find out the crushing value, the test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers and
each layer being tampered. The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at
the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of
passing material is considered as W2. Now the crushing value is expressed as percentage of the ratio of weight
of the total sample (W1) and weight of passing material is considered as W2. A value less than 10 signifies an
exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 % would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Aggregate Impact Value

The aim of aggregate impact test is to determine the relative measure of the resistance of aggregate to sudden
shock or impact in which in some aggregate differs from its resistance to a slowly applied compressive load.
The property of a material to resist impact is known as toughness. Due to movement of vehicles on the road,
the aggregate is subjected to impact resulting in their breaking down into smaller pieces. The aggregates
should therefore have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact.

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn't exceed 30 percent. For bituminous
macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the
maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

Aggregate Abrasion Value

Abrasion value gives the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different
pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness
property and has been standardized in India (IS:2386 part-IV). The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is
to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as
abrasive charge. A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For
bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

Fineness modulus
Fineness modulus gives an idea of the mean size of the particles present in the entire body of the aggregate. It
is a measure of coarseness or fineness of the aggregate. The smaller the F.M. value, the finer is the material.
And if the value of finesse modulus is higher, the material is said to be of Coarse aggregate.

The fineness modulus can be regarded as a weighted average size of a sieve on which material is retained, and
the sieves being counted from the finest. The F.M. of fine aggregate varies between 2.0 to 3.5. for coarse
aggregate between 5.5 to 8.0 and for all-in aggregate between 3.5 to 6.5.

Flakiness index
The percentage by weight of aggregate whose smallest dimension or thickness is less than 0.6 times their mean
dimension is known as the flakiness index of aggregate. This test is not applicable to the aggregate sizes
smaller than 0.3 mm. Such particles easily break under the load, therefore their use in pavement construction
particularly for surface course must be avoided. The flakiness index for the aggregates to be used in road
construction should be less than 15 and in no case, it should exceed 25.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Elongation index
The term elongation index is used to indicate the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension
or length is greater than one and 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is not applicable to aggregate sizes
smaller than 6.3 mm. The elongated particles are likely to break under smaller loads. In the construction of
pavement, the aggregates having elongation index value greater than 10 to 15 are generally avoided.

MODULUS OF RESILIENT OF ROAD AGGREGATE

Resilient modulus has been proposed as a means of characterizing the elastic properties of pavement materials.
It is expressed as the ratio of deviator stress applied to the pavement layers and the resilient axial deformation
recovered after release of the deviator stress.
The elastic/resilient modulus value of the granular layer is dependent on the resilient modulus value of the
foundation or supporting layer on which it rests and the thickness of the granular layer. A weaker support does
not permit higher modulus of the upper granular layer because of the larger deflections caused by loads result
in de-compaction in the lower part of the granular layer. Below equation may be used for the estimation of the
modulus of the granular,
MRGRAN = 0.2(h) 0.45* (MRSUPPORT)
Where,
h = thickness of granular layer in mm
MRGRAN = resilient modulus of the granular layer (MPa)
MRSUPPORT = (effective) resilient modulus of the supporting layer (MPa)

When the pavement has the combination of granular base and granular sub-base, the modulus of the single
(combined) granular layer may be estimated using above equation taking the MR GRAN as the modulus of the
combined granular layer and MRSUPPORT as the effective modulus of the subgrade. However, when a cement
treated / bitumen treated base layer is used over the granular sub-base, both the layers have to be considered
separately in the analysis and separate modulus values have to be assigned for the GSB (Granular Sub Base)
and the treated base layers.
For the granular base placed on CTSB layer, the resilient modulus may be taken as 300 MPa and 350 MPa for
natural gravel and crushed rock respectively.
In the two-layer system, granular sub-base of selected thickness and the subgrade with ‘effective’ modulus, is
converted into an equivalent granular sub-base of infinite thickness whose effective modulus is to be
determined by multiple trials.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
Bitumen
Petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude in the refinery. It is a hydrocarbon material
of either natural or pyrogenous origin, found in gaseous, liquid, semisolid or solid form and is completely
soluble in carbon disulphide and in carbon tetra chloride.

Properties of Bitumen
1. It is black or brownish black in colour.
2. It possess adhesive properties when softened by heat.
3. It melts and gives distinctive odour when heated.
4. It is completely soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2).

Uses
1. It is used for constructing different bituminous road pavements.
2. It is used as a stabilizer for constructing stabilized earth roads.

Asphalt
When bitumen contains some inert material or minerals. it is sometimes called asphalt. It is solid or semi-solid
sticky product formed by partial evaporation or distillation of certain petroleum oils. It possesses binding
property. Asphalts are soluble in varying degree in carbon disulphide.

Asphalts may be found as a natural deposit or prepared by

distillation of crude petroleum in a refinery process. When found
by natural deposit the asphalt is called natural asphalt and when
produced by distillation of crude petroleum, it is called petroleum
asphalt. The natural asphalt may be either lake asphalt or rock
asphalt. The lake asphalt contains 40-70 % of pure bitumen. It is
refined by boiling in tank. The rock asphalt contains 10-15 % of
pure bitumen.

Tar
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained by destructive distillation of natural organic materials like coal or wood in
the absence of air. Based on the material from which tar is derived, it is referred to as wood tar or coal tar.
Coal tar is superior and is more widely used for road work.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

There are five grades of road tars i.e. RT-1. RT-2. RT-3. RT-4, and RT-5 based on their viscosity and other
properties. RT-1 has the lowest viscosity and is used for surface painting under exceptionally cold weather.
RT-5 is used for grouting purposes, which has the highest viscosity.

Emulsion
A liquid product obtained by vigorously stirring up a mixture of two unmixable liquids is called as emulsion.
An emulsion is a two phase system consisting of two immiscible liquids the one being dispersed as fine
globules in the other.

Usually bitumen or refined tar is broken up into fine globules and kept in suspension in water. A small
proportion of an emulsifier is used to facilitate the formation of dispersion and to keep the globules of
dispersed binder in Suspension. The function of this emulsifier is to form a protective layer around the globules
of binder resisting the coalescence of the globules. Emulsifiers usually adopted are soaps, surface active agents
and colloidal powders. Half to one percent emulsifier by weight of finished emulsion are usually taken while
preparing normal road emulsions.

The emulsion contains 40 to 60% of bitumen or tar, the average diameter of globules of bitumen portion is
about two microns. Emulsions used for road construction generally have the penetration value from 190 to
320. When emulsion is applied on the road, it breaks down and the binder starts binding the aggregate through
the full binding power. The first sign of break down is change in colour from chocolate brown to black. If
emulsion breaks rapidly, the emulsion is said to be rapid set quality. Emulsion which do not break contact
with stone but it breaks during mixing are of medium set grades. When special types of emulsifying agents
are used to make emulsion stable, they are called slow setting grades. The Manufactured emulsion are stored
in air tight drum.

Advantages of Emulsions

1. They eliminate costly plant which 1s otherwise required for heating the bituminous material.
2. They can be quickly applied and are extremely useful for patch work and repair.
3. The road surface can be quickly opened to traffic, just after 2-3 hours.
4. The work progress is fast as time required for heating bituminous material can be saved.
5. Emulsion can be used in all-weather i.e. even during rains.
Disadvantages of Emulsions

1. As bitumen content is less it does not give as good result as asphalt Tar.
2. They require bitumen of higher penetration.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

3. They involve extra cost in their production and transportation.

4. They are not suitable for large scale construction work of bituminous roads.

Modified Bitumen
A heavy roofing material employing multiple layers of asphalt and reinforces around a core of plastic or rubber
modifiers or composite sheets consisting of a polymer modified bitumen often reinforced with various types
of mats or films and sometimes surfaced with films, foils or mineral granules.

Requirements of Modifiers
• Be compatible with bitumen.
• Resist degradation of bitumen at mixing temperature.
• Be capable of being processed by conventional mixing and laying machinery.
• Produce coating viscosity at application temperature.
• Maintain premium properties during storage, application and in service.
• Be cost-effective on a Life-cycle-cost basis.

Advantage of Modified Bitumen

• Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variation.
• Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature.
• Better age resistance properties.
• Higher fatigue life for mixes.
• Better adhesion between aggregate and binder.
• Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking.

Applications of Modified Bitumen

 Since a bituminous mix prepared with modified bitumen has a higher stiffness modulus, enhanced
fatigue life, better resistance to creep and higher indirect tensile strength, it is suitable as a wearing
course, a binder course and overlay material on surfaces which are cracked and subjected to heavy
traffic.
 Modified binders are also used for application like Stress Absorbing Membrane (SAM) for sealing of
cracks, Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer (SAMI) for delaying reflection cracking, Porous
Asphalt and Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA).

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

 Modified bitumen performs better than conventional bitumen in situations, where the aggregates are
prone to stripping. Due to their better creep resistance properties, they can also be used at busy
intersections, bridge decks and roundabouts for increased life of the surfacing.

Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB)

Composition: Bitumen + Additives (Modifiers/Treated Crumb Rubber)
Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen is Conventional Bitumen with treated Crumb Rubber Additive at high
temperature which results in Lower susceptibility to temperature variation, higher resistance to deformation
at high temperature, better age resistance properties, higher fatigue life of mixes & better adhesion properties.

CRMB is manufactured in three grades for differing weathering conditions.

• Grade 50 is used for colder climates when minimum modification is sufficient.
• Grade 55 is used in moderate climatic conditions where moderate modification is required.
• Grade 60 is used in hot conditions where high modification is required to withstand the extra heat.

Natural rubber modified bitumen (NRMB)

Natural rubber also called India rubber, as initially produced, consist of polymers of the organic compound
isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds plus water.

Natural rubber modified bitumen is used for prolongation of life of state roads. The need to adopt rubber for
the use of construction of the roads mainly that it reduces the cost of construction and also recycled rubber is
used as it minimizes the environment pollution.

Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB)

Polymer modified bitumen material bring benefits in terms of better and longer lasting roads and saving in
total road life costing.

Modified bitumen are generally recommended for the roads with heavy traffic and located in extreme climate
areas. The selection of the type of modified bitumen will be based on climatic condition, traffic volume,
performance reports and life cycle cost analysis.

The selection criteria for grade of modified bitumen shall be based on atmospheric temperature. The softest
recommended grades are PMB 120, NRMB 120 and CRMB50, which shall be used for cold climatic areas.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

PMB 70, NRMB 70 and CRMB 55 are used for moderate climate and PMB 40, NRMB 40 and CRMB 60 are
used for hot climate areas and heavy traffic conditions. The specific grade shall be chosen on the basis of
minimum and maximum atmospheric temperature in the region.

BITUMINOUS MIX - VOLUMETRIC

Requirements of Bituminous mixes
Stability
Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load. Two examples of
failure are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas subject to severe acceleration and
(ii) grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of traffic. Stability depend on the inter-particle
friction, primarily of the aggregates and the cohesion offered by the bitumen. Sufficient binder must be
available to coat all the particles at the same time should offer enough liquid friction. However, the stability
decreases when the binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.
Durability
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Weathering causes
hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel loads which causes tensile strains.
Typical examples of failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of pavements locally and (ii) stripping, loss of
binder from the aggregates and aggregates are exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content
since they cause the mix to be air and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.
Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load and prevent cracking
of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline-cracks, alligator cracks), main reasons are
shrinkage and brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are due to volume change in the binder due to aging.
Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give
better flexibility and less fracture.
Skid resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the surface texture and bitumen
content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic. Normally, an open graded coarse surface texture is
desirable.
Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the required condition
and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Angular, flaky, and elongated aggregates workability. On the other hand, rounded aggregates improve
workability.

Desirable properties
From the above discussion, the desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:
 Stability to meet traffic demand
 Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
 Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
 Flexibility to meet traffic loads, esp. in cold season
 Sufficient workability for construction
 Economical mix
Bituminous mixes should be stable, durable, flexible, workable and should offer sufficient skid resistance.
The mix consists of coarse and fine aggregates, filler and binder. It may be well graded, open graded, gap
graded or unbounded as per the requirements. As far as possible, it should be economical also.

VOLUMETRICS
The properties of bituminous mix also include the theoretical specific gravity Gt, the bulk specific gravity of
the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv, percent volume of bitumen Vb, percent void in mixed aggregate VMA and
percent voids filled with bitumen VFB.

Theoretical specific gravity of the mix, Gt

The theoretical maximum specific gravity (Gt) of a mixture is the specific gravity excluding air voids. Thus,
theoretically, if all the air voids were eliminated from the mix sample, the combined specific gravity of the
remaining aggregate and bituminous binder would be the theoretical maximum specific gravity.
Theoretical specific gravity is the specific gravity without considering air voids, and is given by:

……………… (1)
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine aggregate in the total
mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, G1 is the apparent
specific gravity of coarse aggregate, G2 is the apparent specific gravity of fine aggregate, G3 is the apparent
specific gravity of filler and Gb is the apparent specific gravity of bitumen.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Bulk Specific Gravity of the Compacted Asphalt Mixture (Gm)

The ratio of the mass in air of a unit volume of a permeable material (including both permeable and
impermeable voids normal to the material) at a stated temperature to the mass in air (of equal density) of an
equal volume of water at a stated temperature. This value is used to determine weight per unit volume of the
compacted mixture. It is very important to measure bulk specific gravity (Gm) as accurately as possible. Since
it is used to convert weight measurements to volumes, any small errors in bulk specific gravity (Gm) will be
reflected in significant volume errors, which may go undetected.
The bulk specific gravity or the actual specific gravity of the mix Gm is the specific gravity considering air
voids and is found out by:

……………… (2)
where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water, note that Wm-Ww gives the volume
of the mix. Sometimes to get accurate bulk specific gravity, the specimen is coated with thin film of paraffin
wax, when weight is taken in the water. This, however requires to consider the weight and volume of wax in
the calculations.

Air voids percent, Vv

The total volume of the small pockets of air between the coated aggregate particles throughout a compacted
paving mixture, expressed as a percent of the bulk volume of the compacted paving mixture. The amount of
air voids in a mixture is extremely important and closely related to stability and durability. For typical dense-
graded mixes with 12.5 mm (0.5 inch) nominal maximum aggregate sizes air voids below about 3 percent
result in an unstable mixture while air voids above about 8 percent result in a water-permeable mixture.

Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by:

……………… (3)
where Gt is the theoretical specific gravity of the mix, given by equation (1) and Gm is the bulk or actual
specific gravity of the mix given by equation (2).

Percentage volume of bitumen Vb

The volume of bituminous binder in the mix that has been absorbed into the pore structure of the aggregate,
this is not accounted for by the effective asphalt content. The volume of bitumen Vb is the percentage of
volume of bitumen to the total volume and given by:

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

……………… (4)
where, W1 is the weight of coarse aggregate in the total mix, W2 is the weight of fine aggregate in the total
mix, W3 is the weight of filler in the total mix, Wb is the weight of bitumen in the total mix, Gb is the apparent
specific gravity of bitumen, and Gm is the bulk specific gravity of mix given by equation (2).

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA

The volume of inter granular void space between the aggregate particles of a compacted paving mixture that
includes the air voids and the effective asphalt content, expressed as a percent of the total volume of the
specimen. When VMA is too low, there is not enough room in the mixture to add sufficient asphalt binder to
adequately coat the individual aggregate particles. Also, mixes with a low VMA are more sensitive to small
changes in asphalt binder content. Excessive VMA will cause an unacceptably low mixture stability.
Generally, a minimum VMA is specified and a maximum VMA may or may not be specified.

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from

VMA = Vv + Vb ……………… (5)

where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix, given by equation (3). and Vb is percent bitumen content in the
mix, given by equation (4).

Voids filled with bitumen, VFB

The portion of the voids in the mineral aggregate that contain asphalt binder. This represents the volume of
the effective asphalt content. It can also be described as the percent of the volume of the voids in mineral
aggregate (VMA) that is filled with asphalt cement. VFB is inversely related to air voids: as air voids decrease,
the VFB increases.
Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with the bitumen, and
is calculated as:

VFB = (Vb  100) /VMA……………… (6)

where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix, given by equation (4). and VMA is the percent voids in the
mineral aggregate, given by equation (5).

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

RESILIENT MODULUS OF BITUMINOUS MIXES (IRC: 37 – 2018)

Resilient modulus of bituminous mixes depends upon the grade of binder, frequency/load application time,
air voids, shape of aggregate, aggregate gradation, maximum size of the aggregate, bitumen content, etc.

These mixes may have lower resilient modulus value than those of the mixes prepared with unmodified
bitumen. The lower resilient modulus values of mixes with modified binders are due to the larger proportion
of resilient strain (elastic deformation) possible with modified mixes. The smaller resilient modulus values do
not necessarily indicate that modified binder mixes will have inferior performance compared to unmodified
mixes. In fact, mixes with modified binders are, in general, expected to have better fatigue and rutting
performance and durability compared to conventional mixes.

All the bituminous layers in the pavement shall be considered as one layer in the analysis of the pavement and
will be assigned the same elastic properties (elastic/resilient modulus and Poisson’s ratio). Considering the
possibility that the resilient moduli of Stone Matrix Asphalt and BC mixes with modified binders will be less
than those obtained for dense graded mixes i.e. BC (Bituminous Concrete) and DBM (Dense Bituminous
Macadam) prepared with unmodified binders such as VG40 (*VG40 Bitumen means Viscosity Grade 40
bitumen) and taking into consideration that these surface mixes are expected to give much better performance
than the conventional dense graded mixes with unmodified binders, these guidelines recommend that the
bituminous layer (combination of all the bituminous layers) shall be assigned the modulus value of the DBM
mix (bottom DBM mix if two DBM layers are used) for analysis and design.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

The following empirical relationships between resilient modulus and indirect tensile strength test of different
bituminous mixes have been developed and are recommended for arriving at a reasonable estimation of the
resilient modulus value.
Resilient Modulus of 150 mm thick DBM specimens at 35 ˚C
Mr = 11.088 x ITS - 3015.80
Resilient Modulus of 102 mm thick specimens with elastomeric polymer modified binder mixes at 35 ˚C.
Mr = 1.1991 x ITS + 1170
Where,
ITS = Indirect Tensile Strength in KPa,
Mr = Resilient Modulus in MPa.
The design of pavement shall be carried out based on the actual values obtained with field designed DBM/BM
mix subject to the maximum values indicated in table for the selected mix (DBM/BM mixes with selected
unmodified binder) for an average annual pavement temperature of 35 ˚C.

QUALITY CONTROL & QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN FOR HIGHWAY

Quality Control (QC)

The operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfil requirements for quality. All those planned and
systematic actions necessary to provide confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements
for quality.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

Quality Assurance (QA)

Quality Assurance is defined as all the planned and systematic activities implemented within the Quality
System and demonstrated as needed to provide adequate confidence that an entity will fulfil the requirements.

The quality of bituminous material can be checked by performing following test on the material:

 Penetration Test
The penetration tests determine the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in which a standard
loaded needle will penetrate vertically in five seconds.
It gives the choice to select the grade of bitumen
according to the climate condition of the area where the
road is to be constructed.

Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the

distance 1/10th of mm that a standard needle vertically
penetrates a sample under standard conditions of load,
time and temperature.

The penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy as regards pouring temperature, size of needle,
weight placed on the needle and the test temperature.

80/100 or 30/40 grade bitumen means that the penetration value of the bitumen is in the range 80 to 100 at
standard test conditions

 Viscosity Test
Viscosity is defined as the inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid property of bituminous material.
Viscosity is the general term for consistency and it is a measure of resistance to flow. Many researchers believe
that grading of bitumen should be by absolute viscosity units instead of the conventional penetration units.

The degree of fluidity of the binder at the application temperature greatly influences the strength
characteristics of the resulting paving mixes.
High or low viscosity during mixing or
compaction has been observed to result in
lower stability values.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

There is an optimum value of viscosity for

each aggregate gradation of the mix and
bitumen grade.

At low viscosity, the bituminous binder simply lubricates the aggregate particles instead of providing a
uniform film for binding action. Similarly high viscosity also resists the compactive effort and the resulting
mix is heterogeneous in character exhibiting low stability values. The viscosity of tar is determined as the time
taken in seconds for 50 ml of the sample to flow through 10 mm orifice of the standard tar viscometer at the
specified temperature of 35, 40, 45 or 55°C.

The viscosity of cutback bitumen is determined as the time taken in seconds for 50 ml of the sample to flow
through either 4.0 mm orifice at 25°C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40°C. Thus the orifice viscometer is suitable
to test tars and cutbacks.

 Softening point test

The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of softening under
specified condition of test. The softening point of bitumen is usually determined by Ring and Ball test.

Generally higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in warm climates.
A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen
is suspended in liquid like water or glycerine
at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed
upon the bitumen sample and the liquid
medium is then heated at a rate of 5°C per
minute. The temperature at which the
softened bitumen touches the metal placed at
a specified distance below the ring is recorded
as the softening point of a bitumen.

Hard grade bitumen possesses higher softening point than soft grade bitumen. The softening point of various
bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between 35°C to 70°C.

 Float test

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

There is a range consistency of the bituminous materials for which neither an orifice viscometer test nor a
penetration test could be used to define the consistency or the material. The consistency of materials of this
group is measured by float test.

The apparatus consists of a float made of aluminium

and a brass collar filled with the specimen materials
to be tested, which is screwed to the float. The test
specimen is filled in the collar (mould), cooled to a
temperature of 5°C and screwed into the float. The
float assembly is floated in a water bath at 50°C and
the time required in seconds for water to force its way
through the bitumen plug is noted as the float test value. The higher the float test value, the stiffer is the
material.

 Ductility Test
The property of ductility of a binder is an indication of its ability to deform under load without cracking. A
cracked surface of a pavement is unsatisfactory for a number of reasons, the chief of which is that it allows
water to penetrate into the courses of the pavement, affecting its stability.

The ability of the bitumen to spread and coat the surfaces of the aggregates completely to provide binding and
interlocking is considered to be dependent on its ductility. Also, the ability to withstand repeated loading
cycles under traffic, keeping the deformations within allowable limits, is partly dependent on its ductility.

The ductility is expressed as the distance in centimetres to which a standard sample of bitumen can be stretched
before the thread breaks. The test is conducted at The 27°C temperature and at a rate of pull of 50 mm per
minute. The test set up is shown in Figure. The cross section at minimum width of the specimen is 10 mm x
10 mm.

The ductility machine functions as a constant temperature

water bath with a pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. Two
clips are thus pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of
50 mm per minute. The bitumen sample is heated and poured
in the mould assembly placed on a plate. The samples along
with the moulds are cooled in air and then in a water bath

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

maintained at 27°C. The excess bitumen material is cut and the surface is levelled using a hot knife.

The mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath of the ductility testing machine for 85 to 95
minute. The sides of the mould are removed, the clips hooked on the machine and the pointer is adjusted to
zero. The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is reported in centimetres as ductility value.

The ductility value gets seriously affected by factors such as pouring temperature, dimensions of briquette,
level of briquette (Bitumen sample) in the water bath, presence of air pockets, test temperature and rate of
pulling. The ductility values of bitumen vary from 5 to over 100 for different bitumen grades.

A minimum ductility value of 75 cm has been specified by the ISI for bitumen of grades 45 and above, obtained
from sources other than Assam, petroleum, the minimum ductility value may be 50 cm for bitumen of grades
S35. However, as the bitumen produced from Assam petroleum in India have much lower ductility values, the
minimum ductility value specified is only 15 cm for the bitumen grades A65 to 200 for use in certain regions

 Flash & Fire Test

Bitumen materials leave out volatiles at temperatures depending upon their grade. These volatiles catch fire
causing a flash. This condition is very hazardous and it is therefore essential to quality this temperature for
each bitumen grade, so that paving engineers may restrict the mixing and application temperatures. As
mentioned above, this test gives an indication of the critical temperature at and above which suitable
precaution should be taken to eliminate fire hazards during heating of bitumen.

The definition of flash and fire points as given by the ISI are
Flash point: The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of a substance
momentarily takes fire in the form of flash under specified test condition.
Fire point: the fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under specified
test condition.

Procedure

Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus or open cup are

used for conducting the tests. The material to be tested
is filled in the cup up to a filling mark. The lid is placed
to close the cup in a closed system. All accessories

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
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Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

including thermometer of the specified range are suitably fixed. The bitumen sample is then heated at the rate
of 5 to 6°C per minute, stirring the specimen.

The test flame is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash and fire points. First application is
made at least 17°C below the actual flash point and then at every 1 to 3°C.

The flash point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time of the flame application that
causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in a closed system. The minimum specified point of bitumen
used in pavement construction is 175°C.

 Specific gravity test

The density of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as an aid to classify the binders for
use in paving jobs. In most applications, the bitumen is weighed but finally when used with aggregate system,
the bitumen content is converted on volume basis using density values. The specific gravity of bituminous
materials is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the substance to the same of an equal volume
of water, the temperature of both being 27°C.
The specific gravity value of bitumen is also useful in bituminous mix design. The density of bitumen is
greatly influenced by its chemical composition. Increased amounts of aromatic type compounds or mineral
impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.

The specific gravity is determined either by using a pycnometer or by preparing a cube shape specimen in
semi solid or solid state and by weighing in air and water. Generally, the specific gravity of pure bitumen is
in the range of 0.97 to 1.02. The specific gravity of cutback bitumen may be lower depending on the type and
proportion of diluent used. Tars have specific gravity ranging from 1.10 to 1.25.

 Solubility test
Pure bitumen is completely soluble in solvents like carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride. Hence any
impurity in bitumen in the form of inert minerals, carbon, salts etc. could be quantitatively analysed by
dissolving the samples of bitumen in any of the two solvents.

A sample of about 2 g of bitumen is dissolved in about 100 ml of solvent. The solution is filtered and the
insoluble material retained is washed, dried and weighed; it is expressed as a percentage of original sample.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

The insoluble material should be preferably less than 1.0 percent. In solubility test with carbon tetrachloride,
if black carbonaceous residue is over 0.5 %, the bitumen is considered to be cracked. The minimum proportion
of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide is specified as 99 percent.

 Water content test

It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent foaming of the bitumen when it is
heated above the boiling point of water. The water content in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight
of the specimen in a pure petroleum distillate free from water, heating and distilling off the water. The weight
of the water condensed and collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the original sample. The
maximum water content in bitumen should not exceed 0.2 percent by weight.

QUALITY ASSURANCE PLAN

Introduction
The Quality Assurance Plan (QAP) is the methodology that is selected for ensuring that the project
incorporates all elements that are needed for the successful design, construction and maintenance of a project.
Since projects vary in scope, the QAP has to be project-specific. The QAP should deal with all aspects of
Selection and testing of materials, Acceptance criteria, Guidelines for non-conforming materials and
works and Documentation.

 Selection of Material/ Sampling of Material

All construction materials to be used in the permanent works are to be sampled jointly by the Consultant and
Contractor prior to commencement of the Works. This includes sampling for materials
to be tested for proposing approval of the material source as well as sampling of materials for approval of the
individual construction materials. In both cases, and for each instance, the Contractor must give notification
of a request for such sampling to the Consultant in advance (minimum 48 hours) by way of the Inspection
Request Form (IRF). All assistance (e.g. sampling instruments and equipment, sample bags, and labour etc.)
that is required for carrying out the sampling activities are to be provided by the Contractor. For sampling
activities, the Consultant is to be represented by the Material Engineer or his appointee.
All sampling is to be carried out in accordance with instructions to be given by the Consultant. Sampling
procedures are to be followed as per recognized guidelines of good engineering practice.
These include:
(a) Obtaining samples from at least three areas.
(b) Ensuring that the sampled materials and locations are “typical” for the material to be tested.
(c) Ensuring that all overburden etc. is removed within the stockpiles rather than from the surface (top, side
or base of the stockpile) in order to avoid the collection of segregated materials.
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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

(d) Ensure that sufficient quantities are sampled to enable all tests to the conducted, plus additional material,
to be stored for subsequent testing if required.
(e) Ensure that each sample bag is marked/labelled both inside and outside, giving the sample number, material
type, sample location, date and number of the bag, as well as any additional information instructed by the
Material Engineer or his appointee.

 Testing of Materials
It is the responsibility of the Contractor to ensure that the laboratory is proficiently protected at all times of
the day and night (i.e. to control access and maintain security), is cleaned daily and is properly maintained.
Testing equipment and apparatus are to be initially approved, and subsequently periodically checked, by the
Consultant to assure proper operation, accuracy, correct calibration and complete conformance to all
Specifications requirements. Likewise, all detailed testing procedures in the specifications and procedures
instructed by the Material Engineer as part of his Quality Control and Quality Assurance Plan are to be strictly
followed by the Contractor. The consultant is to supervise, monitor and check all aspects of the testing
procedures, including sample storage, preparation, testing and analysis and reporting of testing results.

 Acceptance Criteria
All materials included in the construction works for which quality control tests are specified, and for which
approval by the Engineer has been previously given, are to be inspected and checked for acceptability in
accordance with the Specifications requirements.
The kind(s) of test(s) and frequency of testing should conform to the minimum Quality Control Testing
Requirements of the MORTH specifications. Sampling and Testing should be in accordance with the relevant
IS methods.

 Guidelines for Non-Conforming material & works

In broad terms, it is necessary that the materials and workmanship conform with the contract requirements,
and ideally nonconforming work shall be rejected. Whenever the work falls short of the requirements, the
matter shall also be brought to the notice of the Employer. But special difficulties arise in the case of some
items of work such as concrete, where the non-conformance may only be known after few days’ cube results
become available, in which period work has progressed further. In some of the situations, acceptance after
repair/review for adequacy is feasible. Therefore, separate procedures are laid out for some of the non-
conforming situations. In case the feasible items do not meet the requirements after such repair/review, the
non-conforming item should be rejected. It is also necessary to refer to Head Office and/or designer in certain
cases of non-conformance to seek their advice and guidance.

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 PAVEMENT DESIGN AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION (3150613)
Semester – V
Chapter Name: Pavement Material & Characterization

 Documentation
Upon completion of each Contract Section, and the completion of the Project, there are several documents to
be prepared and submitted to the Employer. The following should be checked with the Employer as the project
nears completion.
(a) The As-built drawings/plans
(b) The Final Take-off quantities and amounts
(c) Contract Documentation
(d) Final Completion report
Although those final documentations are to be submitted at the end of Contract “Section” period, they have to
be prepared as work progresses, and finalized when works are nearing completion.

Prepared by: Mr. Anuj Bhatt