Piping Analysis & Vibration

18th – 22nd August 2014

Citrus Hotel Kuala Lumpur

51 Jalan Tiong Nam, 50350 Kuala Lumpur,
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Facilitator :
Mr Anirudha Chaudhari
 Disclaimer
The Course Notes are intended as an aid in following lectures
and for review in conjunction with your own notes; however
they are not intended to be a complete textbook. If you spot any
inaccuracy, kindly report it to us so that we can take the
necessary action to rectify the matter.

The information contained in these course notes has been

compiled from various sources and is believed to be reliable and
to represent the best current knowledge and opinion relative to
the subject.

Event Empires and the facilitator offer no warranty, guarantee or

representation as to its absolute correctness of sufficiency.
 Piping Analysis and
Vibration

Fundamentals of Piping Stress

and Static Analysis

&

Dynamic Analysis and Piping

Vibration
Session 1: Introduction of Pipe Stress Analysis 60 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

Objectives & Definition of Stress Analysis

Information Required for Stress Analysis
Critical Line List
Stress Isometrics (sample)
 Objectives & Definition of Stress Analysis
The objective of piping stress analysis is to ensure safety against failure of the
Piping system by verifying the structural integrity against any loading conditions
expected to occur during the lifetime of the system.
So a stress Analyst's basic function to :-
(a) Decide for which governing loading conditions what amount of flexibility must be
provided in the layout.
(1)Sustained

(2)Thermal.

(3)Occasional.

(4)Internal & External forces.

(5)Imposed displacements.

(6)Loads on connecting Equipment

(7)Loads on Supports & Structure.

(8)Leakage at joints.

(9)Vibration.

(10)Overstress & fatigue.

 Objectives & Definition of Stress Analysis (Cont.)

b) To decide best method and

establish that the required flexibility has
been provided in the layout :-

(1)Simplified methods
e.g., Accepting the layout on the basis of
his past experience.
(2) Approximate method.
e.g., Simple cantilever Method, Guided
Cantilever Method, Nomographs,
Manual Calculations.
(3) Performing a comprehensive analysis.
e.g., Computer Analysis.
 Piping Flexibility Requirement

(c) Other factors of considerations are:

• To Prevent:
– Excessive maintenance
– Operations problems
– Damage to Pipes, component & equipment

• To accommodate thermal Movement and prevent pipe clash during operation

or failure.

• Considers layout, support, restraint

• Anticipates stresses and ensures it within allowable limits :

– Elevated design temperatures + Increases pipe thermal stress and
reaction loads + Reduces material strength
– Pipe movement
– Supports and restraints

• Evaluates loads imposed on equipment

• Determines imposed loads on piping system and associated structures

• Loads compared to industry standards

– Based on tables
– Calculated
 Piping Flexibility Requirement (cont)

• Anticipates stresses due to:

– Elevated design temperatures + Increases pipe thermal stress
and reaction loads + Reduces material strength
– Pipe movement
– Supports and restraints

• Evaluates loads imposed on equipment

• Determines imposed loads on piping system and associated

structures

• Loads compared to industry standards

– Based on tables
– Calculated
Information Required & Methodical Approach
 Critical Line-list

Stress Critical Lines are lines that require consideration by the piping stress
group. They are selected with regard to temperature, pressure, size,
equipment connection and abnormal process conditions such as 2-phase
flow, Wind Seismic etc.

The objective of defining a line as “Stress Critical” and creating a “Critical

Line List” is: -

•To ensure that the required level of Stress analysis is applied to the piping
system.
•To provide information on progress of Pipe Stress activities.
Criteria for critical lines (sample)
Critical Line – list ( conted)
Stress Isometrics (sample)
Stress Isometrics (sample)
 Session 2: Pipe Span Calculations (75 minutes

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CAESAR II

Span limitations based on Stress, Deflection &

Natural Frequency

· Allowable Pipe Span Calculations

· Suggested Pipe Support Spacing
· Pipe Span Reduction Factor for Elbows,
Concentrated Loads etc.
· Selection of Supports
· Location of Supports and Restraints

*Practical Examples
 Pipe Span Criteria

The allowable pipe span/spacing depends on the following:

1. Pipe size
2. Pipe configuration
3. Stiffness of the Pipe
4. Weight of the Contents
5. Weight of the Insulation
6. Location of the heavy piping specialties, valves etc.
7. Prevent Pipe vibration and thereby fatigue.
8. Allowable Stress of Pipe Material at Design Temperature.
9. Allowable Sag for appearance, prevent fluid accumulation,
adequate
drainage and Restraints.
Spans limited by Stress & Displacement
Spans Limited by Frequency
Frequency Factors
Spans and Location Of Supports (as per BS 3974)
 Guidelines for location of supports

The location of supports should consider the following guidelines:

• At every changes of direction in a horizontal plane the spacing to

be limited to
75% to promote stability and reduce eccentric loadings.
• Support location should be selected near the existing building steel
to minimize
the use of supplementary steel.
• The standard span does not apply to vertical run pipes (risers) since
no moment
and no stress will develop due to gravity load in the riser.
• Provide space for adding loops to piping near load sensitive
equipment, e.g. in pump suction lines.
• Consider the need to add friction reducing slides between the piping
and support steel.
• Provide supports near instruments, and other devices that are likely
to be removed for maintenance.
• Minimize the use of spring hangers.
Basic Support Principles
Session 3: Flexibility Analysis–Expansion Loops (75 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CAESAR II

. Concept of Thermal Expansion

. Providing Flexibility in Piping
. Minimum Leg Required to Absorb Thermal Expansion
. Types of Expansion Loops
. Expansion Loop Sizing for Hot Piping
. Cold Spring
. Flexibility Analysis using Approximate Methods, M.W. Kellog
Charts.

*Quiz at the end of session to test participants understanding.

 Concept of Thermal Expansion
• When a piping is subjected to change in temperature and if the pipe is not
restrained from expansion, no stresses are developed and the pipe just
expands or contracts.

• When the pipe is restrained, stresses and forces of considerable

magnitude are created.

• The thermal force that is developed when both ends of a hot piping are
restrained is enormous and is also independent of the length of Piping.

Thermal force = E x strain due to expansion x Metal area

F=Ea A

For a Free ended Pipe:

Thermal Displacement = strain due to expansion x Original Length

D=a L
 Sample Problem 1
A. Calculate the force developed in a 20 feet long Carbon steel pipe 10
in.
sch 40 (0.365 in) A53 Grade B subjected to 200°F from an installation
temperature of 70°F.

B. Calculate the maximum displacement if the pipe has a flexibility at the

end.

The expansion coefficient at 200°F is 0.99 in./100 ft (Table C1)

 Restraint Types

Definitions:
Anchor: does not permit the pipe to move or twist in any
direction at the point it is anchored.
Support: prevents downward motion of a pipe at the point.
Stop: Prevents movement parallel to the centerline of the
pipe, but permits sideways pipe motion.
Guide: stops sideways movement of a pipe, but permits
movement parallel to the pipe's centerline.
 Sample Problem 2

Determine Pipe length required for Flexible

pump layout N
Material = A 53 Gr B
Design Temperature = 500 F
Coefficient of Expansion = 0.0365 in/ft
Pipe Size = 6” Sch 40
Nozzle size = 4”

Allowable Load at pump = 800 lb

(4” X 200 lbs/[Link] = 800 lb)

Expansion in E-W = 3 x 0.0362 = 0.12 in

Total Leg in E-W = 5+4+2 = 11 ft

Assume Pump A operating and pump B

standby.

Expansion in N-S = 4 x 0.0362 = 0.15 in

Total leg in N-S = 5 + 3 + 2 = 10 ft

Expansion in Vert = (1+5+2+3)x .0362

= 0.3982 in
Total leg in Vert = 4 + 3 = 7 ft
Sample Problem 2 (Cont)
 Sample Problem 2 (cont)

Result:

Total Leg available in E-W = 5+4+2 = 11 ft

Total Leg required in E-W = 7.8 ft
Total leg available in N-S = 5 + 3 + 2 = 10 ft
Total Leg required in N-S = 9 ft

Total leg available in Vertical = 4 + 3 = 7 ft

Total Leg required in Vertical = 13 ft

The available bending leg in vertical is less than required leg.

Therefore, a minimum of 5'-0" must be added to the N-S or
E-W direction to
be within the maximum allowable force on the pump nozzle.
Nomograph to determine Loop Size
 Merits & Demerits of Approximate method

Merits:
• Solutions are usually obtained from charts or tables,
therefore easy to use
and apply.
• Does not require computer.
Demerits:
• Methods restricted to simple piping configurations with two
terminals
complete fixed and the piping layout usually restricted to
square corners.
• Cannot be applied beyond the restricted proportions of
their geometry.
• Cannot be used for Non-linear analysis.
Cold Pull
 Cold Pull or Cold Spring

This is used to pre-load the piping system in the cold condition in the opposite direction
to the expansion or contraction, so that the effects of expansion or contraction are
reduced.

Cut short: Cut Long:

by shortening the overall length of pipe by inserting a length (making the
length of pipe longer).
by desired amount but not exceeding
Usually for Cryogenic services.
the calculated expansion.
 Cold Spring - Maximum Reactions
An accurate cold spring is difficult to achieve in practice, therefore, B31.3 permits only partial credit in
calculating reaction forces

•As per 319.5.1, for two anchor systems with no intermediate restraints, reactions are estimated at 2/3
of cold spring.
C = cold-spring factor varying from zero for no cold spring to 1.0 for 100% cold
spring. (The factor two-thirds is based on experience which shows that specified
cold spring cannot be fully assured, even with elaborate precautions.)

Ea = reference modulus of elasticity at 21°C (70°F)

Em = modulus of elasticity at maximum or minimum metal temperature
R = range of reaction forces or moments (derived from flexibility analysis)
corresponding to the full displacement stress range and based on Ea
Rm = estimated instantaneous maximum reaction force or moment at
maximum or minimum metal temperature

•For other systems, B31.3 requires that each case be studied to estimate reactions (319.5.2)
•The amount of cold spring (CS) is expressed as a percentage or fraction of thermal
expansion.
•Cold pull has no effect on the code stress range, since the service life of the system is
affected more by the range of stress variation than by the magnitude of stress at a given time.
However, it can be used to reduce the nozzle loads on machinery or vessels.
 Session 3B: Expansion Joints (25 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CAESAR II

. Expansion Joints – Types, Application & Selection

. Guide Spacing for Expansion Joints

. Bellow Materials, Hydrostatic Test Pressure for Bellows

 What is an Expansion Joints?

An expansion joint is a device used to allow movement in a piping

system while
containing pressure and the medium running through it.
Movements caused due to thermal growth, equipment movement,
vibration or
pressure pulsation.
When flexibility for this movement cannot be designed into the piping
system
itself, an expansion joint is the ideal solution.
Expansion Joints – Movements (EJMA)
Expansion Joints – Pressure Thrust
Expansion Joints – Guide Spacing & Application
 Expansion Joints – Unrestrained Type, Guide Spacing & Application
Guide spacing & Anchors are recommended for
•Single bellows assembly or axial unrestrained expansion joints
•Joints not provided with attachments such as tie rods or hinges to restrain pressure
thrust.

Where
G = maximum guide space,
(feet)
P = design pressure,
(psig)
Ae = bellows effective area,
(in 2)
RA = bellows spring rate,
(lb/in)
∆ = axial stroke of bellows,
(in)
MA = Main Anchor
Note:
When in operation a bellows is
compressed, use (+) ∆RA
when extended, use (-) ∆RA
Expansion Joints – Tied Universal Type
Expansion Joints – Hinged Type
Expansion Joints – Gimbal Type
Expansion Joints – Elbow Pressure Balanced
Expansion Joints – In-line Pressure Balanced
Expansion Joints – Externally Pressurised Pressure Balanced

Principle of Operation:
The diagram above shows how the expansion joint is pressurized. The cancelling thrust forces of
the
line bellows and the balance bellows cause this style to be completely pressure balanced
eliminating the need for main anchors. There is no change in pressure when the expansion joint is
moved because the volume does not change. As the line bellows (A) are compressed, the
balancing bellows (B), which has twice the effective area as (A), is extended causing no volume
change.
This type of expansion joint is also seen between two pieces of load sensitive equipment where
minimum forces and moments are required. It is commonly used in steam line installations where
pipe main anchors are far apart. The only loads seen by the equipment are the sum of the axial
force required to compress or extend the line bellows and balancing bellows in the expansion joint.
Modified versions of this style are used in direct burial applications.
Expansion Joints – Equalising Rings
Expansion Joints – Types & Selection
 Expansion Joints – Forces
The static thrust Fs due to internal pressure
where A = effective area corresponding to the mean
diameter of the corrugations, sq in.
p = design line pressure based on most severe condition, psi

The force required to compress or expand the expansion joint in the axial direction
Fm is:
Fm = (axial spring rate of the bellow) x (amount of compression/expansion)

The centrifugal thrust Fp at the elbow due to flow is given by:

where
A = internal area of pipe, sq in.
= density of fluid, lb/fe
V = velocity of flow, ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
= angle of bend
Expansion Joints – Examples
 Expansion Joints – Failure Modes

In-Plane Squirm or Instability

•is a shift of the center section of the
bellows
•caused by excessive internal pressure
and Column Squirm or Instability
made worse as angular movement of the •is a warping of the convolutions causing the
bellows is introduced. side-walls of the convolutions to no longer be
•can be detrimental to a bellows perpendicular to the bellows centerline.
performance.
•usually occurs in bellows with a large •caused by excessive internal pressure
lengthto-
diameter ratio. •Usually occurs in bellows with a small
length-to-diameter ratio.
Fatigue
• Creep-fatigue
• Burst, collapse, over stretching
• Corrosion
• Design Factor = 2.6 on cycles, 3.0 on burst, 2.25 squirm
 Nypro (UK) Ltd, Flixborough Explosion
Process : liquid phase oxidation of cyclohexane
Location : North East England, the United Kingdom
Accident : massive explosion on 1 June, 1974
Fatalities : 28 Injuries : 36
Normal operating temperature = 220ºC
Normal operating pressure = 9 bar (900 kPa)

After one of the reactors cracked, it was decided to temporarily replace the faulty reactor with a “bypass” pipe. To
allow for thermal expansion and because each reactor was fixed in the place, the short interconnecting pipes,
which joint the outlet nozzle of the reactor R4 to the inlet nozzle of the reactor R6, were fitted with bellows B4 and
B6.

The interconnections were horizontal but the bypass was constructed with a sloped middle section in order to
bridge the vertical shift between the nozzles. The unbalanced horizontal forces that result from such an
arrangement led to stresses on the bellows and bypass arrangement for which it was not designed.

The catastrophe was initiated by a rupture of the bypass at the upstream bellows B4 due to fatigue. The rupture
caused an accidental release of cyclohexane and subsequent formation of vapour cloud containing about 30
tonnes of this chemical. The cloud exploded causing 28 fatalities, the near total destruction of the 24 hectare
plant, severe injury to the population outside the plant.
Session 4: Flexibility Analysis using ASME B 31.3 Code Equations (90 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

. Piping Loads – Static & Dynamic

. Static & Dynamic Analysis
. Forces, Moment & Stress Calculations
. Requirements of ASME B 31.3 Code –
Sustained Loads, Thermal Expansion
& Occasional Loads
. Classification of Loads
. Solutions for Piping Loads
. Thermal Expansion Stress – SE and
Code Allowable Thermal Displacement
Stress Range Sa
. Stress Range Reduction Factors – f
. Bending & Torsional Stress
. Formal Analysis Requirements
. Inplane & Outplane Bending Moments
. Stress Intensification Factors – SIF
. Calculation of Thermal Expansion Stress
 Session 5: Principal Stress and Failure Theories (45 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

Causes of Pipe Stress

. Longitudinal, Circumferential and
Radial Stresses
. Principal Axes and Principal Stresses
. Failure Theories:
> Maximum Principal Stress Failure
Theory
> Maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory
 Session 6: Principal Stress and Failure Theories (45 minutes)

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

. Basis for Allowable Stress

. Code Tables for Allowable Stresses
. Wall Thickness Design Equations – ASME B31.3, ASME B31.4, and ASME B31.8
. Calculation of Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP)
. Pressure – Temperature Class Ratings for Flanges
. Determining Appropriate Flange Pressure Class
B31.3 Stresses in Pipe
Uniaxial Test

Kotchmann Research Group

Stress Strain curves
 Methods to measure Failure

•Maximum principal stress (Rankine Theory) – Syield

 Principal (Max. Tensile) stress alone causes failure of the element.

 Eg., Wall thickness calculations due to pressure alone.

The Maximum Tensile stress is always the largest of the Principal stresses
S x = S yeild

In a uniaxial test, when the specimen is at the point of yielding:

S y = S Z=0

Rankine:
Plastic deformation occurs in a three dimensional stress state
whenever the Maximum shear stress exceeds yield S
Methods to measure Failure
Methods to measure Failure
 Methods to measure Failure
•Creep
 Progressive permanent deformation of material subjected to constant Temperature or
stress.

Primary creep: is a period of decreasing creep rate or primarily transient creep.

During this period deformation takes place and the resistance to creep increases until
stage II.

Secondary creep: is a period of roughly constant creep rate or steady state creep.

Tertiary creep: occurs when there is a reduction in cross sectional area due to
necking or effective reduction in area due to internal void formation.
 Methods to measure Failure

•Fatigue
a failure which results from a repetitive load lower than that
required to cause failure on a single application.
Represented by S-N curve.
Piping Load classification & characteristics
 Stress Categorization

•Primary Stresses (Force based)

– Direct
– Shear
– Bending

•Secondary stresses (Strain based)

– Act across pipe wall thickness
– Cause local yielding and minor distortions
– Not a source of direct failure

•Peak stresses
– More localized
– Rapidly decrease within short distance of
origin
– Occur where stress concentrations and
fatigue failure might occur
– Significance equivalent to secondary
stresses
– Do not cause significant distortion
 Stress Categorization (contd)

•Allowable Stresses

It is function of

– Material properties
– Temperature
– Safety factors

It is established to avoid:

– General collapse or excessive distortion from sustained loads

– Localized fatigue failure from thermal expansion loads
– Collapse or distortion from occasional loads
Allowable Stress Basis
Cyclic Loading Shakedown (Markl)
B31.3 Allowable Stress Range
B31.3 Occasional Stress
B31.3 Required Pipe Wall Thickness (304.1.2)
 B321.3 Flexibility and Stress Intensification factors

•The stresses at the ovalized section will be These circumferential stresses

intensified due to: due to bending moment BM
I - The reduction in section modulus. and can be many times the
2 - The added local plate bending in the top value of MY/I obtained by
and bottom fibers. bending theory of structural
members. The factor by
which the circumferential
•Flexibility factor „k‟ and Stress Intensification stresses exceed the
Factors „i‟ for Bends and Tees are shown in longitudinal stresses in the
Appendix D of the Code. These factors have bend is called the "Stress
been determined theoretically and verified
Intensification Factor" called
experimentally by Markl.
S.I.F.
B31.3 Stresses in Bends & Tees
B31.3 Stresses in Bends & Tees
Pipeline Transportation
 B31.4 Stress Requirements (402.3.2)
Expansion Stress (419.6.4):

Restrained (Buried) Lines: Net

longitudinal compressive stress due to
the combined effects of temperature
rise and fluid pressure
B31.4 Stress Requirements (402.3.2)
B31.8 Stress Requirements (833) - Restrained Pipes
B31.8 Stress Requirements (833) - Unrestrained Pipes
B16.5, API 600 Pressure – Temperature Class Ratings for Flanges

Pressure–temperature ratings are maximum allowable

working gage pressures at the temperatures in degrees
Celsius.

The pressure ratings depend only on:

(1) The pressure class

(2) The flange, flanged fitting or valve body material

(3) The service temperature (contained fluid temperature

B16.5, API 600 Determining Appropriate Flange Pressure Class
B16.5, API 600 Determining Appropriate Flange Pressure Class
 Session 7A: Static Analysis

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

• Static Analysis
CAESAR Inputting
CAESAR Graphics & Error checking
 CAESAR Building static load cases
•A load case of a piping system is either a single condition of applied load or a
group of loads occurring at the same time.
Example: As-installed deadweight loads are analysed independently, whereas an
Operating analysis is composed of the thermal, deadweight, and pressure loads
together.

•A load case may also be composed of the combinations of the results of other
load cases.
Example, the difference in displacements between the operating and installed
cases.

•Depending on various piping code definitions of calculation methods and/or

allowable stresses, the load cases are also tagged with a stress category.
Example, the combination mentioned above might be tagged as an EXPansion
stress case.

•No matter what the contents of the load case, it always produces a set of reports
in the output which list restraint loads, displacements and rotations, internal forces,
moments, and stresses.
CAESAR Building static load cases
CAESAR Static load case builder
 CAESAR processing

•The solution phase commences with the generation of the element stiffness matrices
and load vectors, and solves for displacements, forces and moments, reactions, and
stresses.

•This solution phase also performs the design and selection of spring hangers, and
iterative stiffness matrix modifications for nonlinear restraints.
CAESAR Static Output
CAESAR Analysis Menu
 Session 7B: Problem Solving Models

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CEASAR II

•Solving Concentrated Loads and Reducing Loads on Equipment Nozzles

•Equipment Nozzle Load Qualifications
•Checking Piping Layout in Pipe Racks
•Checking Piping Layout for Reciprocating Equipment
•Checking Piping Layout for Wind Load
•Detailed problem solving of a more complex model, including:
o Imposed Thermal Displacements
o Expansion Joint Modelling and Evaluation
o Structural Steel Modelling
o Spring Hanger Design
o Combining Steel with Piping
•Buried Pipe Modelling
*Problem Solving Workshop – detailed example where each participant works
independently,
applying what is learned to solve a variety of stress and equipment load problems.
 Equipment Nozzles and code compliance

Calculated Piping forces and moments at equipment nozzles shall not exceed the
allowable limits. These limits should be mutually agreed with the manufacturers
and the client.
Equipment EvaluationCriteriaorStandard
Rotarypositivedisplacementpumps API676
[Link] Manufacturer‟sallowable
Centrifugalpumps(refineryservice) API610
Centrifugalpumps(chemicalservice) ANSIB73.1
Generalpurposesteamturbines API611,NEMASM-23
Specialpurposesteamturbines API612
Centrifugalcompressors API617
Reciprocatingcompressors API619,Manufacturer‟sallowable
Vessels WRC107
ShellandTubeHeatexchangers WRC107
Air-cooledheatexchangers API661
Flat-bottomstoragetanks API650
FlareStacks API537
Firedheaters API560
 WRC 107
Reaction limits for nozzles on static equipments can be calculated using :
1. Welding Research Council Bulletin 107
2. Finite element analysis
WRC-107
“Local Stresses in …Shells due to
External Loadings” - based on Professor
Bijlaard's theoretical work, with some
adjustments made based on available
experimental data
WRC-107 presents detailed tabular forms for
calculating stresses at four major axis locations.
Stresses at both inside and outside surfaces on
these locations can be readily calculated
following the' step—by-step procedure outlined
in the form.
The final results are the total skin stress
intensities at these four locations in the shell.
No separate membrane stress intensity is given
nor is the stress in the nozzle calculated.
Nozzle load verification using CAESAR

WRC 297 is designed for

larger d/D ratios (up to 0.5),
and that WRC 297 also
computes stresses in the
nozzle and the vessel. (WRC
107 only computes stresses in
the vessel.)
API 610 – Nozzle allowable
API 661 Nozzle allowable
 Pipe Hangers and supports

Pipe Hangers & supports can be broadly classified into the following categories :-
Hangers
 Spring Design
Introducing Hot Load and Cold Load
• Hot Load (HL) is the target load which the hanger should support in the
operating condition.
• Cold Load (CL) is the intentionally incorrect load at which the spring is pre-set, in
order to get to the Hot Load after moving.
Spring Load and Travel table (sample)
 Spring Design

Springs area designed using the formulae :-

Where:
d = Wire diameter in mm
Dm= Mean Diameter of Spring Coil
G = Modulus of Rigidity normally 80,000 N/mm2 (8154.9 Kg/ mm2)
Wc= Total no of working coils
Working coils = Total coils – 2 if Wire dia less than 12.5 mm (cold coiled springs)
Working coils = Total coils – 1.5 if Wire dia more than 12.5 mm (hot coiled springs)
Other physical Dimensions
Lo = Free Length or Un-Loaded Length
OD = Outer Diameter of Spring Coil = Dm + d
ID = Inner Diameter of Spring Coil = Dm - d
When load is applied on a helical coil compression spring it will get compressed by
an amount equal to the Load / Spring constant.
 Session 7C: Flange Leakage

PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS WITH CASAR II

Flange Leakage
 Flange design requirements
Design of flanges require consideration of the configuration and materials of the
flange, bolts, and gasket.

Potential causes of flange failure or leakage are bending stresses in the flange,
localized stress concentrations in the hub, yielding of the bolts, or unloading of
the gasket, causing leakage.

Design of flanges is covered in detail in ASME VIII Division 1 Appendix S of the

ASME Boiler an Pressure Vessel Code; however, it does not address the effect
due to external forces and moments.

Although ANSIIASME Sect. VIII, Division 1 does not address the equivalent
pressure subject, a number of other ASME Codes have sanctioned its
applications.

One source is in ASME Section III, Division 1 – NC (Exhibit 1) which defines

FLANGE DESIGN PRESSURE (Pfd) as the summation of the internal pressure
and external "equivalents". Another is in ANSI B31.1, Appendix II (Exhibit 2). In
both references, the stress allowables for the "equivalent" loading are set higher
than the flange stress allowable limited by the internal pressure loading alone.
ASME III NC 3658.3
 Gasket Factors
There are two practical factors which are commonly used in joint design
involving gaskets.

The m or maintenance factor is the leak pressure ratio used to establish the
clamp force required to ensure an effective gasket seal when the joint is
subjected to internal pressure. This is the pressure on the gasket to prevent
leakage over the line pressure, times a safety factor.

The y or yield factor is used to determine the clamp force required to be

applied to a gasket to ensure that it seats properly to provide a seal.
Stress and Torque Calculations
Stress and Torque Calculations
 Flange leakage using CAESAR
The flange modeler determines the initial pressure on the gasket due
to the tightening of the bolts, and the loss of pressure on the gasket
due to the line pressure and the forces and moments that act on the
flange.
The flange modeler
determines the initial pressure
on the gasket due to the
tightening of the bolts, and
the loss of pressure on the
gasket due to the line pressure
and the forces and moments
that act on the flange. If the
resulting pressure on the
gasket, (i.e. the initial minus all
losses), is greater than the
gasket factor "m", times the
line pressure then the flange is
"safe".
Flange leakage using CAESAR