Retaining wall

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A gravity-type stone retaining wall

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Retaining walls are built in order to hold back ground which would otherwise move
downwards. Their purpose is to stabilise slopes and provide useful areas at different
elevations, e.g. terraces for agriculture, buildings, roads and railways.
Contents
 [hide]

1 Definition

2 Types

o 2.1 Gravity

o 2.2 Cantilevered

o 2.3 Sheet piling

o 2.4 Anchored

3 Alternative Retaining

Techniques

o 3.1 Soil nailing

o 3.2 Soil-strengthened

 3.2.1 Gabion

meshes

o 3.3 Mechanical

stabilization
 4 See also

5 References

6 External links

[edit]Definition

A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of
soil when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of
repose of the soil.[1]

The basement wall is thus one form of retaining wall.

However, the term is most often used to refer to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a
freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. [2]

Typically retaining walls are cantilevered from a footing extending up beyond the grade
on one side and retaining a higher level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist
the lateral pressures generated by loose soils or, in some cases, water pressures. [3]

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to
recognize and counteract the fact that the retained material is attempting to move
forward and downslope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall
which depends on theangle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the
retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining
structure undergoes.

Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and - in homogenous ground -
increase proportionally to a maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will
push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also,
any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system
causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to
act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height. [4]
Unless the wall is designed to retain water, It is important to have proper drainage behind
the wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall's design value. Drainage materials will
reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the material
behind the [Link] retaining walls are normally self-draining.

As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to

ensure stability against overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water
uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and
overturning.[5]

[edit]Types

Various types of retaining walls

[edit]Gravity

Construction types of gravity retaining walls

Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy
material) to resist pressures from behind and will often have a slight 'batter' setback, to
improve stability by leaning back into the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they
are often made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units).
[6]
 Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing
in frost areas. Home owners who build larger gravity walls that do require a rigid concrete
footing can make use of the services of a professional excavator, which will make
digging a trench for the base of the gravity wall much easier.
Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large
masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as
composite gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or with precast facing; gabions (stacked
steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast
concrete or timber and filled with soil); or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with
steel and concrete rods).[7]

[edit]Cantilevered

Conterfort/Buttress on Cantilevered Wall

Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-
place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls
cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal
pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes
cantilevered walls are butressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to
improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles
to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal
frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

[edit]Sheet piling

Sheet pile wall

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls
are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick
estimate the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may
be altered depending on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back
anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall, that is
tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are placed behind the potential
failure plane in the soil.

[edit]Anchored

See also: Tieback (geotechnical)

An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but
also includes additional strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil
behind it. Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the
end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete,
which expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful
where high loads are expected, or where the wall itself has to be slender and would
otherwise be too weak.

[edit]Alternative Retaining Techniques

[edit]Soil nailing
Main article: Soil nailing

Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are

reinforced by the insertion of relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars.
The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled
and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward
inclination. A rigid or flexible facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads
may be used at the surface.

[edit]Soil-strengthened

A number of systems exist that do not simply consist of the wall itself, but reduce the
earth pressure acting on the wall itself. These are usually used in combination with one
of the other wall types, though some may only use it as facing (i.e. for visual purposes).

[edit]Gabion meshes

Main article: Gabion

This type of soil strengthening, often also used without an outside wall, consists
of wire mesh 'boxes' into which roughly cut stone or other material is filled. The mesh
cages reduce some internal movement/forces, and also reduce erosive forces.
[edit]Mechanical stabilization
Main article: Mechanically stabilized earth

Mechanically stabilized earth, also called MSE, is soil constructed with artificial
reinforcing via layered horizontal mats (geosynthetics) fixed at their ends. These mats
provide added internal shear resistance beyond that of simple gravity wall structures.
Other options include steel straps, also layered. This type of soil strengthening usually
needs outer facing walls (S.R.W.'s - Segmental Retaining Walls) to affix the layers to and
vice versa. [1]

The wall face is often of precast concrete units [6] that can tolerate some differential
movement. The reinforced soil's mass, along with the facing, then acts as an improved
gravity wall. The reinforced mass must be built large enough to retain the pressures from
the soil behind it. Gravity walls usually must be a minimum of 50 to 60 percent as deep
or thick as the height of the wall, and may have to be larger if there is a slope or
surcharge on the wall.j

[edit]See also

 Civil engineering
 Direct shear test
 Earthquake engineering
 Foundation (engineering)
 Geotechnical engineering
 Slope stability analysis
 Structural engineering
 Trench shield
 Trench shoring
[edit]References

1. ^ Ching, F. D., Faia., R., S., & Winkel, P. (2006). Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding
the 2006 International Building Code (Building Codes Illustrated) (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

2. ^ Ambrose,J. (1991). Simplified Design of Masonry Structures (pp. 70-75.). New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.

3. ^ Crosbie, M. & Watson, D. (Eds.). (2005). Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill.

4. ^ Terzaghi, K. (1934), Large Retaining Wall Tests, Engineering News Record Feb. 1, March 8, April 19
5. ^ 2006 International Building Code Section 1806.1.
 6. ^ a b "Segmental Retaining Walls". National Concrete Masonry Association. Archived from the original on
2008-03-04. Retrieved 2008-03-24.

7. ^ Terzaghi, K. (1943), Theoretical Soil Mechanics, New York: John Wiley and Sons

 Ambrose,J.,(1991). Simplified Design of Masonry Structures (pp. 70–75.). New

York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
 Bowles, J.,(1968). Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York
 Building Code (Building Codes Illustrated) (2 ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
 Ching, F. D., Faia., R., S., & Winkel, P. (2006). Building Codes Illustrated: A
Guide to Understanding the 2006 International
 Crosbie, M. & Watson, D. (Eds.). (2005). Time-Saver Standards for Architectural
Design. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
[edit]

A retaining wall is a stabilizing structure used to hold sloping ground in place and to prevent the erosion and the
movement of soil. A retaining wall must be substantial and sturdy in structure in order to accommodate and
redistribute lateral pressure caused by sloping. It is normally designed with seepage holes, which allow collected
ground water to escape. This releases the additional pressure created by accumulated water and helps keep the
retaining wall stable.

Several different materials can be used to construct a retaining wall. Stone and concrete are often used, and there
are special retaining wall blocks crafted from aggregate materials and light concrete which are designed for this
purpose. Some styles interlock, making assembly simpler, less costly and less time consuming, because each
block fits securely with the next. Because the fit of these blocks is secure, they do not require the addition
of mortar.

Rock Retaining Wall on wiseGEEK:

 Rock walls that are meant to support weight are usually built on an angle to allow some soil
creep and increase strength. Decorative rock retaining walls are often built to accent a
garden or yard, and while they, too, can be quite strong, natural rocks are irregularly shaped
and therefore somewhat unreliable as far as strength and stability goes.
 This provides a powerful-looking presentation and makes the wall appear to be
natural. Rock retaining walls are most often seen in the mountain terrain because they
match the surrounding area.

Build Retaining Wall on wiseGEEK:

 In all cases, ensure durability and safety by careful planning and installation.
Most retaining walls are constructed using concrete bricks or natural stone. These materials
can be used to create retaining wall steps, as well.
 Walls must be level, so you must begin with a level surface and continue leveling each layer
of retaining wall blocks as you build. You must also backfill each layer of blocks with crushed
rock, sand, gravel or soil to make the wall sturdy.