JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.

Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City

BSMT Department

SEAM 2A – TRIM, STABILITY AND STRESS 1

Prelim

Compiled by:

CM CARRLOS D. VICTORIANO III

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

COURSE CODE: Seam 2A

DESCRIPTIVE TITLE: Trim, Stability and Stress

COURSE CREDITS: Units: 5 Lecture: 5 Hrs. Laboratory: 0, Contact Hours/Week: 5 Hrs./Wk.

PREREQUISITE: Seam 1

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course covers the requirement of Table A-II/1 F3 C2 of the STCW ’78 as
amended
COURSE COMPETENCE: A-II/1 F3 C2 Maintain Seaworthiness of the ships

COURSE OUTCOME/S: CO1: Explain the operational procedure of streering control system and the
selection of the mode of steering suitable for prevailing weather, sea and
traffic condition and intended manuevers.
CO2: Perform asigned watchkeeping duties as part of the bridge team, in
different weather, sea and traffic condition, utilizing all bridge equipment in
ensuring the safety of navigation

COURSE OUTLINE:

PRELIM
Module 1
1. Forces and Moments
2. Centroids and Center of Gravity
3. Density and Specific Gravity
4. Laws of Floatation
5. Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement
6. Displacement

MIDTERM
Module 2
7.. Buoyancy
8. Fresh Water Allowance
9. Statical Stability
10. Initial Stability
11. Angle of Loll
12. Curves of Statical Stability

FINAL

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Module 3
13. Movement of Center of Gravity
14. List and Its Correction
15. Effect of Slack Tank
16. Trim and Draught Calculation using Trim Tables
17. Action to be taken in the event of Partial Loss Buoyancy
18. Stress Table and Stress calculating equipment

Reference/s: 1. Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at the Operational Level

2. CMO No. 67 series of 2017: Reviced PSG for BS Marine Transfortation and
BS Marine Engineering Program

Instructional Aides:

1. V1 [Link] What is force?

2. V2 [Link] Moments Summary
3. V3 [Link] Ship Stability_ Introduction of Center of Gravity (COG) of
Ship
4. V4 [Link] Center of Gravity of Some Regular Bodies
5. V5 [Link] Water Density
6. V6 [Link] Density and Relative Density
7. V7 [Link] Archimedes Principle – Class 9 tutorial
8. V8 [Link] How to Use a Hydrometer by Best Measure
9. V9 [Link] Ship Stability_COB of a box shaped vessel_KB& LCB
10. V10[Link] Load line on ships – Plimsoll line
11. V11[Link] Ship stability
12. V12[Link] Why do ships float? Buoyancy and floatation explained
13. V13[Link] Fresh Water Allowance (FWA) – What is it?
14. V14[Link] Ship stability
15. V15[Link] Chapter 1.5 – Initial stability
16. V16[Link] Angle of loll
17. V17[Link] Ships stability_Curve of Statical stability_GZ curve
18. V18[Link] Ship stability_ Introduction to Center of Gravity (COG)
of ship
19. V19[Link] Ship stability list formula
20. V20[Link] Free surface effect
21. V21[Link] How to use trimming table of the ship
22. V22[Link] Naval Arch 05 – Damage stability
23. V23[Link] Loadicator Basic Familiarization

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Course Requirements:
1. Course Work/module activities/Problem Solving
2. Prelim Exam
3. Midterm Exam
4. Final Exam

Grade Components

Summative Test – 60 %
Formative Test – 40%
100%
Prelim – 20%, Midterm- 30%, Tentative Final – 50% =Total 100%

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JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

For the Students

In the past twenty years, the world in maritime industry has continue to undergo radical
changes in marine cargo operations and vessel design; however, the regulation
pertaining to the carriage of movable bulk cargoes have remained constant because
they are working. Trans-pacific containerships have grown to beyond Panamax size due
to increased beams of 42 meters and crews reduced to just sixteen (16) crew onboard.
Aboard today’s vessel, technology and computers abound as ship’s gear, as well as
computers and cellphones personally owned by the ship’s officer and crew. It is not
unusual to see “mass storage devices”
Hung around the neck of a ship’s officer on a lanyard so they can access their data on
any of the ship’s computer that are at hand. With age of the internet, vessel planners
are not limited to working in dock shacks on the apron of the pier. It is not unusual to
have a ship working cargo at Seattle, Washington, that is being planned from Boise,
Idaho, or Houston or Singapore. And of course, to the lament of the ship’s officer and
crews, the time in port is growing shorter due to higher productive terminals, container
cranes, and commerce in general. What once were long and tedious calculation for
stability, trim, and hull stress prior to the age of the personal computer is now done in
minutes not hours if the input data is correct. However, the only way to verify if the
computer is actually doing its job is to return to a simpler time and just read the ships
drafts. No matter how much change the industry has undergone, the laws of physics
have not changed.

CM Carlos D. Victoriano III

Mobile No. 09287002012
Email: carlosvictoriano@[Link]

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Table of Contents

Module Number Title Page

PRELIM
Module 1 1. Forces and Moments 8 - 15
Module 1 2. Centroids and Center of Gravity 16 - 21
Module 1 3. Density and Specific Gravity 22 - 24
Module 1 4. Laws of Floatation 25 - 33
Module 1 5. Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement 34 - 37
Module 1 6. Displacement 38 – 46

MIDTERM
Module 2 7.. Buoyancy 6 - 15
Module 2 8. Fresh Water Allowance 16 - 19
Module 2 9. Statical Stability 20 - 27
Module 2 10. Initial Stability 28 - 31
Module 2 11. Angle of Loll 32 - 36
Module 2 12. Curves of Statical Stability 37 – 42

FINAL
Module 3 13. Movement of Center of Gravity 6 - 12
Module 3 14. List and Its Correction 13 - 15
Module 3 15. Effect of Slack Tan 16 - 21
Module 3 16. Trim and Draught Calculation using Trim Tables 22 - 25
Module 3 17. Action to be taken in the event of Partial Loss Buoyancy 26 - 29
Module 3 18. Stress Table and Stress calculating equipment 30 - 34

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

MODULE 1
Lesson 1 - Forces and Moments

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:
LO 1.1: Describe as any push or pull exerted on a body
LO 1.2: DESCRIBE AS THE FORCE EXERTED ON IT BY EARTH’S GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
LO 1.3: Describe is the product of weight and distance

Guide Questions

1. What is force?
2. What is component force?
3. What is resultant force?
4. What is the moment of forces?
5. What is the moment of mass?

What Is Forces and Moments?

The solution of many of the problems concerned with ship stability involves an understanding
of the resolution of forces and moments. For this reason, a brief examination of the basic
principles will be advisable.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Forces
A force can be defined as any push or pull exerted on a body. The S.I. unit of force is the
Newton, one Newton being the force required to produce in a mass of one kilogram an
acceleration of one meter per second. When considering a force, the following points regarding
the force must be known:
(a) The magnitude of the force.
(b) The direction in which the force is applied.
(c) The point at which the force is applied.

The resultant force. When two or more forces are acting at a point, their combined effect
can be represented by one force which will have the same effect as the component forces. Such
a force is referred to as the ‘resultant force’, and the process of finding it is called the
‘resolution of the component forces’

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

The resolution of forces. When resolving forces it will be appreciated that a force acting
towards a point will have the same effect as an equal force acting away from the point, so long
as both forces act in the same direction and in the same straight line. Thus a force of 10
Newtons (N) pushing to the right on a certain point can be substituted for a force of 10
Newtons (N) pulling to the right from the same point.

(a) Resolving two forces which act in the same straight line If both forces act in the same
straight line and in the same direction the resultant is their sum, but if the forces act in
opposite directions the resultant is the difference of the two forces and acts in the
direction of the larger of the two forces.

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JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

(b) Resolving two forces which do not act in the same straight line When the two forces do
not act in the same straight line, their resultant can be found by completing a
parallelogram of forces.

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JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

(c) Resolving two forces which act in parallel directions When two forces act in parallel
directions, their combined effect can be represented by one force whose magnitude is equal to
the algebraic sum of the two component forces, and which will act through a point about which
their moments are equal.
world all communicates information through technical writing with the sole purpose of
instruction and education.

Moments of Forces
The moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of the force about a point. The
turning effect will depend upon the following:
(a) The magnitude of the force.
(b) The length of the lever upon which the force acts, the lever being the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of the force and the point about which the moment is being
taken.
The magnitude of the moment is the product of the force and the length of the lever. Thus,
if the force is measured in Newtons and the length of the lever in meters, the moment found
will be expressed in Newton-meters (Nm).
Resultant moment. When two or more forces are acting about a point their combined effect
can be represented by one imaginary moment called the ‘Resultant Moment’. The process of
finding the resultant moment is referred to as the ‘Resolution of the Component Moments’
Resolution of moments. To calculate the resultant moment about a point, find the sum of
the moments to produce rotation in a clockwise direction about the point, and the sum of the
moments to produce rotation in an anticlockwise direction. Take the lesser of these two
moments from the greater and the difference will be the magnitude of the resultant. The
direction in which it acts will be that of the greater of the two component moments.

Mass
Mass In the S.I. system of units it is most important to distinguish between the mass of a
body and its weight. Mass is the fundamental measure of the quantity of matter in a body and
is expressed in terms of the kilogram and the tonne, whilst the weight of a body is the force

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

exerted on it by the Earth’s gravitational force and is measured in terms of the Newton (N) and
kilo-Newton (kN).
Weight and mass are connected by the formula:
Weight = Mass x Acceleration

Moments in Mass
If the force of gravity is considered constant then the weight of bodies is proportional to
their mass and the resultant moment of two or more weights about a point can be expressed in
terms of their mass moments.

Lesson 2 - Centroid and Center of Gravity

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 2.1: Describe and locate the center of gravity of plane figures; Square, Rectangle,
Circle, Triangle
LO. 2.2: Describe and locate the center of gravity of a homogenous solid object, liquid, gas,
LO 2.3: Describe movement of the center of gravity of a body when:
a. Removing Weight
b. Adding Weight
c. Shifting Weight with in a body
d. Suspending Weight Within a body
LO 2.4: Calculate the shift of the CG (GG₁) and the new CG Of a body

Guide Questions

1. What is the purpose of finding the center of gravity of a:

a. Square
b. Rectangle

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

c. Circle
d. Triangle
e. homogenous solid object
f. liquid
g. gas
2. What will happen top center of gravity of a body when:
a. Removing weight
b. Adding weight
c. Shifting weight within a body
d. Suspending weight within a body

What is the Center Gravity?

The center of gravity of the ship is that point, G through which all the vertically downward
forces of weight are considered to act together. If it were possible to suspend the entire vessel
from its center of gravity, it could be lifted in perfect balance, with no trim or list.
[Link] - introduction of center of gravity

The centroid of an area is situated at its geometrical center. In each of the following figures ‘G’
represents the centroid, and if each area was suspended from this point it would balance.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

The center of gravity of a body is the point at which all the mass of the body may be assumed
to be concentrated and is the point through which the force of gravity is considered to act
vertically downwards, with a force equal to the weight of the body. It is also the point about
which the body would balance.

[Link] - center of gravity

The center of gravity of a homogeneous body is at its geometrical center. Thus, the center of
gravity of a homogeneous rectangular block is half-way along its length, half-way across its
breadth and at half its depth. Let us now consider the effect on the center of gravity of a body
when the distribution of mass within the body is changed.

Effect of removing or discharging mass.

Consider a rectangular plank of homogeneous wood. Its centre of gravity will be at its
geometrical center: – i.e., half-way along its length, half-way across its breadth, and at half
depth. Let the mass of the plank be W kg and let it be supported by means of a wedge placed
under the centre of gravity. The plank will balance.

[Link] - change of center of gravity

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Now let a short length of the plank, of mass w kg, be cut from one end such that its centre of
gravity is d metres from the centre of gravity of the plank. The other end, now being of greater
mass, will tilt downwards. shows that by removing the short length of plank a resultant moment
of w x d kg m has been created in an anti-clockwise direction about G.

[Link] - shift of center of gravity

Now consider the new length of plank as shown in Figure 2.3(b). The centre of gravity will have
moved to the new half-length indicated by the distance G to G1 . The new mass, (W – w) kg,
now produces a tilting moment of (W - w) x GG1 kg m about G. Since these are simply two
different ways of showing the same effect, the moments must be the same, i.e

GG₁ = w x d / W - w meter

From this it may be concluded that when mass is removed from a body, the centre of gravity of
the body will move directly away from the centre of gravity of the mass removed, and the
distance it moves will be given by the formula:

GG₁ = w x d___
Final Mass

where GG1 is the shift of the centre of gravity of the body, w is the mass removed, and d is the
distance between the centre of gravity of the mass removed and the centre of gravity of the
body.

Application to ships
In each of the above figures, G represents the centre of gravity of the ship with a mass of w
tonnes on board at a distance of d metres from G. G to G1 represents the shift of the ship’s
centre of gravity due to discharging the mass.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Effect of adding or loading mass

Once again consider the plank of homogeneous wood shown in Figure 2.2. Now add a piece of
plank of mass w kg at a distance of d metres from G
The heavier end of the plank will again tilt downwards. By adding a mass of w kg at a distance
of d metres from G a tilting moment of w x d kg m about G has been created.
From the above it may be concluded that when mass is added to a body, the centre of gravity
of the body will move directly towards the centre of gravity of the mass added, and the
distance which it moves will be given by the formula:

GG₁ = w x d meters
Final Mass

[Link] large wt added

where GG1 is the shift of the centre of gravity of the body, w is the mass added, and d is the
distance between the centres of gravity.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Application to ships
In each of the above figures, G represents the position of the centre of gravity of the ship
before the mass of w tonnes has been loaded. After the mass has been loaded, G will move
directly towards the centre of gravity of the added mass (i.e. from G to G1 )

Effect of shifting weights

If G represents the original position of the centre of gravity of a ship with a weight of ‘w’ tonnes
in the starboard side of the lower hold having its centre of gravity in position g1 . If this weight
is now discharged the ship’s centre of gravity will move from G to G1 directly away from g1 .
When
the same weight is reloaded on deck with its centre of gravity at g2 the ship’s centre of gravity
will move from G1 to G2 .

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JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

LESSON 3 - Density and Specific Gravity

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 3.1: Define density as weight per unit volume
LO 3.2: State the unit of density kg/m3
LO 3.3: States that the density of:
FW = 1000 kg/mᶟ; = 1.000 tons/mᶟ
SW = 1025 kg/mᶟ; = 1.025 tons/mᶟ
LO 3.4: State that Relative Density or Specific Density of a liquid is the ratio of the density of a substance
to density of FW.
RD or SG = density of substance / density of FW.

Guide Questions

1. What is the density of FW/SW

2. What is the purpose of hydrometer
3. Explain what is density
4. What is the specific gravity
5. What is the different between volume and weight

Density and Specific Gravity

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Introduction

This section introduces the law governing floatation and will help in the understanding of why
ship floats It well form the basic level of understanding necessary to complete this learning
program.

Both density and specific gravity describe mass and may be used to compare different
substances. They are not, however, identical measures. Specific gravity is an expression of
density in relation to the density of a standard or reference (usually water). Also, density is
expressed in units (weight relative to size) while specific gravity is a pure number or
dimensionless.

What Is Density?

Density is a property of matter and can be defined as the ratio of mass to a unit volume of
matter. It's typically expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter, kilograms per cubic
meter, or pounds per cubic inch.

Density is expressed by the formula:

ρ = m/V where
ρ -is the density
m -is the mass
V -is the volume
Density is defined as ‘mass per unit volume’. For example, the mass density of
FW = 1000 kg per cubic metre or 1.000 tonne/m3
SW = 1025 kg per cubic metre or 1.025 tonne/m3
The specific gravity (SG) or relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the weight
of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of fresh water.
If a volume of one cubic metre is considered, then the SG or relative density of a substance is
the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of fresh water; i.e.

What Is Specific Gravity?

Specific gravity is a measure of density relative to the density of a reference substance. The
reference material could be anything, but the most common reference is pure water. If a
material has a specific gravity less than 1, it will float on water.

Density and specific gravity,

The specific gravity (SG) or relative density of a substance is defined as the ratio of the weight
of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of fresh water. If a volume of one cubic
metre is considered, then the SG or relative density of a
substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of fresh water;
SG or relative = Density of the substance
Of a substance Density of fresh water

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

The density of FW = 1000 kg per cu.m

SG of a substance = Density of the substance in kg cu.m
1000
Density in kg per cu.m = 1000 x SG

[Link] - Density and specific gravity

Converting Between Density and Specific Gravity

Specific gravity values aren't very useful except for predicting whether or not something will
float on water and for comparing whether one material is more or less dense than another.
However, because the density of pure water is so close to 1 (0.9976 grams per cubic
centimeter), specific gravity and density are nearly the same value so long as the density is
given in g/cc. Density is very slightly less than specific gravity.

There is a noticeable difference between density and specific gravity even though both are used
to represent mass and are used to compare different substances. Density is the property of
matter represented by a ratio of mass to a unit volume of matter. Specific gravity which is also
called as relative density is a measure of density with respect to a density of pure water. There
are many properties of water such as conductivity of water and many more.

[Link]

[Link]

Reference:

Dr. Helmenstine holds a Ph.D. in biomedical sciences and is a science writer, educator, and
consultant. She has taught science courses at the high school, college, and graduate levels.
[Link]
[Link]

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Module 1 - Law of Floatation

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 4.1: State that “Archimedes” Principles states that a floating object displace its own weight
of fluid in which it floats.
LO 4.2: Show that a variable immersion Hydrometer as an instrument used to determine
density of liquid
LO 4.3: State TPC as tons per centimeter immersion
LO 4.4: Describe reserve buoyancy as a volume of the enclosed spaces above the water line
LO 4.5: Explain that:
K = keel of the vessel
B = center of buoyancy when the is upright
KG = Height of the center of gravity Above the keel
LO 4.6:States draft as the linear distance From keel to water line.
LO 4.7: State KB = Height of the center of Buoyancy above the keel
LO 4.8: State G = Center of gravity
LO 4.9: State BG as vertical distance from Center of buoyancy to center Of gravity

Guide Questions

1. What is Archimedes principle

2. What is law of floatation
3. What is ship hydrostatic
4. What is TPC
5. What is ship draft
6. What is ship displacement
7. What is ship reserve buoyancy
8. Know where to locate K, B, KG, KB, G

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Law of Floatation

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it suffers a loss in mass/ weight equal to
the mass/ weight of the fluid it displaces.

The mass density of fresh water is 1,000 kgs. per cubic meter. Therefore, when a body is
immersed in fresh water it will appear to suffer a loss in mass of 1,000 kgs. for every 1 cubic
meter of water it displaces

[Link]

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE AND PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION

The Archimedes' principle and the principle of floatation get people confuse. Are
these two principles the same or different? This has been a critical question people
do ask. What makes a gigantic structure like a ship to float on the sea is another
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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

mystery. I also use to imagine how a ship of hundreds of pounds in weight floats
on water considering how heavy the loads it carries while even half weight of the
load will sink if thrown overboard.

In Olympic swimming competitions, it is possible to swim across a pool floating if

you stretch your body out flat on the water to establish equilibrium, but the same
individual will sink if the arms are wrap around the legs and curl up into a ball. The
reason for this occurrence is made possible due to the fact that floatation has to do
with how much water is pushed against the immersed object. This phenomenon
can be simply explained by Archimedes’ principle.

Law of flotation is simply the application of Archimedes' principle. Archimedes

made the first hypothesis about the relativity of displacement and density of the
matter immersed. It was verified before making it a principle.

Archimedes’ principle referred to as the physical law of buoyancy was discovered

by the ancient Greek inventor and mathematician known as Archimedes. The
principle states thus; the exerted upward buoyant force on a body fully or partially
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that the body
acting in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid. This
principle explained that the volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume
of an object fully immersed in a fluid or to that portion or fraction of the volume
immersed for an object partially submerged in a liquid since the density of the fluid
is constant.

This can be illustrated mathematically using the equations below:

Weight = Mg; where M implies mass of an object and g is acceleration due to
gravity, g is a constant.
Mass = density x volume
Simply put,
Weight = density x volume x g

Weight = density x volume x g

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

[Link] Sea water density

By implication, the difference between the buoyant force and its weight is the net upward force
on the object. This net force could be positive, negative or neutral (zero), the object floats if the
net force is positive, the object sinks if negative and if zero (neural), the object is neutrally
buoyant which makes the object remains in place without either rising or sinking.

The basics of naval architecture for ship design and construction was found in Archimedes’
principle. The weight of a floating object (static) must be equal to the weight of the volume of
water that is displaced by the object. This law of buoyancy explains both the draft at which a
vessel moves on water and the angles that it assume at equilibrium with the water. When an
object heavier than the amount of the fluid it displaces is released in water, it will sinks.

For instance, when a ship is launched, it sinks into the ocean unless the weight of the water it
displaces is just equal to its own weight. As more load is added to the ship, it sinks deeper,
whereby displacing more water, so, the magnitude of the buoyant force will continually
matching the weight of the ship plus its cargo. Literally, the size of that ship is a function of the
volume of displaced water by a ship, also, in turn, the ship’s size depends on the weight of
water that is to be matched by displacement. Ships are designed to carry a specified weight of
cargo, including some needed supplies such as lubricating oil, fuel, crew, and some other first
aids and some life aiding equipment.

All these forms of weights are combined to form a deadweight. The deadweight, and all other
weight that contributes to the shipping weight are categorized as lightship weight. Displacement
is referred to the weight of displaced water which must be equaled to the weight of the ship for
it to float is the sum of deadweight and lightship weight.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Ship Stability relative to Archimedes’ Principle

To achieve great ship stability, many items contributing to the weight of the ship must be
distributed with a considerable precision. Uneven distribution of item weight contributes ship
instability and bad inclination, which makes the ship to float in an unwanted angle of heel and
trim referred to as sideways and endwise inclination respectively. Archimedes’ principle to the
first moments of weights and volumes ensured to avoid such inclinations. The two main
problems of stability are attributed to Nonzero heel angle and Nonzero trim angle.

Nonzero heel is considered more dangerous, because of the sideways inclination, it makes all
activities and routines on board very difficult, also it enhances the possibility and margin of
capsizing. During heavy weather, nonzero trim angles could enhance the possibility that the
bow will slam into waves, it may also cause the tips of propeller blades to stay above the water
surface.

For a ship at rest in still water, there are two vertical forces always act upon the ship; its weight
(W) and displacement (D). The weight acts downwards through the centre of gravity (G), and
the displacement (D), acts upwards through the centre of buoyancy B. The magnitude of both
the weight and the displacement are always an equal and same line of motion in order to
maintain the body at equilibrium. For the ship to be in equilibrium, the sum of their moments
must be zero. The moment will act in the stable direction, as long as the point M is above G,
point M is the point where the midplane intersects the buoyant force where G is the centre of
gravity of the ship and its contents.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

The angle of heel tends to increase by the forces of weight and buoyancy, if M is below G, the
equilibrium will be unstable. The transverse metacentric height is the distance from G to M,
taken to be positive if M is above G. The stability of a ship under most conditions is designed to
be able to overcome any form of restriction or resistance that may be encountered during a
heavy storm in the sea, nevertheless, ships possess undesirable roll characteristics when the
balance of oscillations in roll is twice that of oscillations in heave, thus capsizing is inevitable

[Link]

Summary

Law of flotation is simply the application of Archimedes' principle. The fundamentals of naval
architecture are found in Archimedes’ principle. An extension of Archimedes’ principle to the
first moments of weights and volumes is ensured to avoid nonzero trim and nonzero heel
inclinations in ship design and construction. The first weight moment of the water displaced
must be equal to the collective first moment of all weights for a ship to float.

REFERENCES

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

TPC ( Tons Per Centimeter Immersion ),

Tonnes per Centimetre Immersion (TPC)

As weights are loaded on board a vessel, it will gradually sink lower in the water. The amount
of weight which will sink the vessel 1 cm deeper in the water, that is, the weight which will
increase the draft by 1 cm is called the tonnes per centimetre immersion (TPC).

[Link] - TPC
is a measurement of how many tons that are required to change the ship’s draught by one
[Link] TPC may vary at different draughts and trim calculations.

TPC = water-plane area x Density

100

RESERVE BOUYANCY

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Reserve buoyancy is a very important factor in determining a ship's seaworthiness minimum

freeboards are assigned to a ship to ensure that there is adequate reserve buoyancy at all
times.

Is the volume of the intact spaces remaining above the waterline. As weight is added to the
vessel, this volume decreases. When no reserve bouyancy remains, the vessel will sink. A
direct measure of reserve bouyancy is the vessel’s freeboard.

[Link] - metacenter
Reserve buoyancy It has already been shown that a floating vessel must displace its own
weight of water. Therefore, it is the submerged portion of a floating vessel which provides the
buoyancy. The volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline are not providing buoyancy
but are being held in reserve. If extra weights are loaded to increase the displacement, these
spaces above the waterline are there to provide the extra buoyancy required. Thus, reserve
buoyancy may be defined as the volume of the enclosed spaces above the waterline. It may be
expressed as a volume or as a percentage of the total volume of the vessel.

Reserve Bouyancy = Vol. of the vessel – Vol. of water displaced

Upright Cross section of a vessel afloat

STABILITY NOMENCLATURE K = KEEL

M M = META CENTER
KM = HEIGHT OF
META CENTER
G G = CENTER OF GRAVITY
KG = HT OF CENTER
B OF GRAVITY
GM = METACENTRIC HT
B = CENTER OF BUOYANCY
G=B K
V/L FLOATS KB = HT OF CENTER
G>B BUOYANCY
V/L SINKS BM = METACENTRIC RADIUS

[Link] - stability

Ship's stability is one of the most important and complex concept about safety of ship and
safety of navigation and it is governed by maritime law as well as maritime codes. ... Loss
of ship's stability is presented as a threat to safety of navigation.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Hydrometers

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity or relative density of

liquids, i.e. the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.
Hydrometers are usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with a
heavy material to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a hydrometer cylinder and
the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the
liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem,
so that the specific gravity can be read directly.

[Link] how to use a hydrometer

The variable immersion hydrometer

The variable immersion hydrometer is an instrument, based on the Law of Archimedes, which is
used to determine the density of liquids. The type of hydrometer used to find the density of the
water in which a ship floats is usually made of a non-corrosive material and consists of a
weighted bulb with a narrow rectangular stem which carries a scale for measuring densities
between 1000 and 1025 kilograms per cubic metre, i.e. 1.000 and 1.025 t/m3 .

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Module 1 - Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 5.1: Recognize;
Box shape vessel,
Ship shape (prismatic) vessel
LO 5.2: Demonstrate how to find KB and underwater volume of a box shape and ship shape
vessel
LO. 5.3: Define displacement as the amount of water displace by a vessel when floating at her
load draft
LO 5.4: Define fresh water allowance (FWA) as the number of millimeters by which mean draft
changes when the ship passes from salt to fresh or vice versa
LO 5.6: Define dock water allowance as the distance by which “S” can be submerged while the
ship is on dock water, density between fresh and salt water
LO 5.7: Identify sign and symbols used in load line marks; TF = tropical fresh, F = fresh
water, S = salt water , W = winter , WNA = winter north Atlantic

Guide Questions

1. What is the hull form at a

i. Box shape vessel
ii. Ship shaped vessel
2. What is the effect of charge of density when the displacement is constant?
3. What is FWA
4. What is DWA
5. What is the purpose of load line

Effects of Density on Draft and Displacement

The first estimate that the Naval Architect makes for a new ship is to estimate the
lightweight.
Lightweight: This is the weight of the ship itself when completely empty, with boilers
topped up to working level. It is made up of steel weight, wood and outfit weight, and
the machinery weight. This lightweight is evaluated by conducting an inclining
experiment normally just prior to delivery of the new vessel. Over the years, this value
will change
Deadweight: This is the weight that a ship carries. It can be made up of oil fuel, fresh
water, stores, lubricating oil, water ballast, crew and effects, cargo and passengers. This

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

deadweight will vary, depending on how much the ship is loaded between light ballast
and fully-loaded departure conditions.
Displacement: This is the weight of the volume of water that the ship displaces

Displacement = Lightweight ÷ Deadweight

[Link]
Effect of change of density when the displacement is constant

When a ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without there being
a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the ship must displace
the same mass of water in each case. Since the density of the water has changed, the volume
of water displaced must also change. This can be seen from the formula:

Mass x Volume x Density

If the density of the water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease to keep
the mass of water displaced constant, and vice versa.

The effect on box-shaped vessels

New mass of water displaced = Old mass of water displaced

New volume x New density = Old volume x Old density

New volume = Old density

Old volume New density
But volume = L X B X Draft

L X B New draft = old density

L X B Old Draft New density

The effect on ship-shaped vessels

It has already been shown that when the density of the water in which a vessel floats is
changed the draft will change, but the mass of water in kg or tones displaced will be
unchanged; i.e.

New displacement = Old displacement or

New volume x New density = Old volume x Old density

New Volume = Old density
Old volume New density

The Fresh Water Allowance is the number of millimeters by which the mean draft changes
when a ship passes from salt water to fresh water, or vice versa, whilst floating at the loaded
draft. It is found by the formula:

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

[Link] - Fresh water allowance

[Link] - Definition of Dock water allowance

When a ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without there being
a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the ship must displace
the same mass of water in each case. Since the density of the water has changed, the volume
of water displaced must also change.

The LOAD LINE

ship’s load line marks.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

[Link] - Load line marks

The centre of the disc is at a distance below the deck line equal to the ship’s statutory
freeboard. Then 540 mm forward of the disc is a vertical line 25 mm thick, with horizontal lines
measuring 230 x 25 mm on each side of it. The upper edge of the one marked ‘S’ is in line with
the horizontal line through the disc and indicates the draft to which the ship may be loaded
when floating in salt water in a Summer Zone. Above this line and pointing aft is another line
marked ‘F’, the upper edge of which indicates the draft to which the ship may be loaded when
floating in fresh water in a Summer Zone. If loaded to this draft in fresh water the ship will
automatically rise to ‘S’ when she passes into salt water. The perpendicular distance in
millimeters between the upper edges of these two lines is therefore the ship’s Fresh Water
Allowance.
When the ship is loading in dock water which is of a density between these two limits ‘S’ may
be submerged such a distance that she will automatically rise to ‘S’ when the open sea and salt
water is reached. The distance by which ‘S’ can be submerged, called the Dock Water
Allowance

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Module 1 – Displacement

Intended Learning Outcomes

LO 6.1: State that, for a ship to float, it must displace a mass of water equal to its own weight
LO 6.2: Explain how, when the mass of a ship changes, the mass of water displaced changes
by an equal amount.
LO 6.3: State that the displacement of a vessel is its weight and its measured in tonnes.
LO 6.4: State that displacement is represented by the symbol Δ
LO 6.5: Explain the relationship between the displacement and mean draft of a ship by using
the graph or scale.
LO 6.6: Given a displacement /draught curve, finds;

• Displacement for given mean draft

• Mean draft for given displacements
• The change in mean draft when given weight are loaded or discharge
• The weight of the cargo to be loaded or discharges to produces a required change of
draft.

LO. 6.7: Define:

. “light displacement” is the weight of the vessel without any store, fuel, FW, ballast and
cargo onboard
LO 6.8:Difine “load displacement” is the weight of the vessel including any stores, fuel, FW,
ballast and cargo onboard that she can carry up to her appropriate load mark.
LO 6.9: Difine “deadweight” is the maximum weight a vessel can carry up to her appropriate
Load marks; it is the different between load and light displacement.
LO 6.10: Uses a deadweight scale to find the deadweight and displacement of a ship at various
draft in seawater.
LO 6.11: Defines: “tons per centimeter immersion (TPC) as the weight to be loaded or
discharge to change the mean draft by (1) centimeter.
LO 6.12: Explain why TPC varies with different draft.
LO 6.13: Uses a deadweight scale to obtain TPC at given draft.
LO 6.14: Uses TPC obtained from deadweight to find:

• The change of mean draft when given weight are loaded and discharged
• The weight of the cargo to be loaded or discharge to produce a required chance of
draft.

LO 6.15: Define “block coefficient” (CB)

LO 6.16: Calculate ‘Cb’ from given displacement and dimension

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Guide Questions

1. What is Archimedes law of floatation

2. What is hydrostatic table/curve
3. What is deadweight scale
4. What is the purpose of TPC
5. What is “block coefficient”

Displacement

introduction

The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is its weight based on the amount of
water its hull displaces at varying loads. It is measured indirectly using Archimedes' principle by
first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship then converting that value into
weight displaced.

Archimedes' principle states: An object immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force that
is equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on the displaced fluid.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

For example, a ship that is launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of the water it
displaces is just equal to its own weight. As the ship is loaded, it sinks deeper, displacing more
water, and so the magnitude of the buoyant force continuously matches the weight of the ship
and its cargo.

When the ship moves from water of one density to water of another density, without there
being a change in her mass, the draft will change. This will happen because the ship must
displace the same mass of water in each case. Since the density on the water has changed, the
volume of water displaced must also change. If the density of the water increases, then the
volume of water displaced must decrease to keep the mass of water displaced constant and
vice versa

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

[Link] - displacement
Ship Hydrostatics:

Some characteristic parameters calculated for a floating ship, which can either directly be used
to comment on the nature of stability of the ship or be used to evaluate other stability
parameters, are called ship hydrostatics. For a designer to be able to develop a hull form, or a
ship’s captain to understand the stability parameters, it is important for both to be able to
understand the meaning and practical significance of each hydrostatic parameter of a surface
ship. We will first list the hydrostatics of a surface ship, and then move on to define them.

• Vertical, Longitudinal and Transverse Center of Gravity

• Vertical, Longitudinal and Transverse Center of Buoyancy
• Mass Displacement (Δ)
• Volume Displacement (∇)
• Longitudinal and Transverse Centre of Floatation
• Metacentre
• Metacentric Height
• Metacentric Radius
• Moment to Change Trim 1 cm (MCT)
• Tonnes per cm Immersion (TPC)

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Deadweight scale

The deadweight (Dwt) scale provides a method for estimating the additional draft or for
determining the extra load that could be taken onboard when a vessel is being loaded in
water of density less than that of salt water. The main use of the Dwt scale is to
observe Dwt against draft

A drawing used for estimating the additional draught or for determining the extra load that
could be taken on board when a vessel is being loaded in water of density less than that of salt
water.

[Link] - displacements why don’t big ship sink?

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Load displacement =the weight, in long tons, of a cargo vessel loaded so that the summer
load line touches the surface of the water.

Loaded displacement is the weight of the ship including cargo, passengers, fuel, water,
stores, dunnage and such other items necessary for use on a voyage. These bring the ship
down to its "load draft", colloquially known as the "waterline".

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

Light Displacement = the weight of a ship with all its permanent equipment, excluding the
weight of cargo persons, ballast, dunnage, and fuel, but usually including the weight of
permanent ballast and water used to operate steam machinery.

Deadweight (DWT) The deadweight is the difference between the displacement and the
mass of empty vessel (lightweight) at any given draught. It is a measure of ship's ability to
carry various items: cargo, stores, ballast water, provisions and crew, etc.

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

tonnes per Centimetre Immersion (TPC)

As weights are loaded on board a vessel, it will gradually sink lower in the water. The
amount of weight which will sink the vessel 1 cm deeper in the water, that is, the weight
which will increase the draft by 1 cm is called the tonnes per centimetre
immersion (TPC).

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 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

The TPC is the mass which must be loaded or discharged to change the ship’s mean draft by
1cm. When the ship is floating in salt water it is found by using the formula:

TPC = WPA
97.56

WPA = the area of the water-plane in sq. Meters.

[Link] - TPC
The area of the water-plane of a box-shaped vessel is the same for all drafts if the trim be
constant, and so the TPC will also be the same for all drafts. In the case of a ship the area of
the water-plane is not constant for all drafts, and therefore the TPC will reduce at lower drafts,
The TPCs are calculated for a range of drafts extending beyond the light and loaded drafts, and
these are then tabulated or plotted on a graph. From the table or graph the TPC at intermediate
drafts may be found.
The block coefficient of a ship is the ratio of the underwater volume of ship to the volume of a
rectangular block having the same overall length, breadth and depth. ... As all these factors
would change with the change in draft, Cb would also change with change of ship's draft

The coefficient of fineness of the water-plane area is the ratio of the area of the water-
plane to the area of a rectangle having the same length and maximum breadth. Find the area of
the water-plane of a ship 36 metres long, 6 metres beam, which has a coefficient of fineness
of 0.8.

[Link]

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JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY (AREVALO), INC.
Sto. Nino Sur, Arevalo, Iloilo City
BSMT Department

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