EE 2446

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS II
Introduction to Electrical Circuits
7th edition
Dorf and Svoboda

Chapter 11

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Phasor Notation-Review
Horizontal projection on real axis
a (t ) = A cos(ωt + θ 0 ) Imag

ω
Projection on vertical axis A
θ0
b(t ) = A sin(ωt + θ 0 )
Real
Complex variable =

c(t ) = a (t ) + jb(t )
= A cos(ωt + θ 0 ) + jA sin(ωt + θ 0 )
= A[cos(ωt + θ 0 ) + j sin(ωt + θ 0 )
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Phasor Notation-Review

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Phasor Notation-Review …
Euler’s Identity

e jα = cos α + j sin α
∴ c(t ) = Ae j (ωt +θ ) = N
Ae jθ e jωt
phasor

A = Ae jθ = A∠θ = A[cos θ + j sin θ ]

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Phasor Notation-Review …
Small Example illustrating phasors

R
+
- L C
Vs(t) i(t)

KVL
t
di (t ) 1
vs (t ) = Ri (t ) + L
dt
+
C ∫ i( x)dx
x = −∞

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Phasor Notation-Review …
We assume i(t) and v(t) are sinusoidal
∴ i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θ i )
vs (t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v )
We define a complex instantaneous current and voltage
i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θ i ) + j I m sin(ωt + θ i )
v s (t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) + j Vm sin(ωt + θ v )
Then
i (t ) = I m e j (ωt +θ i ) = I m e jθi e jωt
v s (t ) = Vm e j (ωt +θ v ) = Vm e jθv e jωt

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Phasor Notation-Review …
We substitute complex instantaneous currents and
voltage in KVL, but take real parts.

⎧ d i (t ) 1
t
⎫
Re al ⎨v(t ) = Ri (t ) + L
⎩ dt
+
C ∫ i
x = −∞
( x ) dx ⎬
⎭

The validity of the KVL holds if we remove the “Real”

operator, thus,
1
Vm ∠θ v e jωt = RI m ∠θ i e jωt + jωLI m ∠θ i e jωt + I m ∠θ i e jωt
j ωC
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Phasor Notation-Review …

Since e jωt can never be zero, we factor it out

⎛ 1 ⎞
Vm ∠θ v = ⎜⎜ R + jωL + ⎟⎟ I m ∠θ i
⎝ j ω C
 
⎠
Z ( impedence )

∴V = Z I

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Phasor Notation-Review …
Note algebraic operations related to differentiation and
integration

•
(
d I m e jθ i e jω t )
= I me jθ i de
jω t
(
= jω I m e jθ i e jωt )
dt dt  

i (t )

I m e jθ i jωx
[ ]
t t
• ∫ i( x)dx = ∫ I me e
jθ i jω x
dx =
jω
e
t
−∞ =
1
(
I m e jθ i e jω t
jω  


)
−∞ −∞
i (t )

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

11.3 Instantaneous Power and

Average Power
Definition
p(t) = v(t) i(t) {instantaneous}
units of watts

Periodic Functions
Function repeats every “T” seconds.
∴ v(t) = v(t + T)
i (t) = i (t + T)
and p(t) = v(t + T)i (t + T)
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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Average Power
Defined as the energy in one period divided by the period.
t +T
1 1
P= ∫ p ( x)dx = [energy in one period]
T x =t
T
Special Case: Sinusoidal functions
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v )
i(t ) = I m cos(ωt + θ i )
where : 2πf = ω , radian frequency
f : frequency in Hz (cps)
1
T= , Period in sec
f
θ v ,θ i : phase angle shift

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

p(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) I m cos(ωt + θ i )

Note trig identity :

1
cos α cos β = [cos(α − β ) + cos(α + β )]
2

Let α ≡ ωt + θ v and β ≡ ωt + θ i
Vm I m
∴ p (t ) = [  
+   
]
2 Not a function sinusoidal with
of time frequency
twice fundamental

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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Now, we determine the average power per period

t +T
1 Vm I m
P= ∫ [cos(θv − θi ) + cos(2ω x + θv + θi )] dx
T X =t
2
1 ⎡Vm I m ⎤
t +T
t +T Vm I m
2 X∫=t
= ⎢ cos(θ v − θ i ) x t
+ cos(2ω x + θ v + θ i ) dx ⎥
T⎣ 2 ⎦
P = ______________________ + zero
( Why is the second term zero?? )

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

1
Vm Im
2

1
V m I m cos( θ v − θ i )
2

0 T/2 T

The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercises in Section 11.3

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.3-1 (pg 500)

Determine the instantaneous power delivered to an element and
sketch p(t) when the element is (a) a resistor R, (b) and inductor L.
The voltage across the element is v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ)
a ) R e s is to r R i (t ) R
v (t ) V M −
i (t ) = = cos(ω t + θ ) + v (t )
R R
V
∴ θi = θ v = θ, I m = m
R
Vm I m
p R (t ) = [c o s ( θ v − θ i ) + c o s ( 2 ω t + θ v + θ i ) ]
2
V I V I
p R (t ) = m m + m m c o s( 2 ω t + 2 θ )
2 2
2
V
p R ( t ) = m [1 + c o s ( 2 ω t + 2 θ ) ]
2R

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 b) Inductor L:
VL V ∠θ V
I= = m 0 = m ∠θ − 90D L
tim e
jωL ωL∠90 ωL + −
v L (t )
Vm
∴ i (t ) = cos(ωt + θ − 90 )
D

ωL
V
∴ θi = θ − 900 , θv = θ, I m = m
ωL
V I
pL (t ) = m m [ cos(θv − θi ) + cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) ]
2
Vm2
= ⎡ cos 90D + cos(2ωt + 2θ − 90D ) ⎤⎦
2ω L ⎣
V2
pL (t ) = m cos(2ωt + 2θ − 900 )
2 ωL

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

11.4 Effective value of a periodic waveform

+ Io R + i (t ) R
Vo -
vs -

Io =Vo R For the source (period T)

Vo2 i(t) = v(t) R
po(t) = VI
o o=
R v2(t)
p(t) = v(t)i(t) =
Energy over one period T R
to +T to +T to +T to +T 2
Vo2 v (x)
Wo = ∫
x=to
po(x)dx = ∫ R dx
x=to
W= ∫ p(x)dx = ∫ R
dx
x=to x=to
2
V For one period
= o
T
R
We set the energies equal and seek an expression of V0 to realize
this equality (i.e., W0=W)
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 t +T
Vo2 T o
v 2 ( x)
Wo = = W= ∫ dx
R x =to
R
to + T
1
∴ Vo2 =
T ∫
x = to
v 2 ( x)dx

to + T
1
Veff = Vo =
T ∫
x =to
v 2 ( x)dx

For a sinusoidal voltage source

v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θv )

∴ Veff =

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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Note that cos 2 α = (1 + cos 2α )
2
to + T
1 Vm2
Veff = ∫ [1 + cos(2ωx + 2θv )] dx
T x =to
2
to + T to + T
1 Vm2 1 Vm2
=
T ∫
x =to
2
dx +
T ∫
x =to
2
cos(2ωx + 2θv )dx

Veff = Vrms = for sinusoidal functions

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Vm I m
Pavg = cos(θ v − θ i )
2
⎛ V ⎞⎛ I ⎞
= ⎜ m ⎟⎜ m ⎟ cos(θ v − θi )
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
Pavg = Vrms I rms cos(θ v − θ i )
or
Pavg = Veff Ieff cos(θ v − θi )

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercises section 4

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11. 4-1(pg 502)
Find the effective value of the following currents:
(a) cos 3t + cos 3t , (b) sin 3t + cos(3t + 600 ), (c) 2 cos 3t + 3cos 5t
(a) cos 3t + cos 3t = 2 cos 3t
2
Ieff = = 2
2
(b) sin 3t + cos(3t + 600 ) = cos(3t − 900 ) + cos(3t + 600 )
In phasor form
3
1 -900 + 1 600 = − j1 + 0.5 + j
2
= 0.5 − j 0.134
= 0.518 -15.0030
0.518
∴ Ieff = = 0.366
2
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11, 4-1 cont’d

(c) i (t ) = 2 cos 3t + 3cos 5t
i 2 (t ) = 4 cos 2 3t + 12 cos 3t cos 5t + 9 cos 2 5t
t +T
1 o 2
T x =∫to
Ieff = i ( x)dx

to +T
1
=
T ∫
x = to
⎡⎣ 4 cos 2 3 x + 12 cos 3x cos 5 x + 9 cos 2 5 x ⎤⎦ dx

1⎡
4 cos 2 3 xdx + ∫ 12 cos 3 x cos 5 xdx + ∫ 9 cos 2 5 xdx ⎤
T ⎣∫
=
⎦
4 9 13
= +0+ =
2 2 2
I eff = 2.55 A 1
cos α cos β = [cos(α + β ) + cos(α − β )]
2
∴ Ieff = I 2
eff1 +I 2
eff 2

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 11.5 Complex Power
Derivation (Not presented this way in text)
i (t )
Passive Convention:
+ -
v(t )
Assume: v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v )
i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi )
Without loss of generality, we reference the voltage to the
current by subtracting θi from both

∴ v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v − θi )
i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi − θ i ) = I m cos(ωt )
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos(ωt + θ v − θ i ) cos(ωt )
p(t ) =  
+  

This is our average power term This is a double freq. sinusoidal term

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Consider the second term. It can be considered as the

projection on the “Real” axis of a point rotating in a
complex plane with radius V 2I , at a frequency of 2ω
m m

Let’s define an instantaneous quantity that is complex as

follows:
Vm I m
s (t ) = [ cos(2ωt + θv − θi ) + j sin(2ωt + θ v − θi )]
2
V I V I
= m m e j (2 ωt +θv −θi ) = m m e j (θv −θi ) e j 2 ωt
2 2
V I
Now, we define S = m m e j (θv −θi )
2
V I
= m m θ v − θi
2

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 ⎛V ⎞⎛ I ⎞
or S = ⎜ m θ v ⎟ ⎜ m −θi ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
(
= Vrms θ v )( I rms −θi )
*
S = VI Where * indicates the conjugation of the complex
variable I
Note : S = 
+ j  

 
P Q
Avg. Power, Watts Reactive power, VAR
S ≡ Complex Power (VA)

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Thus, when we know the phasor voltage across an

element and the phasor current through the element, we
can calculate the complex power. Consider again the
element in phasor form.

I
+
Z -
Ohm's Law:
V V=Z I
V V θv
or Z = =
I I θi
V
= θ v − θi = R+jX
I

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 V
Also, I =
Z
* 2 2
*
*⎛ V ⎞ VV V Z V
Now, S = V I = V ⎜ ⎟ = * = * = 2 Z
⎝ Z⎠ Z Z Z Z
2 2
= I Z = I x Z θ v − θi

X Q

Z S
R P
θ v − θi θ v − θi

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Conservation of power

The net sum of power produced is equal to the

net sum of power absorbed.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 My Convention
Source Load
+
Note how I
I
I
+ current is Load VL
Vs -
related to
-
voltage polarity
*
S = Vs I
*
S = VL I
= Ps +jQs = PL +jQ L

Then Supply + Absorbed

+
PS,QS PL,QL
- Absorbed - Supply
The above convention is explained slightly different than
what’s in the text, but the results are the same
conservation of power
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercises in section 11.5

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11. 5-1 (pg. 509)
Determine the average power delivered to each element of the
circuit shown in fig. E 11.5-1. Verify that the average power is
conserved
10 Ω 10 Ω
+
+
- 4H +
-
I j8
12 cos 2t 12 0 0
-
Phasor Diagram
12 00
I= = 0.937 −38.660 , Z=10+j8
10 + j8
2
2 ⎛ 0.937 ⎞
P10Ω = I R= ⎜ ⎟ (10) = 4.39 watts
⎝ 2 ⎠
(absorbed)

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11. 5-1 cont’d

Consider inductor
VL = Z L I
2
S L = VL I * = Z L II * = Z L I * = ( 8 900 ) ⎛⎜ 0.937 ⎞ = 3.512 900
2
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 3.512 ( cos 900 + j sin 900 ) = 0 + j 3.512 = PL + jQL
∴ PL = 0
Consider Source
⎛ 12 ⎞ ⎛ 0.937 ⎞
Ps = VIcos(θ v − θi ) = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ cos 38.66
0

⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
= 4.39 watts (supplied)

Note that I used the Source/Load convention concept.

Conservation of reactive power also holds.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11. 5-2 (pg. 509)
Determine the complex power delivered to each element of
the circuit shown in fig. E 11. 5-2. Verify that complex
power is conserved
10 Ω 1 10 F 10 Ω − j 5Ω

+
- 4H 12 0
+
- I j8Ω
12 cos 2 t 0
2

1 10
XC = = =5
ωC 2
X L = ω L = (2)(4) = 8

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11. 5-2 cont’d

Z=10+j(8-5)=10+j3
12 2
I= = 0.813 −16.6990 (rms)
10 + j 3
⎛ 12 ⎞
( 0 *
)
*
SS = V s I = ⎜ ⎟ 0.813 −16.699 = 6.896 16.699
0

⎝ 2⎠
⎧both terms are positive,
SS = 6.606 + j1.982 VA ⎨
⎩both are supplied
2
P10Ω = I × 10=(0.813) 2 (10) = 6.606 watts

QC = I × (-5)= −3.303 VAR ⎫

2

⎪
2 ⎬ Net=1.981
Q L = I × (8)= 5.284 VAR ⎪
⎭

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 11.6 Power Factor
S=VI [ cos(θ v − θi ) + j sin(θ v − θ i ) ]
θ = θ v − θi , referred to as the power factor angle
cos θ = Power factor
sin θ = Reactive factor
⎧ > 0, current lags voltage, lagging p.f
⎪
θ v − θi ⎨< 0, current leads voltage, leading p.f
⎪ = 0, current in phase with voltage
⎩
Q P

P -Q θ <0
θ >0
leading p.f.
lagging p.f.
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Power factor is most significant in relation to loads served by

electric utilities, when a load has a low power factor, nearly all
the energy from the source oscillates back and forth with the
load at twice the fundamental frequency. The conductors
carrying the current must be of sufficient capacity to
accommodate this current flow without over heating. By
increasing the power factor, the resulting current can be
reduced.
Review Examples
11.6-1: parallel loads (pg 513)
11.6-2: power factor correction (pg 514)
11.6-3: complex power (pg 515)

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercises in section 11.6

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-1 (pg 517)

A circuit has a large motor connected to the a.c power lines.
(ω = 2π 60 = 377 rad / s )
The model of the motor is a resistor of 100Ω is series with an
inductor of 5H . Find the power factor of the motor.

100Ω

j X L = j ω L = j1885

θ ≡ angle associated with impedence Z

Z = 100+j1885=1887.7 86.960

pf = __________ = ___________ = _____________________

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.6-2 (pg 517)
A circuit has a load impedance Z=50+ j80Ω as shown below.
Determine the power factor of the uncorrected circuit. Determine
the impedance ZC required to obtain a corrected power factor of
1.0
R1 jX 1

50 Ω
+
VS -
j 80

Z L = 50 + j 80 = 94.34 57.995 0
pf = cos(57.995 0 ) = _______________________

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-2 cont’d

Circuit for corrected pf

50
− jX C
j 80

( − jX C )(5 0 + j8 0 ) X C (8 0 − j 5 0 )
Z equ = =
5 0 + j8 0 − jX C 5 0 + j (8 0 − X C )
X ( 8 0 − j 5 0 ) [5 0 − j ( 8 0 − X )]
= C C

5 0 2 + (8 0 − X C ) 2

=
X C {[ (8 0 ) ( 5 0 ) − 5 0 ( 8 0 − X) ] − j ⎡⎣ 8 0 (8 0 − X
C C ) + 5 0 2 ⎤⎦ }
5 0 + (8 0 − X C ) 2
2

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.6-2 cont’d
For pf =1, the imaginary component of Zequ must be zero.
∴ 80(80 − X C ) + 502 = 0
502
80 − X C = −
80
X C = _______________________

X C = __________________Ω

∴ ZC = _________________Ω

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-2 cont’d

Another way to compute ZC
1 1 1 RL − jX L
ZL = or YL = = = = GL − jBL
YL ZL RL + jX L ( RL + jX L )( RL − jX L )
1 1 1
YC = = =j = jBC
ZC − jX C XC

RL
GL =
R + X 2L
2
L

XL
jB C BL =
R 2L + X 2L
GL − jB L
1
BC =
XC

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.6-2 cont’d
For pf=1, ∴ - jBL + jBC = 0
or BL = BC
XL 1 R 2L + X 2L R 2L
= → X C = = + XL
R 2L + X 2L X C XL XL
502
∴ XC = + 80 = 111.25Ω
80
ZC = − j111.25Ω

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-3 (pg 518)

Determine the power factor for the total plant of example
11.6-1 (pg 513) when the resistive heating load is decreased
to 30 KW. The motor load and the supply voltage remain as
determined in example 11.6-1
|S|=100 KVA
Load 1 S1 = 30 KW
P=30KW
pf=1.0
pf=0.86
lagging

Load 2 θ2 = cos −1 (0.86) = 30.680 1

2

P2 = 100 cos θ 2 = (100)(0.86) = 86 KW

Q 2 = 100sin θ 2 = (100)(0.51) = 51 KVAR
Total: ST = S1 + S2 = 30 + 86 + j51
= 116 + j 51 = 126.7 23.730
New pf=cosθ T = cos(23.730 ) = 0.915
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.6-4 (pg 518)
A 4 KW, 110V load, as shown in fig. 11.6-5 (pg 514), has a
power factor of 0.82 lagging. Find the value of the parallel
capacitor that will correct the pf to 0.95 lagging when ω =377
rad/s

+
P=4 KW
110 V Pf=0.82 − jX C
lagging

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-4 cont’d

PL
Load: SL = = 4.878VA
0.82
θ L = cos (0.82) = 34.9150
−1

PL QL sin(θ L )
SL = = , or Q L = PL
cos(θ L ) sin(θ L ) cos(θ L )
Q L = PL tan θ L = (4)(0.698) = 2.792 KVAR
* 2
⎛ V ⎞ V
SL = VI *
L = V⎜ ⎟ = *
Z
⎝ L⎠ Z
2
V (110)2
∴ ZL = = = 2.481 34.9150
SL 4000 − j 2792
*

=
+ j 1.
2.034 N 420
RL XL

The corrected power factor angle

θc = cos−1 (pf c ) = cos−1 (0.95) = 18.1950

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.6-4 cont’d
We will use the second method illustrated in EXERCISE 11.6-2

1
YC = G L − jBL + jBC = YC −θC =
Z C θC
⎡ − B + BC ⎤
∴θ C = − tan −1 ⎢ L ⎥ or
⎣ GL ⎦
− B L + BC
− tan θ C =
GL
XL 1
− +
R 2L + X 2L X C − X L X C + (R 2L + X 2L )
− tan θ C = =
RL R LX C
R 2L + X 2L

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.6-4 cont’d

− R L X C tan θ C = − X L X C + (R 2L + X 2L )
R 2L + X 2L 2.0342 + 1.422
XC = =
X L − R L tan θ C 1.42 − (2.034) tan(18.1950 )
6.1536
XC = = 8.188Ω
1.42 − 0.6685
1 1
C= = = μF
ωX C (377)(8.188)

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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11.7 The power superposition principle

Superposition Principle
The response to all sources acting together is equal to the sum of
the responses to each sources acting alone.

i(t) = i1(t) + i2(t).

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Instantaneous Power
2 2
p (t ) = i 2 R = (i1 + i2 ) 2 R = (i1 + i2 + 2i1i2 ) R
Average Power
T
1 to + T R
∫ p ( x)dx = ∫ (i1 + i2 + 2i1i2 )dx
2 2
P=
T x = t0 T
T T T
R 2 R 2 2R
=
T ∫ i1 dx + ∫ i2 dx +
T T ∫
i1i2 dx

2R T
T ∫
= P1 + P2 + i1i2 dx
Note that P1 is due to source v1 (t ) and P2 is due to v2 (t ) .
What about the third term?
For sinusoidal functions, lets assume
i1 (t ) = I m1 cos(mωt + θ1 )
i2 (t ) = I m2 cos(nωt + θ 2 )
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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Then
2R T
T ∫
I m1I m2 cos(mωx + θ1 ) cos(nωx + θ 2 )dx

R T
I m1I m2 ⎡⎣cos {(m − n)ωx + (θ1 − θ2 )} + cos {(m + n)ωx + (θ1 + θ 2 )}⎤⎦dx
T∫
⎧0, for m ≠ n
∴ P12 = ⎨
⎩ RI m1I m2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ), for m = n
Observations
When the frequencies are different for each source, the total power
(average) delivered to an element is equal to the sum of the average
power delivered to an element by each source acting alone. This
situation is referred to as “Superposition of Average Power”
When all sources have the same frequency the principle of “Power
Superposition” does not hold. In this case, the total current is found
first, then the total average power is calculated using total current.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercises in section 11.7

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27
 Exercise 11.7-1 (pg 521)
Determine the average power absorbed by the resistor in Fig.
11.7-2a for these two cases
(a) v A (t ) = 12 cos 3t and vB (t ) = 2 cos 3t

(b) v A (t ) = 12 cos 4t and vB (t ) = 4 cos 3t

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.7-1(cont’d)
Solution: → I1
(a)
6Ω
+
Note that frequencies of
j6
both sources are same
0
12 0 -

12
I1 = = = ____________
6 + j6
∴ i1 ( t) = 2 cos(3t − 45 0 )
→ I2

6Ω
j6
+
- 4 00

−4 00
I2 = = ___________
6 + j6
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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 Exercise 11.7-1(cont’d)
The phasor total is
I=I1 + I 2 = 2 −450 + 0.4714 1350 = 0.9428 −450
2
RI
P6Ω = = = W
2
b) Note the frequencies of sources are different

→ I1
6 Ω 12
+ j8 I1 = = 1.2 − 53.13 0
- 6 + j8
12 0 0

2
R I1
∴ P1 = = = W
2

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.7-1(cont’d)
→ I2

6Ω j6 T his is sam e as part (a) for i B ( t )

+
- 40 0
∴ I 2 = 0.4714 135 0

2
R I2
P2 = = = W
2
∴ P=P1 + P2 = _________ + _________ = W

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

29
 11.8 Maximum power transfer theorem
Review section 5.6 (pg. 174) as to why maximum power transfer
is important. It is important from a signal transmission point of
view (electronics and communication industries)
The issues
a) Efficiency- Electric Power Industry
b) Effectiveness- Maximum power transfer to maintain
maximum signal strength at the load
Thevenin’s circuit with load

Z t = R t + jX t
Z L = R L + jX L

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Power delivered to resistance of load, R L

2
Im R L
PL =
2
Vt
where I= &
(R t +R L )+j(X t +X L )
Vt
Im =
(R t +R L ) 2 +(X t +X L ) 2
Vt
1
∴ PL = RL
2

For the power delivered to be a maximum, RL and XL must

be allowed to take on whatever value is necessary to allow
maximum power transfer. Vt and Z t are fixed.

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30
 δ PL δP
ΔPL = ΔR L + L ΔX L = 0
δ RL δ XL
δ PL δ PL ⎧Two equations
∴ =0 and =0 ⎨
δ RL δ XL ⎩ two unknowns
First, lets determine δ PL δ X L
δ PL
= =0
δ XL

We observe that the denominator cannot be zero, nor is Vt

or R L ,otherwise PL would be zero.
∴ X t +X L = 0 or X L = −X t

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Now, let us determine δ PL δ R L knowing that Xt+ XL=0

δ ⎢⎡ Vt 2 ⎤ V 2⎡
2
δ PL 1 −2R L ⎤
× RL ⎥ =
t
= ⎢ + ⎥
δ R L δ R L ⎢ (R t +R L ) 2
⎥ 2 ⎣ (R t +R L ) (R t +R L )3 ⎦
2
⎣ ⎦
2
Vt ⎡ R t +R L − 2R L ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥= ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ = 0
2 ⎣ (R t +R L )3 ⎦
∴ R t − R L = 0 or R L = R t

ZL = Z*t

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31
 Exercises in section 11.8

63
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.8-1 (Pg 523)

For the circuit of Fig 11.8-1, find ZL to obtain the maximum
power transferred when the Thevenin equivalent circuit has
Vt = 100 00 and Z t = 10 + j14Ω . Also determine the
maximum power transferred to the load.
ZL = Z*t = 10 − j14Ω
2 2 2
Vt R Vt RL Vt
PL = 2
= 2
=
2 (R t +R L ) 2 (2R L ) 8R L

PL = = W

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

32
 Exercise 11.8-2 (Pg 523)
A television receiver uses a cable to connect the antenna to the
TV, as shown in Fig. E 11.8-2, with vs = 4 cos ωt mV. The TV
station is received at 52 MHz. Determine the average power
delivered to each TV set if
(a) the load impedance is Z = 300 Ω
(b) two identical TV sets are connected in parallel with
Z = 300 Ω for each set
(c) two identical sets are connected in parallel and Z is
to be selected so that maximum is delivered at each
set.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.8-2 (cont’d)

→I

Vs = 4 00 x10-3
(a) Z=300Ω
4x10-3
I= = 8x10-6 A 00
200 + 300
2
I (8x10−6 ) ⎛ 64x10−12 ⎞
P= (300) = (300) = ⎜ ⎟ (300)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
P= W
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

33
 Exercise 11.8-2 (cont’d)
(b) 300
Zp = = 150Ω
2
4x10-3 4x10-3
I = = = 11.43x10-6 00
200 + 150 350
(11.43x10−6 ) 2
PT = (150) = 9.8x10−9
2
∴ PTV =PT /2= W

(c) For max, pwr transfer, Zp = 200Ω

∴ ZTV =2Zp =400Ω
(4x10-3 ) 2 16x10-6
PT = = = 10x10-9 W
(8)(200) 1600
PTV =PT /2= W

67
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

11.9 Coupled Inductors

Consider the arrangement of two coupled coils
φ21
a i1 → c
+
Right-hand rule
+ determines flux
+
- v1 φ11 v2
direction in “core”
-
d-
b
N1 N2

Coil “1” is energized by source, v1 ,resulting in current entering

terminal “a”. The terminals of coil “2” are left open.

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 For coil 1:
di1
v1 = L1 where L1 ≡ Self inductance of coil 1.
dt
d λ1
Also, v1 = where λ1 ≡ All magnetic flux linking coil 1.
dt
λ1 = N1φ1
Also, φ1 = C1 N1i1 where N1i1 ≡ Ampere-turns

φ1 C1 ≡ is a "constant" related
to the magnetic properties
and geometry of the "core"
Slope =C1

C1 ≡
dφ1 φ
= 1
dN1i1 N1i1 {linear and
passes thru origin
N1i1

69
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Also,
φ1 = φ11 + φ21
Where φ11 is leakage flux and φ21 is flux linking coil 2
Back to v1
di1 d λ1 dφ
v1 = L1
= = N1 1 = =
dt dt dt
∴ L1 = self inductance of coil 1.

Consider voltage v2
d λ21 dφ dC21 N1i1
v2 = = N 2 21 = N 2 =
dt dt dt

we define M 21 = mutual inductance

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

35
Note that C1 = C11 + C21 , φ1 = φ11 + φ21
λ1 = N1φ1 = N1 (φ11 + φ21 ) = N1φ11 + N1φ21
= N1 ( C11 N1i1 ) +N1 ( C21 N1i1 )
= C11 N12i1 +C21 N12i1
= (L11 + L 21 )i1

{
∴ L1 = L11 +L 21 Self Inductance has two
Components
Now, let’s open coil one terminals and energize coil two with v2

+ i2 ←
v1
+ v2
φ22 -
-
φ12
N1 N2
71
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

v2 = L 2
di2 d λ2 dN 2φ2
dt
=
dt
=
dt
di
dt of coil 2{
= C2 N 22 2 , L2 ≡ C2 N 22 Self inductance

Let's look at v1
d λ12 dN1φ12 dC N i
v1 = = = N1 12 2 2
dt dt dt
di
= C12 N1 N 2 2 where M12 = C12 N1 N 2
dt
The core is such that M12 = M 21 = M(linear & bilateral )
What about energizing both coils
di1 di di di
v1 = L1 +M 2 Whether M dt1 and M dt2 are
dt dt
negative or positive
di1 di
v2 = M + L2 2 depends on how the coils
dt dt
are wound

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36
 Dot Convention

a i1 → • i2 ←
• c

d
b

Each current produces a flux that flows in same direction,

i.e., additive.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

A helpful model
⎯⎯→
+ + ←⎯⎯ +
+ i1 i2
L1 L2
di1 di
v1 = L1
dt
+M 2
dt v1 - - v2
di1 di di + + M di1
M 2
v2 = M + L2 2 - dt - - dt -
dt dt
Use of current dependent
voltage source
Phasor Domain
⎯⎯→ ←⎯⎯
+ + +
+ I1 I
jω L1 jω L 2 2
V1 = jωL1 I1 + jωM I2 v1 - - v2
+ + jω M I
V2 = jωM I1 + jωL 2 I2 -
jω M I2 - - 1
-

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

37
 Coupling Coefficient
Consider the product of L1L 2
2 2
L1L 2 = (C1 N1 )(C2 N 2 )=C1C2 (N1 N 2 ) 2
C2M ⎛CC ⎞
= ⎡C C (N1 N 2 ) 2 ⎤⎦ = ⎜ 1 2 2 ⎟ (N1 N 2 CM ) 2
2 ⎣ 1 2
where CM ≡ C12 = C21
CM ⎝ CM ⎠
C2M
We define k 2 =
C1C2
M2 M
∴ L1L 2 = 2
or k=
k L1L 2

⎧⎪determined from C . M

Note range of k: 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 ⎨ If C = 0, k=0. If M

⎪⎩C = C = C , k=1 M 1 2

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Use of Transformer (coupled coils)

R1
M
• • Time Domain
+ i1 L1 L2 i2
vs - Load

R1
+ -
+ -
• • +
Vs
+
-
I1 jω L 1 jω L 2 I 2 ZL
Phasor Domain
- + -

- + jω M I
jω M I2 + - 1

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

38
 Vs = (R 1 + jωL1 ) I1 − jωΜ Ι2

0 = − jωΜ Ι1 + ( Ζ L + jωL 2 ) Ι2

Vs − jωΜ
0 ( Ζ L + jωL 2 )
I1 = =
(R 1 + jωL1 ) − jωΜ
− jωΜ ( Ζ L + jωL 2 )

(R 1 + jωL1 ) Vs
− j ωΜ 0
I2 = =
(R 1 + jωL1 ) − jωΜ
− jωΜ ( Ζ L + jωL 2 )

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Reflection of Load
M
• •
+ i1 L1 L2 i2
vs - Load

+ -
+ -
R1 +
Vs
+
-
I1 jω L 1 jω L 2 I 2 ZL
- + -

- + jω M I
jω M I2 + - 1

1 Vs = (R1 + jωL1 ) I1 − jωΜ Ι2

2 0 = − jωΜ Ι1 + ( Ζ L + jωL 2 ) Ι2
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

39
 Solving for I2 in second equ.
⎛ j ωM ⎞
I2 = ⎜ ⎟ I1 substitute into equ. 1
⎝ Z L + j ωL 2 ⎠
⎡ ⎤
Vs = (R 1 + jωL1 ) I1 + ⎢ ⎥⎦ I1
 
⎣
Z11  

ZR
Z 11

Vs + I1 ⎧ Im pedance of secondary
- Zr ⎨
⎩ reflected over to prim ary side.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercises in section 11.9

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

40
 Exercise 11.9-1 (pg. 530)
Determine the voltage v0 for the circuit of Fig. E 11.9-1. Hint:
Write a single mesh equation. The current in each coil is the
same and equal to the mesh current.
j16I
• j24Ω
+ - + -
• +
+
+
24 0 - I j40Ω
- V0
volts
+
j16 I - -

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.9-1 (cont’d)

KVL: j 24I+ j16I+ j 40I+ j16I=24 00
24
∴I =
j 96
⎛ 24 ⎞
V0 = j 40I+j16I=(j 56) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ j 96 ⎠
= 14 00
∴ v0 (t ) = volts

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

41
 Exercise 11.9-2 (pg 531)
Determine the voltage v0 for the circuit of Fig E 11.9-2. Hint:
The exercise is the same as exercise 11.9-1, except for the
position of the dot on the vertical coil.

j16I
• j24Ω -+
+ -
+
+
+
24 0 - I j40Ω
- • V0
volts
-
j16 I + -

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.9-2 (cont’d)

KVL: j 24I- j16I+ j 40I-j16I=24 00

24
∴I =
j 32
⎛ 24 ⎞
V0 = j 40I-j16I=(j 24) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ j 32 ⎠
= 18 00
∴ v0 (t ) = volts

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

42
 Exercise 11.9-3 (pg 531)
Determine the current i0 for the circuit of Fig E 11.9-3. Hint:
The voltage across the vertical coil is zero because of the short
circuit. The current through the horizontal coil induces a voltage
in the vertical coil. Consequently, a current is produced in the
vertical coil.
j16I c
• j24Ω
+ - - +
- •
+ Ic
24 0 - I j40Ω ↑ ↓
+ I0
volts
+
j16I -

85
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.9-3 (cont’d)

KVL around perimeter of circuit:
24 00 - j 24I + j16IC = 0
or
1) j 24I - j16IC = 24
KVL that includes vertical coil and short circuit:
16
2) j16I - j 40IC = 0, or IC = I=0.4 I
40
From Eqn (1) :
⎛ 16 ⎞
j 24I - j16 ⎜ ⎟ I = 24
⎝ 40 ⎠ I0 = I+IC = 1.3636 −900 + 0.5454 −900
24
I= = 1.3636 −900 = 1.909 −900
j17.6
and IC = 0.41 = 0.5454 −900
∴ i0 (t ) = A

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

43
 Exercise 11.9-4 (pg 531)
Determine the current i0 for the circuit of Fig E 11.9-4. Hint:
This exercise is same as Exercise 11.9-3, except for the position
of the dot on the vertical coil

j16I c
• j24Ω
+ - - +
+ I
+ c
24 0 - I j40Ω ↓ ↓
- • I0
volts
-
j16I +

87
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercise 11.9-4 (cont’d)

KVL around perimeter of circuit:
24 00 - j 24I + j16IC = 0
or
1) j 24I - j16IC = 24
KVL that includes vertical coil and short circuit:
16
2) j16I - j 40IC = 0, or IC = I=0.4 I
40
Solving for I: I = 1.3636 −900
and IC = 0.41 = 0.5454 −900
I0 = I - I C = 1.3636 −900 − 0.5454 −900
= 0.8182 −900
∴ i0 (t ) = A

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

44
Typical Two-Winding Transformer

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Power Transformer

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45
Assortment of Small Transformers

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

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46
 93
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

11.10 Ideal Transformer

What are the conditions that constitute an ideal transformer?
• k → 1.0 (perfect coupling, no leakage flux)
• C1 = C11 + C21 but C11 = 0
C2 = C22 + C12 but C22 = 0 φ slope → ∞
and C21 = C12 → ∞
⎡ ⎤
∴ C1 & C 2 → ∞ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
And φ1 = φ2 = φ21 = φ12 Ni
Then φ1 = φ21 = C1 N1i1 = C21 N1i1
Thus, φ21 is developed with virtually no N1i1
• Resistance is zero in each coil

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

47
 Consider coupled coils again (open circuit side 2)
jω M
+ → I1
+ +
→ I1 • •
+
+ jω L 1 jω L 2 V 2 Vs -
jω L1 jω L 2
V1 -
- V2
- + jω M I1
-
V1 = j ω L 1 I1 ⎫ V2 −
⎬→ = =
V 2 = j ω M I1 ⎭ V1

= =

But C 11 = 0 (N o leakage flux, all linkage)

V2 C N N
∴ = M 2 = 2
V1 C M N1 N1
V2 V
or = 1 volts per turn are equal in each coil
N2 N1
95
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Now, consider transformer with terminals of coil 2 short circuited

jω M
→ I1
+ - → I2
→ I1 • • → I2
+
+ jω L 1 jω L 2 V = 0 Vs -
jω L1 jω L 2
V1 - 2
- +

jω M I2 - + jω M I1
V1 = jωL1 I 1 − jωM I 2 + -

0 = − j ωM I 1 + j ω L 2 I 2
From second equation
M I1 = L 2 I 2
CM N1 N 2 I 1 = C2 N 22 I 2 = (C22 + CM )N 22 I 2
But C22 =0 (No leakage flux, it's all linking)
CM N1 N 2 I 2 N1 I 2
= ∴ = or N1 I 1 = N 2 I 2 Ampere turns are equal
CM N 22 I1 N2 I 1 in each coil
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

48
The circuit symbol for an ideal transformer

time domain Phasor domain

97
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Turns Ratio
1: n
+ +
→ V1 V V2 N
I1 • • ←I 2 = 2 → = 2
N1 N2 V1 N1
V2
V1 V2 N 2
∴ n= =
- - V1 N 1

For above transform er

N2 V
n= = 2 or V2 = n V1
N1 V1
-N 2
N 1 I 1 + N 2 I 2 = 0 or I1 = I2 = −n I2
N1

We need to examine these relationships in light of the dot

convention.
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

49
Effect of relocating one dot
N1 N2
+ +
→
I1 • ←I
2 Open circuit
+
V1 - jω L 1 jω L 2 V2 Analysis
•
- -
jω Μ

V1 = j ω L 1 I 1 ⎫ V2 − jω M I 1 M
⎬→ = =−
V2 = − j ω M I 1 ⎭ V1 jω L1 I 1 L1
N2
=− for k = 1
N1

∴ V2 = =

99
EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

N1 N2
+ +
→
I1 • ←I
2
+ jω L1 jω L 2
Short circuit
V1 - V2 = 0
• Analysis
- -
jω Μ
V1 = j ω L 1 I 1 − j ω M I 2
0 = − jω Μ I 1 + jω L 2 I 2
From second equation:
I2 M
Μ I1 = L2 I2 or = = =
I1 L2
I2 N
= 1 or I 2 N 2 = I 1N1
I1 N2
N1
I 1 = I 2 or I 1 =
N2
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50
 Summary of Possibilities

1:n 1:n
+ + + +
→ ←I →
I1 • • 2
I1 • • → I2
V1 V2 V1 V2

- - - -
V2 = n V1 V2 = n V1
I1 = − n I 2 I1 = n I 2

+ 1:n - 1:n
+ -
→ →
I1 • • ←I 2 I1 • • → I2
V1 V2 V1 V2

- + - +
V2 = − n V1 V2 = − n V1
I1 = − n I 2 I1 = n I 2
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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Exercises in section 11.10

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

51
 Exercise 11.10-1 (Pg 536)
Determine the impedance of Zabfor the circuit of Fig. E11.10-1.
All the transformers are ideal.

1⎛ ⎛ Z ⎞⎞ ⎛ 1 9 9 ⎞
Zab = Z+ ⎜ Z + 9 ⎜ Z+ ⎟ ⎟ = ⎜1 + + + ⎟ Z
4⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 4 4 16 ⎠
65
= Z = 4.063 Z
16

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Extra Exercises-A
Find V1 and I1 for the circuit below when n=5

V2
-
V2 V
V1:V2 → 1: → 1: n where n = 2 = 5 [n is postivite, why?]
V1 V1
N2
N1 I1 + N 2 I 2 = 0 → I1 = − I 2 = − nI 2
N1
I 1 = - nI 2
V2 = nV1

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52
 Extra Exercises-A (cont’d)
V1 V2 n ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞
Zeq = = = ⎜ ⎟⎜− ⎟
I 1 −n I 2 ⎝ n2 ⎠ ⎝ I 2 ⎠
1 + j3 +
V V1
But 100 − j 75 = − 2 10 00 + → I1 4 - j3
I2 -

⎛1⎞ -
∴ Zeq = ⎜ 2 ⎟ (100 − j 75 ) = 4 − j 3
⎝5 ⎠
10 00 10 00
I1 = = = 2 00
(1 + j 3 ) (
+ 4 − j 3 ) 5
V1 = Zeq I 1 = ( 4 − j 3)( 2 ) = 8 − j 6 = 10 −36.870

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Extra Exercises-B
Determine v2 and i2 for the circuit shown below when n=2.
Note that i2 does not enter the dotted terminal.

v2
Note that n = = 2 (positive value, why?)
v1

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

53
 Extra Exercises-B (cont’d)
− j5 5 1:n 2

← I2
5 00 → I1 V1 V2 j 0.2

V2 = 2V1 Approach will be to find I1 and V1 ,

then I2 and V2 . Finally, express I2
I1 = 2 I2 and V2 in time domain.

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EE 2446 Dr. Raymond Shoults

Extra Exercises-B (cont’d)

V1 V2 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞ 2 + j 0.2
Zeq = = = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =
I1 2 I2 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ I2 ⎠ 4
= 0.5 + j 0.05
5 00 5
∴ I1 = = = 0.676 41.9870
5 − j 5 + 0.5 + j 0.05 5.5 − j 4.95
V1 = Zeq I 1 = ( 0.5 + j 0.05 ) ( 0.676 41.9870 )
= 0.340 47.6980
1
∴ I 2 = I 1 = 0.338 41.987 0
2
V2 = 2V1 = 0.68 47.6980
i2 (t ) = 0.338cos(10t + 41.987 0 )

v2 (t ) = 0.68cos(10t + 47.6980 )

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54