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Fluid System
A fluid system reported by Gaillard et al. consisting of acrylamide-based co-
and ter-polymers functionalized with monomers such as sodium acrylate,
sodium acrylamido-tertiary-butyl sulfonate (ATBS), and a customer-made
surfactant monomer [58].
From: Petroleum, 2016
Related terms:
• Hydraulics
• Proppants
• Nanoparticles
• Viscosity
• Heat Transfer Fluid
• Fracturing Fluid
View all Topics
Safety relief valves
In Handbook of Valves and Actuators, 2007
Thermal relief valve
Fluid systems, which normally operate at pressures below the
design pressure and have no mechanical means to increase the
pressure to unacceptable values, may have problems in isolated
pipe runs due to external heat sources. Isolating valves may be
fitted at both ends of a pipe run for safety and/or maintenance
purposes. Fluid trapped in the pipe between the valves may need to
expand due to relatively small temperature rises caused by
changes in ambient temperature or direct sunlight. Fluid is released
at the design temperature to avoid code violations.
Thermal relief valves are small versions of spring-loaded srvs. Due
to their size these valves nearly always are of screwed construction
and have screwed connections. Special bolted construction valves
with flanged or clamped connections should be used for hazardous
fluids. Valves for thermal relief are manufactured in carbon
steel and stainless steel as standard. Other materials can be
supplied to order.
View chapterPurchase book
HYDRAULIC PUMPING
James F. Lea, ... Mike R. Wells, in Gas Well Deliquification (Second
Edition), 2008
Casing-Free Installations
The OPF is a casing-free installation and is discussed for
completeness. It is not recommended for dewatering a gas well
because it does not have a separate path for the gas. The
exception to this is the configuration shown in Figure 9-4.
The casing-free OPF consists of a single tubing string, a pump
housing (bottomhole assembly), and a packer. Power fluid is
circulated down the tubing string where it operates the
subsurface hydraulic pump and mixes with the produced liquids and
gas. This mixture returns to the surface via the casing
annulus (casing return).
Figure 9-8 shows a casing-free installation (using casing return) for
an open power fluid system. In this design, all the gas must pass
through the pump. Any gas that is produced adversely affects the
liquid displacement efficiency of a piston pumpjet pump but it is
possible for jet pump performance to improve due to the reduction
of the discharge pressure from the gas in the tubing. This can
reduce the required injection pressure more than the increase from
having to use a larger throat to accommodate the gas passing
through the pump. Because of the simplicity and cost benefits of the
casing-free open power fluid system, there is more of this design
than any other type of installation.
The casing-free OPF with a gas vent can be used where
displacement efficiency is affected by high GLR. A parallel string is
run to a dual packer below the pump to provide a separate path for
the gas. The production plus spent power fluid returns by the casing
annulus. This is useful when liquid volumes to be produced create
high friction.
View chapterPurchase book
Introduction to Drilling Fluids
Ryen Caenn, ... George R. , in Composition and Properties of
Drilling and Completion Fluids (Seventh Edition), 2017
Drilling Fluid Systems
Fluid systems are classified according to their base fluid (Fig. 1.1):
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Figure 1.1. Drilling fluid systems by Base Fluid.
•
Water-Based Muds (WBM). Solid particles are suspended in
water or brine. Oil may be emulsified in the water, in which
case water is termed the continuous phase.
•
Nonaqueous-Based Drilling Fluids (NADF). Solid particles are
suspended in oil. Brine water or another low-activity liquid is
emulsified in the oil, i.e., oil is the continuous phase.
•
Pneumatic Systems. Drill cuttings are removed by a high-
velocity stream of air, natural gas, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or
some other fluid that is injected in a gaseous phase. When
minor inflows of water are encountered these systems are
converted to gas/liquid systems—mist or foam.
Over the years a considerable number of drilling fluid formulations
have been developed to suit various subsurface conditions.
Selection of the best fluid to meet anticipated conditions will
minimize well costs and reduce the risk of catastrophes, such as
wellbore instability, stuck drill pipe, loss of circulation, and gas
kicks. Consideration must also be given to obtaining adequate
formation evaluation and maximum productivity.
Inorganic Colloids
Inorganic colloids are mainly composed of active clay material that
has completely hydrated and dispersed. The activity of the
inorganic colloidal fraction is derived from the very small size of the
particle (and consequent high surface area) relative to its weight
and the electrostatic forces on its surfaces and edges. Because of
the high specific surface, the behavior of the particles is governed
primarily by the electrostatic charges on their surfaces, which give
rise to attractive or repulsive interparticle forces. Clay minerals are
particularly active colloids, partly because of their shape—tiny
crystalline platelets or packets of platelets—and partly because of
their molecular structure, which results in high negative charges on
their basal surfaces, and positive charges on their edges.
Interaction between these opposite charges profoundly influences
the viscosity of clay muds at low flow velocities, and is responsible
for the formation of a reversible gel structure when the mud is at
rest.
Organic Colloids
Organic colloids, usually called polymers, are high molecular
weight, water-dispersible organic polymers that control either the
rheological or fluid loss properties of the fluid. They are essential for
maintaining those fluid properties in brine-based fluids. Detailed
information on polymers can be found in Chapter 5, Water
Dispersible Polymers.
Drilled Solids
Drilled solids are composed of both active clays and inert mixtures
of various minerals. Most water-based fluids problems are related in
some way to the solids in the system, primarily the buildup of small
sizes that cannot be removed by solids control equipment. To
maintain a properly functioning drilling fluid, the drilled solids are
best kept below 4 vol%, but ideally below 2 vol%.
Water-Based Muds
These systems may be either fresh water or brines of various types,
from lightly treated to fully saturated. The solids consist of clays and
organic colloids added to provide the necessary viscous and
filtration properties. Heavy minerals (usually barite) are added to
increase the mud weight. In addition, solids from the formation (drill
solids) become dispersed in the mud during drilling. The water can
contain dissolved salts, either derived from contamination with
formation water or added for various purposes.
Many WBMs are formulated with a saturated brine to replace all or
part of the mineral weight material. By eliminating these minerals,
the well can usually be drilled faster. Also, the likelihood of
formation damage by particle plugging is lessened.
Two types of brines are used:
1.
Inorganic—usually containing a chloride anion
2.
Organic—usually derived from formic acid.
Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 show the densities obtained with these brines at
saturation.
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Figure 1.2. Base Fluid Specific Gravities.
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Figure 1.3. Base Fluid Densities—lb/gal.
Most of the time, these brines are used with either the sodium or
potassium cation—Na+ or K+. The sodium form is usually less
expensive, but the potassium form is preferred to minimize the
swelling of clays. This is discussed further in Chapter 4, Clay
Minerology and the Colloid Chemistry.
The main disadvantage of using chloride brines is that waste
disposal costs can increase dramatically. Waste costs in drilling
operations are primarily driven by the amount of drill cuttings
generated. All cuttings will be covered with mud and if the base fluid
contains chlorides, that increases disposal costs.
Formates, on the other hand are easily disposed of in a regular
landfill or land farming operation. The formate degrades into
CO2 and water. Formates have other advantages that are discussed
in Chapter 2, Introduction to Completion Fluids.
Solid particles in the mud may conveniently be divided into four
groups according to size:
1.
Inorganic and organic colloids, from about 0.005–2 µm
2.
Drill solids, 2–74 µm
3.
Weight material, 5–74 µm
4.
Sand, 74–1000 µm.
View chapterPurchase book
Dispersions, emulsions, and foams
In Petroleum Engineer's Guide to Oil Field Chemicals and Fluids
(Second Edition), 2015
Drilling fluid systems
Invert emulsion fluid systems tend to exhibit high performance with
regard to shale inhibition, borehole stability, and lubricity. However,
invert emulsion fluid systems have a high risk of loss of circulation
Latex additives can counterbalance this drawback, but since water
must be added, an oil base drilling fluid system becomes an
unbalanced invert emulsion system with different rheological
properties. It is possible to rebalance an unbalanced invert
emulsion fluid system. Conventionally, an unbalanced invert
emulsion fluid system would either have to be rebalanced in the
field or transported offsite to be rebalanced.
There are special formulations that avoid this drawback. The latex
particles are not dispersed in the oil base continuous phase.
Rather, the latex particles are dispersed in the emulsified aqueous
phase. In fact, one of the advantages of invert emulsion fluids is
that they can achieve at least some of the benefits of having an
aqueous phase without requiring the aqueous phase to be in direct
contact with the borehole wall [
View chapterPurchase book
Drilling Fluid Components
Ryen Caenn, ... George R. , in Composition and Properties of
Drilling and Completion Fluids (Seventh Edition), 2017
Drilling Fluid Systems
Invert emulsion fluid systems tend to exhibit high performance with
regard to shale inhibition, borehole stability, and lubricity. However,
invert emulsion fluid systems have a high risk of loss of circulation).
Latex additives can counterbalance this drawback, but since water
must be added, an oil-base drilling fluid system becomes an
unbalanced invert emulsion system with different rheological
properties. It is possible to rebalance an unbalanced invert
emulsion fluid system. Conventionally, an unbalanced invert
emulsion fluid system would either have to be rebalanced in the
field or transported offsite to be rebalanced.
There are special formulations that avoid this drawback. The latex
particles are not dispersed in the oil-base continuous phase.
Rather, the latex particles are dispersed in the emulsified aqueous
phase. In fact, one of the advantages of invert emulsion fluids is
that they can achieve at least some of the benefits of having an
aqueous phase without requiring the aqueous phase to be in direct
contact with the borehole wall (
View chapterPurchase book
Development and application of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage for
improving the environmental impact of advanced power plants
B. Mc Pherson, in Advanced Power Plant Materials, Design and
Technology, 2010
14.4.4 Residual gas or phase trapping
A fluid system is called ‘multi-phase’ when at least two distinct liquid
phases are in place, especially water or brine with a non-aqueous
liquid such as oil and water or CO 2 and water. When these distinct
fluids come into contact, cohesive forces act on molecules at the
interface between the phases. It is typical for an imbalance in the
cohesive forces to exist, resulting in surface tension at the interface.
This surface tension may cause the interface to contract to as small
an area as possible. Such interfacial surface tension may trap
CO2 in pores, especially if fluid saturations are low. The threshold
saturation at which CO, and is a key concept for defining ‘residual
gas trapping.’ The amount of CO2 that can be trapped by this
mechanism is a function of the rock’s pore network geometry,
pressure, temperature and other fluid properties.
View chapterPurchase book
Advances in managed pressure drilling technologies
[Link] Islam, [Link] Hossain, in Drilling Engineering, 2021
[Link] Pressure surges
The fluid system in UBD is inherently unstable. The gas and liquid
separate by gravity and require mixing to keep them combined. The
instability of a gaseated system induces pressure surges. The gas
migrates up hole to form a large gas bubble zone while the fluid
falls down the hole to form a solid fluid column below the gas
bubble. Pressure surges causes formation damage and wellbore
instability problems. Pressure surging can be controlled during
drilling by a combination of pipe rotation, velocity, and surface
backpressure held on the return annulus. During drilling, an
impressed surface pressure of 5–15 atmospheres keeps the gas
compressed enough that with the upward flow of fluid, the system
stays unsegregated. The injected gas separates during connections
when gravity causes the gas to move upward and liquid to displace
downward. The rate of separation depends on the size of gas
bubbles and viscosity of the fluid. Large bubbles move upward
faster than small bubbles. This translates into keeping the well
pressurized with the 5–15 atmospheres (70–220 psi) of surface
back pressure to minimize gas bubble size is important. Increased
viscosity of the liquid phase slows down the gas-liquid separation
but makes it more difficult to separate gas from liquid at the surface
as well as increasing the circulating density (ECD). Such viscosity
increase can be accomplished by adding additives. When these
additives are natural, the process becomes sustainable.
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Small modular reactors (SMRs): the case of the Republic of Korea
S. Choi, in Handbook of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors, 2015
[Link] Fluid system design
The fluid system has been designed to ensure the safety goal of the
Gen IV reactor system and enhance the economics through a
tradeoff study between various proposed design candidates based
on proven technologies. The fluid transport system is composed of
a heat transport system and safety system.
The heat transport system consists of a primary heat transport
system (PHTS), intermediate heat transport system (IHTS),
and power conversion system (PCS). The decay heat removal
system (DHRS) is employed as one of the safety design features to
remove the decay heat of the reactor core after the reactor
shutdown when the normal heat transport path is unavailable. The
PHTS is a pool type in which all the primary components and
primary sodium are within a reactor vessel to prevent primary
sodium from leaking outside of the containment. Two PHTS pumps
and four intermediate heat exchangers (IHXs) are immersed in the
sodium pool inside a reactor vessel. The PHTS pump is a
centrifugal type mechanical pump with a capacity of 290.3 /min. The
IHX is a counter-flow shell and tube types (TEMA type S) with a
vertical orientation inside the reactor vessel where PHTS sodium
flows through the shell side and IHTS sodium flows through the
tube side. The core inlet and outlet temperatures are 365 and 510
A steam generator is a helical tube type with a thermal capacity of
776.7 MWt. The IHTS sodium flows downward through the shell
side while the water/steam goes up through the tube side. Steam
temperature and pressure at a 100% normal operating condition are
471.2 MPa, respectively. The cold leg of the IHTS piping is a
bottom-up U-shape with sufficient height to prevent sodium-water
reaction products from reaching the IHX in case of a steam
generator tube failure. Also, the IHTS piping is arranged to enhance
the natural circulation capability in IHTS pump trip case.
The PCS employs a superheated steam Rankine cycle. It was
designed in such a way to minimize the total heat transfer area of
IHX and steam generator and maximize the plant efficiency.
The DHRS is composed of two passive decay heat removal circuits
(PDRCs) and two active decay heat removal circuits (ADRCs). It
was designed to have sufficient capacity to remove the decay heat
in all design base events by incorporating the principles of
redundancy and independency. The heat removal capacity of each
loop is 9 MWt. The PDRC is a safety-grade passive system which is
comprised of two independent loops with a decay heat
exchanger (DHX) immersed in a hot pool region and a natural-draft
sodium-to-air heat exchanger (AHX) located in the upper region of
the reactor building for each loop. It is operated based on the
natural circulation by density and the elevation difference between
the DHX and AHX. The ADRC is a safety-grade active system,
which is comprised of two independent loops with a DHX, a forced-
draft sodium-to-air heat exchanger (FDHX), an electromagnetic
pump, and an FDHX blower for each loop. The electromagnetic
pump and FDHX blower derive the sodium circulation in the loop
and the air flow in the shell side of FDHX, respectively. Because the
ADRC can also be operated in natural convection mode against a
loss of power supply, the heat transferred to the DHRS can be
finally dissipated to the atmosphere through AHXs and FDHXs by
the natural convection mechanism of sodium and air.
View chapterPurchase book
Dispersions, Emulsions, and Foams
Johannes Karl Fink, in Petroleum Engineer's Guide to Oil Field
Chemicals and Fluids, 2012
Drilling Fluid systems
Invert emulsion fluid systems tend to perform well in shale
inhibition, borehole stability, and lubricity, but they have a high risk
of loss of circulation). Latex additives can counterbalance this
drawback, but since water must be added, an oil base drilling
fluid system becomes an unbalanced invert emulsion system with
different rheological properties. They can be rebalanced, either in
the field or offsite.
Some special formulations avoid this drawback, in which the latex
particles are dispersed in the emulsified aqueous phase as
opposed to the oil base continuous phase. In fact, one of the
advantages of invert emulsion fluids is that they have at least some
of the benefits of having an aqueous phase without requiring it to be
in direct contact with the borehole wall (
View chapterPurchase book
Circulation systems for metalworking fluids
S. Joksch, in Metalworking Fluids (MWFs) for Cutting and Grinding,
2012
6.4 Future trends
In the last few years, flexibility in the workshop has become more
and more required by companies using MWF. It has become
necessary to move the machining equipment to change the
production line much more often than in earlier times. The user
cannot afford any to limit change in the machine shop setup
because of fluid supply installations. This means, in the case of
centralized MWF supply, that the return pump concept has gained
an increasing attraction compared with the gravity return flow
concept. There is also an increasing demand for compact and
effective non-centralized MWF supply solutions (see Fig. 6.19).
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6.19. Compact hydrostatic band filter
(source: Knoll Maschinenbau GmbH).
Another important factor is the limited availability of natural
resources. This means that the price of energy, metallic materials
and particularly all mineral oil-based products will constantly
increase, nowadays and in the future. From this it follows that
avoiding losses is not only the precondition for sustainable green
production, it just as much secures competitiveness in a globalised
market. In this regard modern MWF circulation systems have to be
designed with a focus on long fluid life and zero waste production.
This will also mean promoting new recycling technologies, for
example thermal and chemical chip de-oiling and advanced fluid
maintenance devices as well as energy saving pumps.
Modern innovative MWF systems like multi-functional oils based
on renewable raw materials (
•
A non-water-miscible product system with compatible basic
oils and additives for use as a hydraulic, slide way, spindle
and processing oil.
•
A water-miscible product system which can be used as
machine, cutting or grinding oil, when not mixed with water
and which can also be used as a metalworking emulsion or a
water-based cleaner when mixed with water.
Both product systems are suitable for avoiding problems of non-
compatibility in production lines where different oil- or water-based
process fluids interfere each other. Various field applications have
shown that the use of these product types may increase process
safety and fluid lifetime together with generating a decreasing
amount of waste in the machine shop. Beyond this, multi-purpose
oils deliver the opportunity to design MWF circulation systems on a
lower level of complexity and cost.
Two-component MWFs mean a water-miscible product system
which comprises two different concentrate types which must be
used together in a different mixing ratio. One component is an
emulsifiable oil, which contains lubricating substances, and the
second component consists of soluble components for corrosion
protection, bio resistance and cleaning power. This enables the
user to adjust the product performance exactly to the process
requirements, by using only one product system for the whole
workshop or plant.
Compatible MWF/cleaning products can be used for machining as
well as for cleaning applications in the same process chain. The
cleaner product is an oil-free version of the MWF product. After a
certain period, the cleaner is contaminated with oil from the MWF
brought in by the machined parts and the cleaning process is
disturbed. The malfunctioning cleaner is now a low concentrated
MWF and is reused in the MWF systems (see Fig. 6.20; Streller,
2009)
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6.20. Application of compatible MWFs and cleaner.
One of the biggest challenges in using water-mixed MWF is control
of microbiological activity. Today it is not possible to avoid
using biocides or biostatic ingredients in water-mixed MWFs in
attempting to achieve the best possible economical and technical
results. Because of the critical toxicological profile of biocides for
more than 30 years, there have been many attempts to establish
physical methods of germ control. All of these have more or less
failed. Whether UV radiation, pasteurization or ultrasound, none of
these methods has been able to avoid biofilm build-up in the
circulation system (see Fig. 6.9). Only the use of chemical biocides,
which are able to reach the biofilm and to penetrate it, make this
possible. But even the best biocide cannot be 100% effective in
avoiding biofilm build-up because of limited penetration depth. The
biocide concentration in the extracellular polymeric
substance (EPS) structure of a biofilm decreases with increasing
layer strength. At a certain depth the biocide is below the minimum
inhibition concentration (MIC) and has no effect (see Fig. 6.21).
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6.21. Biocide concentration in biofilms.
In future it might be possible that the average fluid lifetime will fall to
a level which is significantly lower than today, because of more and
more regulations and limitations concerning the use of biocidal
substances (Biocidal Product Directive, 1998). This situation could
be exacerbated because several users of large volumes of MWF in
the automotive industry currently are discussing shutting off cooling
devices to save energy. This, of course, will bring MWF
temperatures up to 30-40°C and put the microorganisms in an even
more comfortable situation than today.
A new approach to dealing with this problem is the application of
antibiotic surface coatings for the critical parts of the circulation
system in order to avoid biofilm build-up without chemical attack. A
German joint research project concerning antibiotic coatings was
completed in 2006 (IWT/IFAM, 2007).
The results were quite encouraging to continue R&D activities, in
order to transfer this technology into an industrial environment.
Although knowledge of whether or when minimum quantity
lubrication or near-dry machining can substitute for ‘wet machining’
in the future may not be forthcoming, there is still a demand for
optimization of MWF circulation systems and connected functional
units. Cost pressures and increasing material and energy costs, as
well as higher requirements for occupational health
hazard reduction, will be the drivers for further advancement in
MFC circulation systems design.
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