IONIZING RADIATION
SAFETY
IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
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IONIZING RADIATION SAFETY
RADIATION SAFETY IS THE “SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY TO
PROTECT THE PEOPLE & THE ENVIRONMENT” FROM
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION
DUE TO AVAILABILITY OF A VARIETY OF RADIOISOTOPES
FROM ‘BRIT-MUMBAI’, A CONSIDERABLE NUMBER OF
INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATIONS ARE COMING UP, DUE TO
GOVT’S POLICY “MAKE IN INDIA” & INDUSTRIAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS. THIS EMPLOY RADIATION
SOURCES IN ONE FORM OR THE OTHER.
ICRP (A DIVN. OF IAEA, Vinnea) WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1928
BY ‘INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF RADIOLOGY’ WITH AN
OBJECTIVE TO SET ‘BASIC SAFETY STANDARD
REQUIREMENTS & GUIDES’ IN RADIATION SAFETY AND
PROTECTION.
AERB - DAE, MUMBAI HAS PROMULGATED RADIATION
PROTECTION RULES,1971 THAT THE USE OF RADIATION
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SOURCES ARE KEPT MINIMAL
Industrial Radiography
• Industrial Radiography is a profession with
high-risk of potential hazard.
• Therefore, effective control measures are a
must to control and regulate any activity
involving use of radiation exposure which
will include production, transfer / transport,
acquisition, uses, storage and disposal of
radioactive substances .
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RADIATION PHYSICS
Radiation is defined as the Propagation
of Energy through space or a material
medium in the form of Electro-magnetic
Radiation or Energetic particles.
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RADIATION SOURCES
ARTIFICIAL RADIATION SOURCES FOR
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS :
Industrial Radiography Radioisotope Sources
Conventional xray (kV,mA)/keV) commonly used in Industrial
• Minifocus Gamma Radiography:
• Microfocus
• Nanofocus
High Energy Radiography Sources MeV(Energy)
(MeV / GeV) - 137Cs 0.66
• Neutron Radiography - 60Co 1.17 & 1.33
• Linear accelerator
• Betatron
- 192Ir 0.2 - 1.4
• Cyclotron - 75Se 0.12 - 0.97
• Synchrotron Radiation - 170Tm 0.71 - 0.87
Sources (Research) - 169Yb 0.2 - 50.6
Industrial X-Ray & Gamma Ray
Equipment
Portable X-Ray Unit Stationary/Mobile X-ray System
Ir-192 / Se-75 Gamma Ray Unit C0-60 Gamma Ray mobile unit
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RADIOACTIVITY
Elements having an atomic number greater than 84 such as
Plutonium (Z=84), Radium (Z=88), Uranium (Z=92) etc. are
unstable by nature. These elements continuously emit different
types of powerful radiations. This phenomenon is known as
Radioactivity.
As a result, the atoms of these elements undergo a process
of decay & gradually transform into a new elements
(daughter nuclei). Radioactivity is an irreversible process
and occurs continually all the times. Radioactive radiation
consists of Alpha 42α/ (42He), Beta (0-1e/0-1β)/ β-& Gamma rays (00 ).
DECAY OF 60Co 7
HALF LIFE TIME (T1/2)
THE HALF LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE
DECAY IS THE TIME IN WHICH ½ OF
THE RADIOACTIVE NUCLEUS
DISINTEGRATES. IT IS DENOTED BY
‘T’ / T1/2 . THUS RADIOACTIVITY
EXPONENTIALLY DECREASES WITH
TIME. MATHEMATICALLY, N=N0e-λt
IS THE DECAY EQUATION where
N0=No. of radioactive atoms present
initially when time t= 0 and N = No. of
radioactive atoms present at any time t
λ= Decay / radioactive Constant.
MATHEMATICALLY HALF-LIFE TIME ‘T1/2’
CAN BE EXPRESSED AS T1/2=0.693/λ
i.e = 69.3% average life Decay curve
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Commonly used Gamma emitting Radioactive
sources in industrial radiography
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RADIATION PHYSICS
RADIATION CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS:
1) IonizIng Radiation is of high energy,
capable of penetrating matter, produces
ionization of the atoms, breaks chemical
bonds and causes harm in living matter.
This includes X-rays,γ-rays (Electro-magnetic)
and 42α, β- , & 10n (Energetic Particles)
2) Non-Ionizing Radiation is of lower
energy, not capable of causing ionization.
NIR ranges from extremely low frequency
radiation through audible, microwave and
visible portions of the spectrum into
ultraviolet range. 10
λ
- Increasing Frequency
- Decreasing Wavelength λ
- Increasing Photon Energy hν = hc / λ 11
BACKGROUND RADIATION
It is all around us, some coming from natural
sources and some from artificial sources.
Natural sources include:
Cosmic rays - radiation that reaches the Earth from space
Rocks & soil- some rocks are radioactive & give off
radioactive radon gas
Living things-plants absorb radioactive materials from
the soil and these pass on to the food chain
For a majority of the population, natural sources
contribute maximum background radiation dose.
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BACKGROUND RADIATION
Artificial sources of background radiation include:
Human activity by Creating and using artificial
radiation sources i.e Radioisotope sources, x-ray
systems including LINAC / BETATRON / NEUTRON
CYCLOTRON / SYNCHROTRON.
These result in radioactive waste from nuclear
power stations, radioactive fallout from nuclear
weapons testing & Radioisotopes Waste from
Gamma Sources and Reactors.
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Radioactive waste
Radioactive fallout
PENETRATING POWER OF
RADIATION
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ABSORPTION-SCATTERING-ATTENUATION
X- , Gamma- and Neutron Rays can travel
forever until they hit an object and one
of the 3 reactions occur:
• Transmission,
• Absorption &
• Scattering
Absorption + Scattering = Attenuation
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BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
All ionizing radiations in the form of x-, gamma-γ,
alpha-α, beta-β or neutrons(0n1) are harmful to the
human body and the effect is a very complicated
function of numerous factors normally classified
based on their nature and timing after exposure:
• SOMATIC EFFECTS (1) Acute irradiation i.e. heavy
exposure in a short period of time e.g. erythemia, vomiting,
skin burn, nausea, fatigue, hemorrhage and even death; or
(2) Chronic irradiation i.e. low exposure over a long period
of time e.g. leukemia, thyroid cancer, cataract
• GENETIC / HEREDITARY EFFECTS relate to
genetic injuries to reproductive organs leading to impairment
of hereditary mechanisms and manifest as sterility, physical
deformation, hampered growth & even death of the offspring.
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BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
Also classified based on the severity of exposure:
STOCHASTIC EFFECT: where severity of effect
is regarded as a function of the dose without any
threshold
NON-STOCHASTIC EFFECT: where severity
varies with dose,hence a threshold may occur for it.
DETERMINISTIC: In case of low dose exposure,
ionizing radiation may not produce immediate
consequences but some delayed effects may
appear a long time after the [Link] types
of effects may be late deterministic effects
(cataract) or stochastic effects (radiation induced
cancer/genetic effects)
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RADIATION HAZARDS CONTROL
Basic principle for reducing external
exposure to ionization radiation
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Radiation Hazards Evaluation
The evaluation of external radiation hazards in industrial
radiography is usually done by: INSTRUMENTATION.
AREA MONITORING (GM Survey Meter /Dose Rate Meter/
Scintillation Counter & Direct Reading Pocket Dosimeter
Range:1.5μSv/h-20mSv/h
with warning threshold
Digital &bar indication
GM Survey Meter 0-2mSv Accuracy: 10%
Not affected by tempt/humidity/pressure
PERSONNEL MONITORING (Film / TLD Badges) & Pocket
type instrument Personnel Monitoring
Film Badge TLD Card & TLD Material TLD Reader Glow Curve Profile
based on Caso4 Dy Teflon disc 20
DESIGN OF ENCLOSURE
PLAN OF DOOR ENTRIES METHODS OF SHIELDING
TO THE EXPOSURE ROOM FOR PIPES DUCTS,
SHOWING (a) Incorrect CONDUITES OR CABLES
(b) Correct (c) methods of fitting
(a) Leakage of primary
radiation due to incorrectly
fitted sliding door
(b)Hinged door (c)Sliding door 21
DESIGN OF ENCLOSURE
SCATTERED RADIATION THROUGH ROOF BASIC DESIGN OF EXPOSURE ROOM
• THIS IS EFFECTIVELY REDUCE THE
LEAD DOOR THICKNESS
• RADIATION IS REDUCED BY ABOUT
0.2% 0N EACH SCATTER
Shielding calculation should take into consideration the total dose
from primary & Scatter radiations including usage and Building Factor
Documentation & Layout plan of the Exposure Room shall be submitted
to AERB for approval which include shield calculation, radiation
level estimation & Max. expected radiation inside the shielded
enclosure as well as in all adjacent area 22
RADIATION WARNING SIGNAGE
TRI-FOIL RADIATION SIGNAGE SIZE (250 X 250 mm)
NORMALLY USED AS FOLLOWS
ICRP
RECOMMONDATION
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& ISO-STANDARD
FIELD / OPEN INSTALLATION
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Safety Requirements for X-Ray Equipment
X-ray Tube (max kV mA, filtration & panoramic
tube window marking clearly )
Leakage Radiation:100 - 450kV (1-10 mSv/h )
Filteration: 100 - 450kV ( 2mm Al – 7mm Be )
Cable length & Control cable: Max 20m (For CP
Units HV Cable length 5m – Max 20m based on
application
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Safety Requirements for Gamma Ray
Equipment
Gamma units: comply with the standard ISO 3999
Rad source :comply with C 43515 & Standard ISO 2919
Container Material: Depleted Uranium
Surface leakage radiation: should be < 2mSv/h and 0.02 mSv/h at
1m distance from container surface
Auto locking without key
Locking must prevent if the source is not in storage position
Radiation source can move only when the <onnections are proper
Radiation source must not become loose or be jammed in the
projection sheath.
Collimator should be at least 2TVT (ten value thickness)
All components (Plastic/Rubber) are radiation resistance &
corrosion resistance
the radionuclide in use, its activity and the date when the activity
was determined 26
Storage of Radioactive Source
CONCLUSION
RADIATION WORKERS & PUBLIC IN GENERAL
MUST STRICTLY FOLLOW THE ICRP/AERB
REGULATIONS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES
AGAINST SECONDARY & SCATTERED RADIATION
RADIATION DOSE IS CUMULATIVE
ANNUAL DOSE LIMITS, 50mSv FOR WORKERS &
1mSv FOR PUBLIC
PRINCIPLE FOR REDUCING EXTERNAL EXPOSURE
LESS TIME = LESS EXPOSURE
GREATER DISTANCE = LESS EXPOSURE
MORE SHIELDING = LESS EXPOSURE
BENEFICIARIES SHOULD APPOINT RPO
ALARA
(as low as receivable achievable)
Philosophy must always be followed 28
REFERENCES
*****
• ISNT-BOMBAY WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS FEB1993
• IAEA S.S.115 PUBLICATION 1999
• INTERNET -DIAGRAMS/PICTURES/SLIDE SHARES
• BARC/DRP PUBLICATIONS ON TLD FROM INTERNET
• SURVEY METERS/DOSIMETER PICTURES/DATA FROM
RICH. SEIFERT & Co. – GERMANY
• NUKLEAR – MALAYSIA INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
• INTERNET –NDT / NDE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• INTERNET NUCLEAR PHYSICS
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THANK YOU
*****
[Link]
ISNT-MUMBAI
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DISCOVERY
The earth has been radioactive ever since its
formation into a solid mass over 4½ billion years
ago. However, we have only known about radiation /
radioactivity for just over 121 years
Ernest Rutherford Paul Ulrich Villard
PIONEERS IN RADIATION & RADIOACTIVITY
1895: X-Radiation by Roentgen
1896: Radioactivity by Becquerel
1897: Alpha & Beta rays by Rutherford
1898: Radioactive Elements Polonium, Radium & Thorium by Marie & Pierre
1900: Gamma ray by Villard 31
ABSORPTION
After integration
I0 = incident beam intensity
It = transmitted beam intensity
Hence equation becomes
It=I0 e(-μt)
It can be written as It=I0e(-μ/ρ).ρt where
μ/ρ is called Mass absorption coefficient
Attenuation of x/γ/1n radiation It =I0e(-μt)
by the material depends on
thickness, density, mass of the
material and the attenuation
coefficient similar to x/γ/1n
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SCATTERING
Scattering can be broadly
defined as the redirection
of radiation out of the
original direction of
propagation, usually due
to interactions with
molecules & particles.
Reflection, refraction,
diffraction etc. are
actually all just forms of
scattering 33
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
(Diect & Indirect Actions)
Radiation passing through cells of living organism ions & free
radicals due to RADIOLYSIS OF WATER IN THE CELLS React with cell
components leading to disrupted metabolism, abnormal cell division,
changes in genetic material, early aging & death of the organism.
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