1 Assembly Drawing and Working Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items ‘Drawing is the graphical language of engineers which is built upon certain basic principles and standards. A good drawing can be prepared making use of these principles and standards. Some of the principles and standards include use of proper symbols, letiering and dimensioning, selecting standard sizes of drawing shects, differenttypesof projections, isometric and sectional viewsetc. In this sectionthese basic standards and principles will be discussed. In addition, assembly drawing and working drawings of simple electrical and mechanical items will be dealt with 1.1 SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINE- ERING DRAWING In engineering drawing it is a common practice to employ graphical symbols to denote the various components and accessories used. These symbols must convey the same meaning to everyone who reads the drawing. Symbols are therefore standardized by the Bureau of Indian Standards, An important con- sideration in selecting symbols is that they should be, as far as possible, self explanatory and easy to draw. Following are some of the symbols in common use. IS: 1032 gives a complete list of symbols. Ll. Resistors wr yin —s + oo varcote ves Non reactive le resistor ‘Fixed resistor continuous resistor N in steps et Reheostate —yy— a adius ‘Tapped resistor2 Electrical Engineering Drawing tight \\\ sensitive High veuage esistors SF ot 27 fe tom = iat oe wate” EI} ug ec 1.1.2 Capacitors and Inductors ik at em # = + wacer — aa ap mers le ema canenty capacitor (choke) wie ? 7 es ce inner table Variable inductor aan Gang capacitor ‘Tapped inductor LL3 Transformers Ee le at Je Ait coreDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical tems a ‘Shielded transformer Variable transformer —_Bititar winding i ET Go 1.15 Semiconductor Diodes Ananode Kz cathode a 8 & * wx xk *% Rectitier Tenet Varactor Juenel 4 “a a c+. oF 2 op x & 8 x x Photoconductive Photovaltac Protoemissive C= Colkeetion B= Base 8 E = Emitter bole current into base 1.1.7. Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Drain Chanret b= onin G = Gate G Gate $= Source S Source 3 Jeet IGFET or MOSFET N-channelElectrical Engineering Drawing rs. ; ah \GreTor Hostet IGFET oe Mose Pechannet Nerchanstel enhancement De Drain 2b GyaGate 2 $ aso a GaGatet Dual gate IGFET or MOSFET N-channel 1.1.8 Vacuum Tubes Pe P a P = Plate P = Plate K = Cathode Gy Gi = Control grid Heater K = Cathode Heater « K Diode Triode P =Plite ‘= Suppressor grid ren grid Control grid K = Cathode C=C grid Cathode Tetrode 1,19 Thyristors « K = Cathooe un My = Main 6 G=Gate a terminal? A= Anode G = Gate My = Main terminal 2 A Siticon controled rectitier (SCR)Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical items NTL= Main bp Bt= dase 2 terminal Emitter Base! Unijuction tran sistor wn) Mt NT= M terminal 2 MT Frequeneymeter Dac Watimeter 1.1.10 Meters Ammeter woltineter 1.1.11 Motors & Generators ac Motor, General symbol Generator Direct Current Generator, Motor Direct current motor, General symbol General symbol de two wire generator (G) ‘oF motor (M), seperately excited om Dans Le de two wire shunt generator (G) dc two wire generator (G) fof motor (MM), compound excited, or motor (M1) short shunt 1.1.12 Miscellaneous Earth or ground ‘Chassis earth connection Direct current6 Electrical Engineering Drawing ++ Alternating current ‘Conductor not joined he | t+ - Cm _ smut oy i O Screened cable Electrostatic screening Magnetic screening 1.1.13 The Greek Alphabets Aa alpha = a 2 8 = x(k) BOB ta =» © 0 oniferon = 0 Toy gamma = g nox pi =P A 6 deta = 4 Pop othe =f Ee epsilon = ¢ EZ of sigma = 5 ZG ae =: root ww =e | HW a == Y 9 Upsilon =u (¥0, 00, ) | © 0 theta = thi) (oftedn transcribed y) Tot iota =i o ° phi = phi) K x kappa =k x x chr = kh(hh) A hk lambda = | (often transcribed ch as in Latin) Mp mu =m yoy 7 | Novo n Qa 1.1.14 Prefixes for ST units ‘The following prefixes may be used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of the basic or derived SI units,Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical liems 7 Fraction | Prefix | Symbot | Multiple | Prefix | _Symbot 107 ect ae 10 seca aa 107 ‘centi © 0 ecto, h 10? milli m 10 kilo k 10% micro u 10 mega M 0? nano 0 0 siea s 1? Pico P w? | em T 1o"!5 femto f 10 | pew P to" m0 * wo | ex E Compound prefixes should not be used, e.g. 10” metre is represented by Jam, not 1 mpm The attaching of an exponent to a unit in effect constitutes a new unit, e.g. 1 km? signifies 1 (km)? = 10° m? and not 1k (m?) = 10° m? Where possible any numerical exponent should appear in the numerator of an expression. Symbols for units do not take a plural form and should not be followed by a full stop; e.g. 5 cm but not S ems or $ cms., and not 5 cm. (except at the end of a sentence). ‘The decimal point should be a dot on the line, In most Continental publics tions the comma is used as the decimal sign; it should therefore be avoided as a spacer for grouping figures in thousands, a small space being used instead: 12.345; 12. 345.678. Four-digit whole numbers and four-digit decimal numbers should be unspaced: 1234; 1234. 12 345.6789. A central point may be used as a multiplication sign: x - y, kg - m?- s 2 1.2 SIZE OF DRAWING SHEETS The following drawing sheet sizes are as per Indian Standard Code for general engineering drawing: IS: 696-1972. Designation Trimmed size (mm) _|_Unurimmed Size (mm) ‘A0 Size 841 x 1189 880% 1230 Al Size 594x841 625 x 880 A2 Size 420% 594 450 x 625 AS Size 297x420 330x450 AS Site 210% 297 240x330 AS Size 148x210 165 x 2408 Electrical Engineering Drawing ‘The untrimmed size is the size of the paper on which the drawing is to be made, When the drawing is compreted the paper is cut to the trimmed size. On the trimmed size a margin of 10 mm on all sides is to be drawn, except for A¢ and AS where the margin is only S mm. Sufficient space should be left for the title block. The standard size for title block is 185 mm x 65 mm. 13 LETTERING (@ The main requirements for ‘lettering’ in engineering drawing are legibility, uniformity, case and rapidity in exccution. (ii) Both the vertical and sloping types of letters and numerals are suitable for general use. All letters should be in capitals, except where lower size letters are accepted in international usage for abbreviations. If stoping type is used, an inclination of approximately 75 degrees is recom- mended. Letters and numerals are designated by their heights, Recommended sizes of letters and numerals to suit different purposes are given below: Purpose Size in mm Main title and drawing No. 6,8, 10,12 Sub-titles and headings 345.6 Notes such as legends, schedules, maetals and 2345 limensions (iv) All letters and numerals should be kept clear off the line. Words may be underlined in a drawing where preferred. (¥) Lettering should be done on the drawing in such a way that it may be read when the drawing is viewed from the bottom edge or from the right hand edge. (vi) When drawings are to be reproduced to a smaller scale by photographic process the size of letters in the original drawing should be accentuated (i.e. highlighted) to permit legibility after reproduction. 1.4 DIMENSIONING (@_ Dimension lines in a drawing should be placed as faras possible outside the outline of a view. Gi) All dimensions should be placed above their respective dimension lines. and normal iothe lines. such that these can be easily read fromthe bottom, orright hand side of the drawing sheet, (iii) Dimension lines should not cut each other. Smaller dimensions should be placed first, that is, the dimensions should be marked in the ascending order,Drawing of Simple Evectrical and Mechanical Items 9 (iv) Dimension lines are never shown dotted, (v) Dimensions mastonly be givenonce and notbe repeated on other views. (vi) Holes are dimensioned by stating their diameters. ‘There are usually three representations as follows: © f * co) Fig. 1.1 Three types of dimensioning holes 1.5 TYPES OF PROJECTIONS ‘The most common types of projections are: (j) isometric projection and (ii) orthographic projections 1.5.1 Isometric Projection Isometric projection conveys an impression of the overall appearance of the object, as it is apictorial form of representation. To make an isometric drawing. three axes are assumed to make equal angles to one another, i... 120°. one axis (OA) being vertical to the base (horizontal) and the other two axes (OB and OC) are in opposite directions making 30° to the horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2(a). The object is assumed to be placed on these axes with its edges coinciding them, and the view is obtained by drawing all the sides and edges along and parallel to these three axcs. In Fig. 1.2(b)is shown the isometric view of a rectangular box drawn using the above method. 1.5.2 Orthographic Projections [Link] orthographic system of projection, « number of views are arranged in a particular way to represent the exact shape of the object. Three planes namely the vertical plane, the horizontal plane and the side vertical plane, as shown in Fig. 1.3 (a), are assumed at right angles, to one another. ‘The object is placed in front of the two vertical planes and above the horizontal plane. The projections of the object on the three planes are taken. The projection on the Vertical Plane is called Elevation, and the projection on the Horizontal Plane is called Plan. and that on the Side Vertical Planeis called Side View or Side Elevation, If the horizontal plane, vertical plane, and the side vertical plane are so as to form one plane as shown in Fig. 1.3 (b) the projections are obtained as if they are drawn on a plain sheet of paper. This method of projection is known as first angle method proiection,10 Electrical Engineering Drawing WORIZOE TAL Fig. 1.2 (a) Representation of axes in isometric projection; (b) Isometic projection of a rectangular box (a) First angle projection: Inthis method of projection, the objectis assumed to be placed in between the observer and the planes of projection. The view seen from the fronts shown on the plane at the back of the object and is called as front view or elevation, Similarly, the plan or op view is secn when looking from the top and is shown on the plane at the bottom of the object. In the case Of side view, the view obtained by looking from the left is placed on the right ‘side vertical plane or vice-versa. (b) Third angle projection: Inthe third angle method of projection, he object is assumed to be placed behind the planes of projection, and the planes are assumed to be transparent, as illustrated in Fig. 1.4(a). The front view or clevation is obiained on the vertical plane atthe front of the object, the top view or plan, as seen from the top is obtained on the horizontal plane at the top of the object. Side view of the object looking from the left is placed on the left side vertical plane. If these planes are turned out into ane plane, the projectionsDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical terns " VERTICAL PLANE VERTICAL ELEVATION vom siDe VIEW WORIZONTAL PLANE ta) VERTICAL PLANE Z SIDE VERTICAL PLANE ELEVATION Sipe VIEW HORIZONTAL PLANE Y Fig. 13 (a) Pictorial view: (b) Onhographic (first angle) projection of an object ccan be scen as if drawn in a plain sheet of paper as shown in Fig. 1.4 (b). The side view of the object as seen from the right can be obtained and placed on the right side vertical plane as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) and (b). ‘This method of projection appears to be a more logical representation because the plan or top view as seen from the top is obtained on the horizontal plane at the top of the object. Also in the case of side view, looking from the rightis placed on theright side vertical plane, or vice versa. This will notcreate confusion, as in the first angle method of projection, where the view looking from the left is placed on the right side vertical plane. The Burean of Indian ‘Standards has recommended the adoption of this system of projection as a12 ELEVATION 2 VERTICAL PLANE @ y__ HORIZONTAL PLANE, ‘SIDE_VERTICAL——Z VERTICAL PLANE PLANE ow Fig. 14 (a) Pictorial view: (b) Orthographic (third angle) projection of the object standard practice. In this book, the third angle method of projection has been followed widely. We have considered the two types of projections of an object, ic., isometric and orthorgraphic. The student shouldbe able to recognisethe differentsurfaces of the isometric view of an object from the given orthographic projections. To ‘obtain the isometric view from the orthographic projections. the student should draw the three axes first. Then by taking and marking out on the axes, the different dimensions of the object from the given orthographic projections the isometric projection can be drawn, A few examples of orthographic and isometric projections are given as und .Drawing of Simple Eiectrical and Mechanical ltems 13 Tiavation Varticat Plone © c Horizental_ Plone. Fig. 1.5 Another representation ofthe three projections of the object: (a) Pictorial view: (b) Onthographic (thied angle) projection ofthe object, Example 1. Drawaccording to thirdangle projection method the orthographic projections (plan, clevation and side view) from the isometric view of the given “object as shown in Fi Solution. ‘The orthographic projection ie., plan, elevation, and side view have been drawn as in Fig. 1.7 following the third angle projection method, Example 2. An isometric view of an object is shown in Fig. 1.8. Draw the following views: (1) Plan (2) Elevation and (3) Side view. Solution, The plan, elevation and side view of the object are shown in Fig. 1.9.“ Electrical Engineering Drawing fs sce view eevarion Fig. 1.7 Orthographic projections of the object (of example 1) Example 3. Draw the isom 1.10 shows the plan, elevation and side view of an object. iew of the given object. Solution. ‘The isometric view of the object is shown in Fig. 1.11.Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 15 A >16 Electrical Engineering Orawing PLAN i ws iL -}— 6s —_+ 30} 100 bens sie view tierow Fig. 1.10 Orthographic projections of an object, Fig. 1.11 Isometric view of the object Example 4. Draw the isometric view of the object ftom the orthographic projections given in Fig. 1.12. Solution. The isometric view of the object is as shown in Fig. 1.13Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 7 se ———+ TT “0 ELEVATION Fig. 1.12 Orthographic projections of an object -_— a Fig. 1.13 Isometric view of the object, 1.6 SECTIONAL VIEWS Ineengineering drawing, the interior invisible details of objects to be drawn are shown by dotted lines. In case of complicated objects, views are drawn ‘in section’. This makes the drawing more clear with its interior details. In making sectional drawings, object is imagined to be cut by a plane in a particular position and direction and the part of the object is assumed to be removed. The Projected view of the remaining portion of the object iscalled its sectional view.18 Electrical Engineering Drawing See Fig. 1.14, The object is assumed to be cut by a cutting plane AB half way through with the front portion of the object removed Fig. 1.15 shows the plan and the full sectional elevation of an object. Note that the cutting plane AB is shown in the plan as line AB, and the Sectional ce) Fig. 1.14 (a) Representation of a cutting plane (AB); (b) Isometric view of the sec tioned object PLAN Y LA FULL SECTIONAL ELEVATION “SECTION ON ABTDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical items 19 clevation is labelled ‘section on AB’. The exposedout surface is indicated in the drawing by uniformly spaced hatched lines at 45°. ‘The sectional views can be in full section, half section,"br offset section dependingon the position and direction of the cutting plane. Fig, 1.16illustrates 1 half-sectional view and Fig. 1.17 illustrates an offset-sectional view of an object. Co SIDE VIEW ELEVATION Fig. 1.16 Half-sectional view of an object Fig. 1.17 Offset-sectional view of an object 1.7 ASSEMBLY AND DETAILED WORKING DRAWINGS Detail and assembly drawings are very essential in engineering practice. Detail drawings show the different parts of an item or machine giving the complete information about the structure. Assembly drawing shows the complete vicw of an object with all its parts assembled together, Detail drawing is necessary for the production of each part of the object in the workshop, and assembly drawing is necessary for fitting or assembling the different parts of the item or20 Elecrrical Engineering Drawing machine together. Fig. 1.18 shows assembled view of a pole core and coil. Fig. 1.19 shows the detail drawing of the pole core and coil separately. Fig. 1.18 Assembled view of a pole core and coil Sm ip Fig. 1.19 Detail drawing of the pole core and coil 1.8 DRAWING OF SIMPLE ELECTRICAL ITEMS In Fig. 1.20 is shown the method of writing the value of a resistor with the help of some colour code. Different colour bands are painted around the surface of the resistor, each colour representing some value. The first three bands represent the value of the resistor. (The first two bands indicate the first two digits in the resistance value whereas the third band indicates the number of zeros that must follows the first two digits). The fourth band represents the tolerance in percentage. In Fig. 1.20 an example of a 6.8kiloohm resistor has been given. The students are advised to draw a resistor of value 270 kilo ohm + 5 percentage tolerance 1.8.1 Types of Cable Joints Joints of cables can be made in different ways such as married joints, tee joints etc. Figs. 1.21 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show different types of cable joints. “The procedure for each type of jointing is as follows: (a) Married joint 1. Use 3/0.914 PVC single core cable 2. Strip off 8 cm insulation from each cableDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 24 2nd BAND 3rd BAND COLOUR BAND NOS et Ban Zth BAND rs z aia [=o | = erown [11] —o eo _|2 [2 | oo Rance | 3 [3 | 000 rewow |< [« | 0000. creen | 5 | s | 90000 awe [6 [-s | o0000 wouer 712 crey [ele EXAMPLE — COLOUR VALUE write | 9 | 9 15¢ BAND BLUE 6 sab 2MdGAND GREY 8 jrégano ED * suver | || ithpano Gown RESISTANCE + 6800A : 5% setae 3% Fig. 1.20 Resistor colour code —s=S— SoweER MARRIED JOINT TEE JOINT ON STRANDED CABLE te . INSULATION o >i Lo SoupeR a STRAIGHT TWIST JOINT TEE TWIST JOINT Fig. 1.21 ‘Types of cable joints: (a) Martied joint: (b) Tee joint, (c) straight twist joint; (4) Tee twist joint 3. ‘Twist strands of each cable firmly in direction of lay for 3 cm 4, Leave Sem splayed out 5. Bring strands together, cach strand lying between two strands of op- posite cable 6. Hold strands of right hand cable along left hand cable.22 Electrical Engineering Drawing 7. Wrap three strands of left hand cable round right hand cable half a turn ata time tightly and close together 8. Wrepother side in opposite direction 9. Tighten with pliers and solder the joint. 7) Tee joint on. stranded cable Use 710.737 PVC single core cable Strip off 8 cm insulation from through wire. Do not cut cable Strip 8 em of tee wire ‘Twist tee wire for 3 cm in direction of lay Secure with two or three turns of 1/0.737 binding wire Divide tee wire strands, three on one side of through wire and four on other side 7. Wrap three strands tightly round through wire to the right, 8. Wrap four strands in opposite direction to the left 9. Tighten with pliers and solder the joint. (6) Straight twist joint 1, Remove insulation, clean and tin the ends for 8 cm 2, Lay wires together 5 cm from ends 3. Twist tightly round each other in opposite directions, each turn of wire fitting closely to the next 4. Solder the joint. (d) Tee pwist joint 1, Bare ‘through wire’ for 5 cm (this wire is not cut) 2, Bare ‘tee wire’ for Scm 3. Tightly bind round through wire from left to right, 4, Solder the joint leaving first two or three turns free to allow flexibility. 1.8.2 Bus-bar Post Bus-bars are thick copper. strips from where connections of electrical sub circuits are taken. Bus-bars ate fitted in bus-bar chambers. They should be insulated from the body of the bus-bar chamber. Ceramic bus-bar posts are used for this purpose. Each bus-bar is supported by two insulated bus-bar posts at the two ends, Fig. 1.22 shows the three views of a bus-par post at the two ends. Fig, 1.22 shows the three views of a bus-bar post. The students may draw the bus-bar post in isometric view, Any dimension nor gtven in the figure may be assumed proportionately. 1.83 Kit Kat Fuse Assembly (a) One part of a kit kat fuse assembly in isometric view: Fig. 1.23 shows an isometric view of one part of a kit ket fuse assembly. The students may draw the three views ie, the plan, elevation and side view from the isometric view. (6) Three views of the male part of a kit kat fuse assembly. Fig. 1.24showsthe three views of one part of a kit kat fuse assembly. Draw its isometric view. veepDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 23 eet at SS a ES zt 72 ——+| exe varion ioe vaw Fig. 1.22 Three views of a ceramic bus-bar post Fig. 1.23 One part of a kit-kat fuse assembly shown in isometric view 1.8.4 Single Pole Single Throw Knife Switch Knife switches are available in single pole, double pole and triple pole type. These switches can be of single throw type or double throw type.Electrical Engineering Drawing Euevaron, 0 view Fig. 1.24 Three views of one part of « kit kat fuse assembly A single pole single throw knifc switch is shown in isometric view in Fig. 1.25. Students may redraw the knife switch on a proportionate scale. 6 Fig. 1.25 Isometric view of a SPST knife switch 1.85 Carbon Brush Holder A brush is mounted in such a way that it is pressed on to the commutator for delivering or receiving current, Brush holder carries the brush such that iDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical tems 28 held firmly without vibration, To provide a continuous electrical circuit, the brush should evenly press over the whole contact area, with correct pressure. A flexible copper connector wire is attached to the brush through Which the supply is taken out to the terminals. Usually brushes are made of hard carbon. Graphite brushes are used in case of collecting high currents. In ease of very high current densities, brushes are made from a mixture of copper and graphite. Innumerable patterns of brush holders are there, out of which two are discussed as follows: Figs, 1.26 (a) and (b) show two types of box type carbon holders. The brush slidesina box, open at top bottom. The brush is pressed against the commutator surface by means of a pressure arm and an adjustable spring. Sce Fig. 1.26 (2). se ae BE concn a Fig. 1.26 (a) Box type carbon brush holder In the other type of brush holder, the pressure om the brush is produced by using a clock spring, adjusted by a lever as shown in Fig. 1.26 (6). feet fox ete Fig, 1.26 (b) Another type of box type carbon brush holder 18.6 Iron Clad Switch ‘Switch fuse unit, mounted in acast-iton enclosure, is called an iron-clad switch, Iron-clad double-pole (ICDP) switches are used for controlling single-phase26 Electrical Engineering Drawing two wire circutts, iron-clad triple-pole (ICTP) switches for three phase three wire circuits and iron-clad triple-pole with neutral link (ICTPN) switches for three phase four wire circuits. All these threc types of iron clad switches are shown in Figs. 1.27 (a), (b) and (c). Fig. 1.27 (a) ICDP Switch; (b) ICTP Switch; (c) ICTPN Switch 1.8.7 Cable Lugs or Thimbles To make connections with acable, a suitable form of cable lug or thimble is to be fitted at the end of thecable. It is also called as cable socket. Fig. 1.28 shows various forms of cable sockets suitable for single core cables. Usually a cable lug consists of two parts viz., the tail part where the cable end is fixed and gripped in tightly and the head part which is bolted on to the terminal face. Fig. 1.28 (a) and (b) show cable lugs in which the cable end is gripped in by bolts and nuts. In some other types, the cable inlet of the lug is, crimped with the cable end in, gripped in by bolts and nuts. In some other types, the cable inlet of the lug is crimped with the cable end in, to keep it in position. ‘There are also cable lugs in which the cable end and the socket tail part is soldered together to keep the cable tightly in position.Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items Fig. 128 (contin28 Electrical Engineering Drawing bore a Fig. 1.28 Various types of cable sockets ‘The head part of the cable socket is flattened with a hole in it for connecting itto the terminal face with bolts and nuts. 1.9 DRAWING OF SIMPLE MECHANICAL ITEMS. Different drawings of simple mechanical items like shafts and keys, couplings. bearings, joints etc. are discussed in this section. 1.9.1 Shafts and Keys [Link] Shafis: A shaftis.a rotating bar in any rotating machine which trans- mits power. Shafts are made of either mild steel or high-carbon steel. Shafts are usually round and may be either solid or hollow. The diameter of the shaft varies from point to point along its length. The diameter at the middle is greater than the diameter at the ends. Strength and stiffness of a shaftis a very important criterion for determining the diameter of the shaft. Different machine parts such as armature, commutator spider, pulley etc. are keyed tothe shaft. A motor shaft is shown in Fig. 1.29 in which the position of the armature, commutator etc. are indicated. Two key ways are also shown, one for armature and the other for pulley. [Link] Keys: Machine parts like pulleys, wheels, gears etc. are mounted on arotating shaft. In order to prevent relative rotation between the shaft and these parts, keys are inserted in between. Grooves are cut on the surface of the shaft and on the bore of the part to be mounted, and are called key ways. The key ‘ways on the shaft and the mounting should be kept in line and the key inserted 0 that a firm joint is obtained.Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical items 29 oe | 56 FOREND OF SET SCREWS, # ane ND © “LAMINATIONS OF settis BARLEY wertnns TormaTaTOR” “ENS” mE mir Fig. 129 A shaftof a de motor Fig. 1.30 shows the isometric view of a key andits key way cut on a shaft. ‘The end view of a pulley mounted on a shaft is also shown tn the figure. Fig. 1.30 (a) An isometric view of a key and its keyway cut on a shaft; (b) The end view of a pulley mounted on a shaft ‘The keys can be classified into two types: (1) Saddle keys and (2) Sunk keys. (1) Saddle keys: Saddle keys are sunk into the key way on the hub of the ‘mounting, There is no key way provided on the shaft. There are two types of saddle keys: (a) hallow and (b) flat. In the hollow saddle key, the hollow surface, which rests on the shaft, has the same curvature so as to butt against the circular shaft. The flat saddle key is simply a rectangular wedge. to match with the flat surface on the shaft. Fig. 1.31 gives the illustration of the different saddle keys. ‘These types of keys are used for low power transmission. (2) Sunk keys: Sunk keys are fitted into the key ways grooved half-way inthe shaft and the remaining half in the hub. These areclassified into: (a)Rectangular sunk key, (b) Square sunk key, (c) Woodruff key and (d) Feather key. A rectangular sunk key and a square sunk key are shown in Fig, 1.32. These keys have taper 1 in 100.30 Electrical Engineering Drawing a D (a) HoLLow SADDLE KEY. (®) Far SADDLE KEY Fig. 1.31 Different saddle keys (a) (0) Fig. 1.32 (a) Rectangular sunk key (b) Square sunk key Woodruff key is a segment of a circular plate. The keyways in the hub and the shaft are cut accordingly as shown in Fig. 1.33. The key is first placed in in the shaft and the hub is slided over it. This type of key is used to fit pulleys etc. on a tapered shaft. Fig. 1.33 Woodruff key Feather keys are also known as parallel keys. Such keys are used when the mounting is required to slide along the shafi, ie., when axial movement, in addition to usual rotary motion is required. Different types of feather keys ar illustrated in Fig. 1.34. 2 Couplings To increase the length of a shaft, two shafts are connected together by means of couplings. Flanges or muffs, different types of keys, bolts and nuts, pins and colters etc. are made use of to fabricate the different types of couplings. Shaft 1Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical items 31 (2) SINGLE weaved (») CoUBLE HEADED (e)Pta FEATHER Fig 1.34 Different types of feather keys couplings are mainly used to couple the shafts of two machines (e.g., and induction motor with ad.c. generator) to nan together at the same speed. ‘Shaft couplings can be classified mainly into wo broad categories: (1) Rigid couplings and (2) Non-rigid or flexible couplings. [Link] Rigid couplings: If the shafts to be connected are rigid and in axial alignment, rigid couplings are used. The most common forms of rigid couplings are: (1) Muff couplings and (ii) Flange couplings. (i) Muff coupling: Its the simplest form of coupling and is mainly used for connecting small size shafis. A cast iron cylindrical muff or box slides on the two ends of the shafts which butt (kept close together but ‘not overlapping) against cach other. A [Link] head key is driven through both the shafts and the muff. This is shown in Fig. 1.35. _ LLL CLL, 0st Maar Fig. 1.35 Muff coupling In half-lap muff coupling the ends of the two shafts overlap each other as shown in Fig. 1.36. The lap being tapered does not separate out if the shaft is in tension,32 Electrical Engineering Drawing wid Fig. 1.36 Half-tap muff coupling. ‘Split muff coupling consists of a muff splitted up into two semi cylindri- cal halves. These two halves are held together by means of bolts and nuts in the recesses provided in the muff. See Fig. 1.37. To keep the two shafts together, a feather key is driven through the shafts and the muff. Fig. 1.37 Split muff coupling Flangecoupling: Itisa rigid and relatively permanent type of coupling. It consists of two cast iron flanges, exactly similar to each other. The flanges are keyed tightly to the ends of the shafts with the help of rectangular sunk taper keys. The keys are inserted from the inside faces of the flanges and at 90° to each other. This is to prevent the two shafts becoming weak due to the keyways cut atthe same longitudinal section. “The faces ofthe flanges are tightly joined and fastened togetherby means Of tight fitting bolts. The diameter and number of the bolts depend upon the size of the shaft for which the flange is designed. The two shafis{0 becoupled mustbe incorrectalignment. Toensure this, when the fldnges are bolted together acircular projection on the face of one flange is made to fit into a corresponding recess on the face of the other flange. Fig. 1.38 shows the half sectional elevation and end view of a simple flange coupling. A modified type of flange coupling isthe projected type flange coupling. Sec Fig. 1.39. In thistype of coupling. a portion of the flange is projectedDrawing of Simple Electrical and Machanical lems 33 Fig. 1.38 Ordinary flange coupling Fig. 1.39 Flange coupling - Projected type out to cover bolt heads and nuts. This is toavoid workmen's clothes and other materials coming in contact with them and thereby cause accidents. ‘Compression coupling is another type of rigid coupling. It does not employ a key, but a sleeve which is radially flexible and grips firmly both the shafts. [Link] Flexible couplings: Ifthe two shafts are slightly out of line or if there is any chance of their geiting slightly deflected under load conditions, flexible couplings arc employed, This type of coupling is used to couple clectric motor with certain types of machines. The most common type of flexible coupling is the pintype flexible coupling which is illustrated in Fig. 1.40. It consists of two flanges bolted together by means of bolts and nuts. Compressible or flexible elements such as rubber, leather etc. are used round the bolts, while joining the4 Electrical Engineering Drawing Fig. 1.40 Flexible coupling ‘This type of coupling is used as direct coupling device, i.e., when an electric motor is directly coupled to. machine. As the motor starts to drive the machine, the starting torque of the motor is often several times the normal fullload torque. ‘The sudden shock due to the heavy starting torque may fracture the bolts of a rigid coupling. To prevent this, a flexible coupling is used, in which the leather ‘or rubber washers act as shock absorbers. Thus, it will minimize the shocks and vibrations occurring due to power trans ‘There are some other types of flexible couplings such as (a) Universal coupling,(b) Oldham’ s coupling ctc. Universal coupling is used for connecting two shafts whose axes are not in line but inclined to a certain angle. Oldham's coupling is used to couple two shafts whose axes are parallel but not in one line. 1.9.3 Bearings Bearings are used to support rotating shafts. They enable free and smooth rotation of shafts. They are required to bear all the loads applied on the shafts. As the shafts arc rotating, there is constant frictional resistance and rubbing between the contact surfaces, To reduce wear and tear due (0 friction, the bearings are lubricated. Bearings are of different types. They are: (i) Journal bearings (a) Solid bearing (b) Bush bearing () Pedestal bearing or Plummer block Gi) Thrust bearingsDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 35 (iii) Ball and roller bearings [Link] Journal bearings: ‘These bearings support the normal loads ic., bear- ing load acting perpendicular to the shaftaxis. In these the journal rotates inside a stationary member. The common types of journal bearings are: (a) Solid bearing, (b) Bush bearing, (c) Pedestal bearing or Plummer block. (a) Solid bearing. The simplest form of bearing is the solid bearing. It is simply acast iron block with a central hole to receive the journal, Journal is the part of the shaft which rotates inside the bearing. The inside dimension of the hole is so chosen that the shaft round fits inside. Fig. 1.41 shows the isometric view of a solid bearing. An oil holeis provided at the top to introduce the lubricant into the bearing. The disadvantage of such a bearing is that. due to constant friction and rubbing. the inner surface of the bearing gets worn out, and the whole set is to be discarded. Fig. 1.41 An isometric view of a solid bearing (b) Bush bearing: This bearing is an improved form of a solid bearing. A bush made up of brass, gunmetal, manganese or any soft metal is introduced between the shafi and the hole. When bush gets worn out, it can be replaced. It may be locked with the body of the bearing using a set screw, to prevent relative rotation of the bush in the block, An isometric sectioned view of a bush bearing is shown in Fig. 1.42. (©) Pedestal bearing: Wis also known as plummer block. This is used when Jong shafts rotating at high speeds is to be supported. The upper semi circular position is made separately which is known as cap. The lower position or the body of this bearing is the pedestal. The bush or brasses are also made of two pieces. The snug prevents them from rotating with the shaft. The cap and the pedestal are held together by means of bolts. Fig. 1.43 shows the sectioned isometric view and the half-scctional elevation of a pedestal bearing. The students may redraw half sectional elevation and also draw the half sectional end view and plan.Fig. 1.43 Pedestal bearing or Plummer block [Link] Thrust bearings: These bearings support the axial loads, ie., bearing loads zcting along the shaftaxis. Pivot or foct-step bearings and the collar thrust bearings are the two types of thrust bearings. Pivot or foot-step bearing is used only for vertical shafts. In this type of bearing, the bottom end of the shaft rests ona steel disc placed at the base withDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 37 the bush as shown in Fig. 1.44. This dis prevented from rotating alongwith the shaft by means of pins. This typeof bearing takes care of the axial load on the shaft. Full Seeticnol slevation Fig. 144 Pivot or foot step bearing Collar thrust bearing is used on horizontal shafts to support axial loads. Collars are made on the shaft and these collars rotate in the grooves of the bearing, thus taking the axial load on the shaft. See Fig. 1.45. COLLARS -LINNG38 Electrical Engineering Drawing [Link] Ball or Roller bearings: ‘These bearings support shafts with high speeds and heavy loads. They oggupy very little axial space. In ball bearings, small metal balls are fixed between the shaft and bearing as rolling clements, whereas in roller bearings, they are rollers. A ball or roller bearing consist of four main parts as shown in Fig. 1.46 (a) inner race, (b) outer race, (¢) balls or rollers, (d) cage. The balls or rollers run in the grooves of the races. Cage is used to keep the balls separate in position. Pictorial views of a ball bearing and a roller bearing are shown in Fig. 1.47. FOUR Fig. 1.47 (a) Ball bearing (b) Roller bearing 1.9.4 Wall Brackets Bearings for shafts which run close and parallel to the wall can be mounted on brackets. The brackets are generally of two types viz. wall brackets and pillar brackets. Fig. 1.48 shows a wall bracket. Pedestal bearings may be cast with the bracket or bolted toit. Pillar brackets are used to supporta shaft from apillar where there is no wall nearby. 1.9.5 Joints Many a times different structures, vessels. machines etc, arc built up of a number of picces rigidly jointed together by means of joints. Rods, shafts, pipes,Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 39 Fig. 1.48 Wall bracket angles, channels, metal sheets, plates etc. are to be jointed in such cases. In this section, we shall discuss the different types of joints used for such purpose. [Link] Cotter and Pin Joints: Such jointsare usedto fastentogethertworods which are subjected to axial forces. A joint employing a ‘cotter’ is known as a cotter joint and a joint employing ‘a pin’ is known as a pin joint. (a) Cotter joint: Two types of coiter joints are discussed below: (Gib and coner joint: This type of joint is used for jointing two square orrectangular rods. The end of one rod is formed into a U-formin which the end of the other rod fits in. Sots are cut in both the pieces. Gib i first kept in position and the cotter is driven in later. Fig. 1.49 shows the half sectional elevation of a gib and cotter joint. The students may draw the plan and side view. (ii) Socket and spigot cower joint: ‘This type of joint is used to connect two circular rods. As shown in Fig. 1.50 the end of one rod is enlarged and formed into a socket into which the spigot end of the other rod fits in. ‘Slots are cut in these ends, and cotter is driven tightly through the slots. (b) Pin joint: Two types of pin joints are Knuckle joint and Hookes’ (universal joint). Knuckle joint is discussed here in detail. (Knuckle joint: In places where relative oscillation of the jointed rods is to be allowed knuckle joints are used. The end of one rod is made into fork, with circular holes on both limbs of the fork. The end of the other int40 Electrical Engineering Drawing Wy Fig. 1.0 Socket and spigot cotter joint rod is forged to an eye. The eye and is placed in the fork-end and a is passcd through the holes and held in position by acollar and taper pin. Fig. 1.51 (a) shows the isometric view of the parts of a knuckle joint, The students may redraw the orthographic projections shown in 1.51 (b). [Link] Pipe joints: Pipes are often used for carrying water. gas. oil, steam etc. Pipes are manufactured in pieces and are connected together to form any length of piping system. The commonly used types of pipe joints are: (2) Flanged pipe join: Flanges are cast separately and welded or screwed at the ends of pipes. They can also be cast integral with the pipes. Atthe centre of one flange is made a small spigot. which fits into the cor responding recess in the other flange. The flanges are then bolted togetherto forma tight junction. A thin packing of suitable soft material is placed between the flanges to prevent leakage.Drawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items a “ei Fig. 1.51 (a) Isometric view of the parts of a knuckle joint; (b) Orthographic projec- tions of a knuckle joint Fig. 1.52 shows the isometric view (upper half in section) of a flanged Pipe joint. The students may draw its half sectional elevation and side view. Fig. 1.82 Isometric view (upperhalf in section) of a flanged pipe joint42 (b) © Electrical Engineering Drawing Spigot and socket pipe joint: Such joints are used for connecting under- ground pipe lines of large diameters. The spigot end of one pipe fits into the socket end of the other pipe. The space in between is filled in by yarn, jute, or coir, and the rest is closed by molten lead. Fig. 1.53 shows such a ioint SsPIGoT ENT i) Fig. 1.53 Spigot and socket pipe joint Union joint: Union pipe joints can be used where the making and breaking of the joint is frequenily required. This joint is generally used for small size coppertubes. Half sectional clevation of aunion pipe joint is shown in Fig. 1.54. The pipes to be jointed are threaded on the outer surface at the ends, Nut A having a step on its end is screwed on one pipe. Nut B having threads on both inet and outer surfaces is threaded Fig. 1.54 Union pipe jointDrawing of Simple Electrical and Mechanical Items 43 on to the second pipe. Nut C screws on to nut B and draws together the two nuts ie., nut A and B along with the pipes. A thin ring of packing is inserted between the pipes. (4) Expansion joint: Pipes carrying fluid or gases at high temperatures undergo expansion and contraction, Expansion joints are used in such pipelines. Fig. 1.55 shows an expansion joint employing a stuffing box and a gland. Pipe B is free to move inside the stuffing box A. The gland Gis fastened to the stuffing box using nuts and bolts. Asbestos packing P prevents any leakage of hot gases. Pipes arc not rigidly clamped and therefore allows expansion of the pipes in the joint. “Your 7 Stay BoLrs 0 STEEL STUDS Ar 162 eB. ao 226 HOLES, Fig. 155 Expansion joint [Link]. Riveted joints: Rivets are very commonly used in connecting two or more metal plates or shects. A rivet consists of head, shank and tail as shown in Fig. 1.56. A number of holes are made on the plates to be jointed through SHANK (Pp “ (a Fig. 1.56 An isometric view ofa rivet The tail end of the rivets are made into heads to hold the plates firmly. is known as riveting. The two main types of riveted joints are (a) Lap joints and (>) Butt joints.44 Electrical Engineering Drawing (a) Lap joints: If the ends of the plates are made to overlap cach other. and riveted together, then it is called a riveted lap joint. The different types of lap joints are shown in Fig. 1.57. If a single row of rivets hold the plates, the joint is called single-riveted, and if two rows of rivets are used, then the joins called double riveted. In double riveted joints, the rows may be arranged either in a chain fashion as shown in Fig. 1.57 (b) or in a zig-zag fashion as shown in Fig. 1.57 (c). The sectional elevation and plan of these joints show clearly, how the plates overlap and riveting is done. D> DIK. oF RIVET 2 THCKNESS OF PLATES pa rncH Fig. 1.57 Different of lap joint: (a) Single riveted lap joint; (b) Double riveted chain lap joint; (c) Double riveted zig-zag lap joint (b) Butt joints: If the ends of the plates meet face to face and are riveted with a cover plate either on one side or on both sides, then itis called a butt joint. With a single cover plate the joint is single-strap and with two cover plates onc on top and the other on bottom the joint formed is double-strap type. Fig, 1.58 shows the different types of butt joints. THCKNESS OF STRAP o o Fig. 1.58 Different types of butt joints: (a) Single riveted, single strap, butt joint; () Single riveted, double strap butt joint; (c) Double riveted, double strap zig-zag butt2 Drawing of Electrical Instruments 2.1 DRAWING OF COMMON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS Instruments which are commonly used for measuring electrical quantities are G) Ammeter, (ii) Voltmeter, (ii) Wattmeter, (iv) Energymeter, (v) Frequency meter, (vi) Power factor meter (vii) Phase sequence indicator, (viii) Synchro- scope and (ix) Ohm-meters ete. ‘Ammieters and Volimeters are the most commonly used instruments. Am- meters are used for the measurement of current and volumeters are used for the measurement of voltage or potential Electrical instruments are generally of four types: (i) Moving iron type (ii) Moving coil type (iii), Dynamometer type (iv) Induction type. 2.1.1 Moving Iron Type Ammeter and Voltmeter Moving iron type instruments arenon-directional and can be used for measur- ing both A.C. and D.C. values of current and voltage. Constructional details of a repulsion type moving iron type meter is shown in Fig. 2.1 ‘A moving iron type instrument of a cylindrical coil or a solenoid made of a number of turns of insulated copper wire. The size of the wire used and the number of tums will depend upon whether the instrument is to be used as a voltmeter or as an ammeter. When itis to be used as a voltmeter, the coil will have large number of tums of thin copper wire. When the instrument is designed tobe used as an ammeter, it will have less number of turns of thick copper wire capable of taking the rated current. ‘There aretwo concentric iron vanes. One fixed and the other movable placed as shown inside the coil. The fixed vane has a special tapered shape. The46 Electrical Engineering Drawing Fig.2.1 Repulsion type moving iron meter movable vane has rectangular shape. The design allows the scale to be more uniform ie., less cramped. The controlling torque is exerted by a spiral spring of phosphor bronze connected to the shaft of the movable vanc. A pointer is also attached to the same shaft. It moves on a calibrated scale. The scaleis non-uniform, cramped towardsedges and widenedaat the middle. 2.1.2 Moving Coil Type Ammeter and Voltmeter ‘A permanent magnet moving coil type instrument may be used as an ammeter ora voltmeter, These instruments are directional and are used for D.C. meas- urement only. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument consists of ‘manent magnet fitted with two mild steel pole pi divides the gap into two air gaps of uniform width in order to achieve uniform radial distribution of field, The moving coil isa light rectangular coil of very thin insulated copper wire. wound on an aluminium former. The ends of the coil are connected to two phosphor bronze hair springs. Only one spring has been shown in Fig. 2.2. Current enters and comes out of the moving coil through the springs. They also exert controlling torque on the moving coil. A pointer is attached to the spindle near the top spring. This pointer moves ona uniform scale. When the instrument is to be used as a voltmeter, external multiplicr resistances are to be connected in series. When it is to be used as an ammeter, shunts are to be connected externally. Fig. 2.2 shows a permanent magnet moving coil instrument.Drawing of Electrical Instruments a7 KES SPIRAL SPRING SCALE con, PERMANENT CYLINDRICAL, MAGNET RON CORE Fig. 2.2 Permanent magnet moving coil meter 2.1.3. Dynamometer Type Instruments Dynamometer type instruments are also of moving coil type but having no permanent magnet. The magnetic field is produced by two fixed coils (see Fig. 23). Fig. 2.3 Dynamometer type instrument ‘The two fixed coils are positioned co-axially and connected in series. In between the space of these coils, there are two movable coils positioned coaxially on different planes. They arc also connected in series. ‘Two phosphor bronze spiral springs are attached to the shaft, one on top and the other at the bottom. When used as an ammeter, the fixed and moving coils are connected in parallel, whereas in voltmeter, they are in series with each other. Figs. 2.4 (a) and (b) show the circuit arrangement when the instrument is used as a voltmeter and as an ammeter. [Link] Dynamometer Type Watmeter: Wattmeters are used forthe measure- ment of electric power. The most commonly used type of wattmeter is of dynamometer tvne.48 Electrical Engineering Drawing vous @) AMPERES @) Fig. 24 Circuit arrangement of dynamometer type voltmeter and amuneter There are two sets of coils. A pair of fixed coils is made of a few turns of thick insulated copper wire. They are also known as currents coils. The voltage coil (or potential coil) which is free to move consists of large number of tums of thin insulated copper wire. Fig. 2.5 shows the arrangements of coils of a dynamometer type wattmeter. ‘The current coils are connected in series with the circuit. The voltage coil is connected in paralle! to the supply. The controlling torque is provided by spring. The damping is of air friction type. Fig. 2.6 shows the connection diagram of dynamometer type wattmeter. 2.1.4 Induction Type Instruments ‘These instruments work on the principle of electromagnetic induction, Torque is produced by the reaction between one flux whose magnitude depends uponDrawing of Electrical Instruments 49 SCALE supPLy Fig. 2.6 Cir fiagiam of a dynamometer type wattmeter the value of current oF voltage to be measured. The torque is proportional to square of current or voltage. Induction type instruments are necessarily A.C. instruments. They have @ full scale deflection of about 300°. Eddy current damping is used in these instruments. There are two types of induction instruments: (i) the Ferraris type, (ii) the Shaded Pole type. [Link] Ferraris Type Induction Instruments: These instruments work on in- duction motor principle. Fis. 2.7 shows two pairs of laminated poles woundFig. 2.7 Ferratis-type induction instrument with insulated copper wire. Both the pairs of poles are supplied from the same source. An inductance is connected in series with the coils of one pair of poles. ‘To the other pair, a high resistance is connected in series. This produces phase difference of about 90° in the currents flowing through the two pairs of pole windings. This produces a rotating magnetic ficld which causcs the drum to rotate. A controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring. The moving system is carried by a spindle moving freely in jewelled cups. Damping torque is produced in the aluminium disc attached to the spindle and moving in between the air gaps of two permanent magnets. [Link] Shaded Pole Type Induction Instruments: As shownin Fig.2.8, there is a thin aluminium disc mounted on a spindle which is supported by jeweled ‘cups. The spindle also carrics a pointer and a control spring attached to it. The edge of the disc moves in the air gap of a laminated electro-magnet which is energised by the current o voltage to be measured. Thin copper bands fixed around one half of each of the two poles provide pole shading. Due to pole shading, a time lag of about 40° to 50" is produced in the two fluxes. This phase displacement produces the deflecting torque. neaee Areca gm & - oe Fig. 2.8 Shaded pole type induction instrument