Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Semiconductors
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Pavankumar GosaviIntrinsic vs Extrinsic Semiconductors
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Powered by AIIntrinsic semiconductors are pure forms of semiconductor materials without any significant dopant atoms present. They conduct electricity poorly at room temperature due to the lack of free charge carriers. Extrinsic semiconductors, on the other hand, are doped with impurity atoms to improve their electrical conductivity. Doping involves adding trivalent or pentavalent elements to the semiconductor material. Doping with trivalent elements (acceptor impurities) creates p-type semiconductors by introducing more holes as carriers, while doping with pentavalent elements (donor impurities) generates n-type semiconductors by increasing the number of electrons as carriers. This process significantly enhances the conductivity of the material by providing more charge carriers .
The VI characteristic curve of a P-N junction diode shows current flowing in the forward bias once the forward threshold voltage is exceeded, represented by a steep increase in current. Initial resistance limitations present as shallow curves. In reverse bias, current remains near zero until breakdown voltage is reached, at which point current increases sharply due to breakdown. This curve demonstrates the diode's rectifying ability, as it allows significant current flow in one direction, unlike in reverse bias where the current is minimal until breakdown occurs .
An SCR is in a forward blocking state when forward biased, with junction J2 reverse-biased. It enters the conducting state when the forward break over voltage is exceeded, causing junction J2 to break down. Alternatively, applying a positive voltage to the gate makes junction J3 conduct, injecting carriers into the region and allowing junction J2 to disappear, transitioning the SCR to the conducting state without reaching the break over voltage. The gate current in effect bypasses the need for external voltage breakdown, controlling the switch from off to conducting states .
In a forward-biased LED, electrons in the N-region move to the P-region where they recombine with holes in the lower valence band. The energy difference between these bands is emitted as photons, resulting in visible light. The color of the emitted light depends on the energy gap, which is determined by the semiconductor material. Common materials and their respective light emissions are GaAs for infrared, GaP for red or green, and GaAsP for red or yellow light. The efficiency and wavelength of the LED depend on these intrinsic and extrinsic properties .
Under forward bias, a P-N junction diode has its p-type region connected to the positive terminal and the n-type to the negative terminal. This arrangement reduces the depletion zone width as holes and electrons are pushed toward the junction, eventually allowing current to flow once the potential barrier is lowered enough. Conversely, in reverse bias, the p-type region is connected to the negative terminal and the n-type to the positive terminal, which increases the width of the depletion zone. This increased barrier prevents current flow, turning the diode into an insulator .
The NPN transistor is configured in common emitter mode for its use as an amplifier, where the emitter is grounded, and input is given to the base while the output is obtained from the collector. The transistor must be biased in the active region for amplification, which is achieved by voltage divider biasing using resistors R1 and R2. Rc and Re are collector and emitter resistors, respectively, used to control current and bias the transistor properly. Capacitors Cc1 and Cc2 are coupling capacitors for blocking DC components. This configuration ensures that the transistor remains in its active region for most of the input cycle, allowing it to amplify input signals .
The holding current of an SCR is the minimum current required to keep the SCR in the conducting state once it is on. The latching current, on the other hand, is the minimum current needed to maintain conduction immediately after the gate pulse has turned on the SCR. If the anode current falls below the holding current, the SCR turns off. These currents ensure that the SCR remains conducting only under sufficient load conditions and prevent false triggering when the current drops momentarily. The distinction between these two types of currents affects how reliably the SCR can be used in circuits requiring stable switching behavior .
The photodiode is a P-N junction designed to operate under reverse bias. When light of sufficient energy strikes the photodiode, it generates electron-hole pairs, which results in an increase in current that is approximately proportional to the light intensity. The output voltage is measured across a series-connected load resistor. This behavior makes photodiodes useful in several applications: they are used in consumer electronics such as CD players and smoke detectors, as infrared remote control receivers, and in devices measuring light, such as camera light meters .
Doping a semiconductor with trivalent impurities introduces additional holes into the valence band, which become the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor. This process shifts the Fermi level closer to the valence band compared to an undoped (intrinsic) semiconductor. The energy band diagram for a p-type semiconductor shows a reduced energy gap between the Fermi level and the valence band, indicating higher availability of holes for conduction. The conduction band remains relatively empty due to the lack of electrons as majority carriers .
A PNP transistor operates with the emitter more positive than both the base and the collector. The base is biased negatively with respect to the emitter. When the transistor is in its conducting state, the base current must flow out of the base, making it more negative by about 0.7 volts for silicon devices. Current flows from the emitter to the collector. The emitter is connected to the positive supply voltage VCC through a load resistor RL, limiting the maximum collector current. The base, being more negative than the emitter, controls the flow of electrons, allowing current to flow through the collector-emitter path .