12-52 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

ROTARY DRYERS In addition, these can be sealed for processes requiring special gas
atmospheres and exclusion of outside air.
Description A rotary dryer consists of a cylinder, rotated upon Auxiliary Equipment On direct-heat rotating equipment, a
suitable bearings and usually slightly inclined to the horizontal. The combustion chamber is required for high temperatures and finned
length of the cylinder may range from 4 to more than 10 times its steam coils are used for low temperatures. If contamination of the
diameter, which may vary from less than 0.3 to more than 3 m. Feed product with combustion gases is undesirable on direct-heat units,
solids fed into one end of the cylinder progress through it by virtue of indirect gas- or oil-fired air heaters may be employed to achieve tem-
rotation, head effect, and slope of the cylinder and discharge as fin- peratures in excess of available steam.
ished product at the other end. Gases flowing through the cylinder The method of feeding rotating equipment depends upon material
may retard or increase the rate of solids flow, depending upon characteristics and the location and type of upstream processing
whether gas flow is countercurrent or cocurrent with solids flow. equipment. When the feed comes from above, a chute extending into
Rotary dryers have been classified as direct, indirect-direct, indi- the cylinder may be employed. For sealing purposes or if gravity feed
rect, and special types. The terms refer to the method of heat trans- is not convenient, a screw feeder is normally used. On cocurrent
fer, being “direct” when heat is added to or removed from the solids direct-heat units, cold-water jacketing of the feed chute or conveyor
by direct exchange between flowing gas and solids and being “indi- may be desirable if it is contacted by the inlet hot-gas stream. This will
rect” when the heating medium is separated from physical contact prevent overheating of the metal wall with resultant scaling or over-
with the solids by a metal wall or tube. heating of heat-sensitive feed materials.
Only totally direct and totally indirect types will be discussed exten- Any type of solids conveyor may be suitable for recycle mixing;
sively here, as it must be recognized that an infinite number of varia- however, the most universally applicable is the double-shaft pug-mill-
tions between the two are possible. Their operating characteristics type paddle mixer. This conveyor or mixer should be insulated to pre-
when performing heat- and mass-transfer operations make them suit- vent excessive heat losses from the hot, dry recycle product. To ensure
able for the accomplishment of drying, chemical reactions, solvent uniformity in the recycle operation, a surge storage reserve of recy-
recovery, thermal decompositions, mixing, sintering, and agglomera- cle solids should be installed for startup purposes and in the event of
tion of solids. The specific types included are the following: interruption of product discharge from the cylinder. In recycle opera-
Direct rotary dryer (cooler). This is usually a bare metal cylinder, tions, 50 to 60 percent product recirculation is found economical in
with or without flights. It is suitable for low- and medium-temperature many instances.
operations, the operating temperature being limited primarily by the One method of feeding direct cocurrent drying equipment utilizes
strength characteristics of the metal employed in fabrication. dryer exhaust gases to convey, mix, and predry wet feed. The latter is
Direct rotary kiln. This is a metal cylinder lined on the interior added to the exhaust gases, at high velocity, from the dryer. The wet
with insulating block and/or refractory brick. It is suitable for high- feed, mixed with dust entrained from the dryer, separates from the
temperature operations. exhaust gases in a cyclone and drops into the feed end of the cylinder.
Indirect steam-tube dryer. This is a bare metal cylinder provided The technique combines pneumatic and rotary drying. High thermal
with one or more rows of metal tubes installed longitudinally in the efficiency results from two cocurrent-flow stages operating counter-
shell. It is suitable for operation up to available steam temperatures or currently.
in processes requiring water cooling of the tubes. Pneumatic conveyors are frequently employed as both dry-product
Indirect rotary calciner. This is a bare metal cylinder surrounded conveyors and coolers. Other types of cooling equipment often used
on the outside by a fired or electrally heated furnace. It is suitable for are screw conveyors, vibrating conveyors, and direct or indirect rotat-
operation at medium temperatures up to the maximum which can be ing coolers.
tolerated by the metal wall of the cylinder, usually 650 to 700 K for Dust entrained in the exit-gas stream is customarily removed in
carbon steel and 800 to 1025 K for stainless steel. cyclone collectors. This dust may be discharged back into the process
Direct Roto-Louvre dryer. This is one of the more important spe- or separately collected. For expensive materials or extremely fine par-
cial types, differing from the direct rotary unit in that true through cir- ticles, bag collectors may follow a cyclone collector, provided fabric
culation of gas through the solids bed is provided. Like the direct temperature stability is not limiting. When toxic gases or solids are
rotary, it is suitable for low- and medium-temperature operation. present, the exit gas is at a high temperature, the gas is close to satu-
Field of Application Rotating equipment is applicable to batch ration as from a steam-tube dryer, or gas recirculation in a sealed sys-
or continuous processing solids which are relatively free-flowing and tem is involved, wet scrubbers may be used independently or
granular when discharged as product. Materials which are not com- following a cyclone. Cyclones and bag collectors in drying applications
pletely free-flowing in their feed condition are handled in a special frequently require insulation and steam tracing. The exhaust fan
manner, either by recycling a portion of final product and premixing should be located downstream from the collection system.
with the feed in an external mixer to form a uniform granular feed to Rotating equipment, except brick-lined vessels, operated above
the process or by maintaining a bed of free-flowing product in the ambient temperatures is usually insulated to reduce heat losses.
cylinder at the feed end and, in essence, performing a premixing Exceptions are direct-heat units of bare metal construction operating
operation in the cylinder itself. A properly designed recycle process at high temperatures, on which heat losses from the shell are neces-
will permit processing of many forms of slurry and solution feeds in sary to prevent overheating of the metal. Insulation is particularly nec-
rotating vessels. Direct rotary kilns and indirect calciners without essary on cocurrent direct-heat units. It is not unusual for product
internal flights or other obstructions are often provided with hanging cooling or condensation on the shell to occur in the last 10 to 50 per-
link chains. These may serve as surfaces upon which material can cent of the cylinder length if it is not well insulated.
accumulate until it is no longer sticky, at which time it will break off as For best operation, the feed rate to rotating equipment should be
a granular solid and continue its movement through the cylinder. closely controlled and uniform in quantity and quality. Because solids
Scraper chains may also be provided on indirect calciners to main- temperatures are difficult to measure and changes slowly detected,
tain clean internal walls. most rotating-equipment operations are controlled by indirect means.
As a general rule, the direct-heat units are the simplest and most Inlet and exit gas temperatures are measured and controlled on
economical in construction and are employed when direct contact direct-heat units such as direct dryers and kilns, steam temperature
between the solids and flue gases or air can be tolerated. Because the and pressure and exit-gas temperature and humidity are controlled on
total heat load must be introduced or removed in the gas stream, large steam-tube units, and direct shell temperature measurements are
gas volumes and high gas velocities are usually required. The latter taken on indirect calciners. Product temperature measurements are
will be rarely less than 0.5 m/s in an economical design. Therefore, taken for secondary control purposes only in most instances.
employment of direct rotating equipment with solids containing Equipment which is electrically driven and operated with metal
extremely fine particles is likely to result in excessive entrainment temperatures exceeding 425 K should be provided with auxiliary
losses in the exit-gas stream. drives or power sources. Loss of rotation of a heated calciner or high-
The indirect forms require only sufficient gas flow through the temperature dryer carrying a heavy bed of hot solids will quickly result
cylinder to remove vapors or otherwise complete the internal process. in sagging of the cylinder due to nonuniform cooling.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-53

Direct-Heat Rotary Dryers The direct-heat rotary dryer is usu- Three examples of ordinary gas seals are shown in Fig. 12-61. On
ally equipped with flights on the interior for lifting and showering the direct rotary dryers, few gas seals are intended to be completely
solids through the gas stream during passage through the cylinder. gastight, but by careful control of the internal pressure, generally
These flights are usually offset every 0.6 to 2 m to ensure more con- between 0.25 and 2.5 mm of water below atmosphere, dusting to the
tinuous and uniform curtains of solids in the gas. The shape of the outside is prevented and in-leakage of outside air is minimized.
flights depends upon the handling characteristics of the solids. For Figure 12-61 also illustrates three basic types of trunnion roll-
free-flowing materials, a radial flight with a 90° lip is employed. For bearing assemblies. Antifriction pillow blocks are the most common
sticky materials, a flat radial flight without any lip is used. When mate- on modern dryers; however, when the dryer load requires larger than
rials change characteristics during drying, the flight design is changed a 12.7- to 15.2-cm-diameter bearing on the trunnion shaft, the dead-
along the dryer length. Many standard dryer designs employ flat shaft antifriction bearing is substituted. This represents a considerable
flights with no lips in the first one-third of the dryer measured from cost saving compared with the larger pillow blocks. They are com-
the feed end, flights with 45° lips in the middle one-third, and flights pletely sealed and continuously bathed in lubricant. Pillow-block
with 90° lips in the final one-third of the cylinder. Spiral flights are bushings are less often used. The thrust washers are difficult to seal
usually provided in the first meter or so at the feed end to accelerate against dust, and they draw more power. Thrust roll mountings are
forward flow from under the feed chute or conveyor and to prevent depicted also in Fig. 12-61. These are usually dead-shaft.
leakage over the feed-end retainer ring into the gas seals. Gases are forced through the cylinder by either an exhauster or an
When cocurrent gas-solids flow is used, flights may be left out to exhauster-blower combination. With the latter arrangement it is pos-
the final meter or so at the exit end to reduce entrainment of dry sible to maintain very precise control of internal pressure even when
product in the exit gas. Showering of wet feed at the feed end of a the total system pressure drop is high. When a low-pressure-drop air
countercurrent dryer will, on the other hand, frequently serve as an heater is employed, however, the exhauster alone is usually sufficient,
effective means for scrubbing dry entrained solids from the gas stream as the major gas pressure losses are found in the exit-air ductwork and
before it leaves the cylinder. Some dryers are provided with sawtooth dust collectors. Use of a blower by itself to force gas through the cylin-
flights to obtain uniform showering, while others use lengths of chain, der is an unusual practice, because the internal pressure is above
attached to the underside of the flights, to scrape over and knock the atmospheric and hot air and dust may be blown into the gas seals or
walls of the cylinder, thereby removing sticky solids which might nor- out into the surrounding working areas.
mally adhere to it. In kilns, the chains may contribute significantly to Special designs of direct rotary dryers, such as the Renneburg
heat transfer; however, their use contributes to maintenance costs DehydrO-Mat (Edward Renneburg & Sons Co.), are constructed
when flights are present in direct dryers. Solids sticking on flights and especially to provide lower retention during the falling-rate dry-
walls are usually removed more efficiently by external shell knock- ing period for the escape of internal moisture from the solids. The
ers. In dryers of large cross section, internal elements or partitions DehydrO-Mat is a cocurrent dryer employing a small-diameter shell
are sometimes used to increase the effectiveness of material distribu- at the feed end, where rapid evaporation of surface moisture in the
tion and reduce dusting and impact grinding. Use of internal mem- stream of initially hot gas is accomplished with low holdup. At the
bers increases the difficulty of cleaning and maintenance unless solids- and gas-exit end, the shell diameter is increased to reduce gas
sufficient free area is left between partitions for easy access of a per- velocities and provide increased holdup for the solids while they are
son. Some examples of the more common flight arrangements are exposed to the partially cooled gas stream.
shown in Fig. 12-58. Component arrangements of countercurrent The Louisville type P dryer is a cocurrent dryer developed for the
direct rotary dryers are shown in Fig. 12-59, and those of a cocurrent drying of heat-sensitive polymers. It is designed for use on rather
unit in Fig. 12-60. finely divided and bulky materials which are easily airborne since its
Countercurrent flow of gas and solids gives greater heat-transfer basic design utilizes a discharge cone permitting pneumatic conveying
efficiency with a given inlet-gas temperature, but cocurrent flow can of dried solids from the dryer. Its internal design provides additional
be used more frequently to dry heat-sensitive materials at higher retention time by slowing the progress of the material through the
inlet-gas temperatures because of the rapid cooling of the gas during dryer cylinder, permitting a comparatively high velocity of the drying
initial evaporation of surface moisture. medium without excessive blow-through.
A number of different methods are employed to seal the rotating The Louisville type H dryer is a modified cocurrent dryer with
cylinder and prevent gas leakage through the annular opening be- “flash-drying” characteristics. Its internal arrangements consist of
tween the rotating cylinder and the stationary throat pieces. None is alternating disks and doughnuts which give high differential velocities
an effective solids seal, nor will any function satisfactorily as a gas seal between the drying medium and the solids being processed to
if solids leakage over the retaining ring on the cylinder is permitted. increase the heat transfer and hence the rate of moisture removal.
Design Methods for Direct-Heat Rotary Dryers Direct drying
in a direct-heat rotary dryer is best expressed as a heat-transfer mech-
anism as follows:
Qt = UaV(Δt)m (12-51)
where Qt = total heat transferred, J/s; Ua = volumetric heat-transfer
coefficient, J/(s⋅m3⋅K); V = dryer volume, m3; and (Δt)m = true mean
temperature difference between the hot gases and material, K. When
a considerable quantity of surface moisture is removed from the solids
and the solids temperatures are unknown, a good approximation of
(Δt)m is the logarithmic mean between the wet-bulb depressions of the
drying air at the inlet and exit of the dryer.
Data for evaluating Ua were developed by Miller [Trans. Am. Inst.
Chem. Eng., 38, 841 (1942)], Friedman and Marshall [Chem. Eng.
Prog., 45, 482, 573 (1949)], and Seaman and Mitchell [Chem. Eng.
Prog., 50, 467 (1954)]. These authors all employed relationships that
could be reduced to the form Ua = KGn/D, where K = a proportional-
ity constant, G = gas mass velocity, D = diameter, and n = a constant.
P. Y. McCormick [Chem. Eng. Prog., 58(6), 57 (1962)] compared all
available data. The comparisons showed that flight geometry and shell
speed should be accounted for in the value of K. He suggested that
shell rotational speed and flight number and shape must affect the
overall balance; however, data for evaluating these variables separately
FIG. 12-58 Alternative direct-heat rotary-dryer flight arrangements. are not available. Also, it is not believed that the effect of gas velocity

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12-54 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

FIG. 12-59 Component arrangements of a countercurrent direct-heat rotary dryer. (ABB Raymond/Bartlett-Snow TM.)

FIG. 12-60 Elevation of a 60-in-diameter by 30-ft-long direct-heat cocurrent rotary dryer. To convert inches to centimeters, multiply by
2.54; to convert feet to meters, multiply by 0.3048. (ABB Raymond/Bartlett-Snow TM.)

is toward reducing the surface film thickness around each particle; A theoretical model simulating the operation of both cocurrent and
rather, an increase in gas velocity more likely breaks up more effec- countercurrent rotary dryers which relies on pilot and bench scale
tively the showering curtains of solids and thereby exposes more solids tests to determine parameters which describe solids transport and
surface; i.e., the effect is to increase the a in Ua rather than U. drying rate is described by Papadakis, Langrish, Kemp, and Bahu
The following relationship is recommended for commercial dryers [Drying Technology—An International Journal, 12(1&2), 259
now manufactured in the United States, which usually have a flight (1994)]. For maximum dryer heat-transfer efficiency, dryer fillage
count per circle of 2.4 to 3.0 D and operate at shell peripheral speeds must be sufficient to load the lifting flights fully, as discussed later.
of 60 to 75 ft/min: Unless material characteristics limit the gas temperature, the inlet
temperature is usually fixed by the heating medium employed; i.e.,
Qt = (0.5G0.67/D)V Δtm (12-52) 400 to 450 K for steam or 800 to 1100 K for gas- and oil-fired burners.
= 0.4LDG0.67 Δtm (12-53) The proper exit-gas temperature is largely an economic function. Its
value may be determined as follows:
where Qt = total heat transferred, Btu/h; L = dryer length, ft; D =
Nt = (t1 − t2)/(Δt)m (12-54)
dryer diameter, ft; G = gas mass velocity, lb/(h⋅ft2 of cross section); and
Δtm = log mean of the drying-gas wet-bulb depression at the inlet end where Nt = number of heat-transfer units based upon the gas; t1 = ini-
and exit end of the dryer shell. tial-gas temperature, K; t2 = exit-gas temperature allowing for heat
Typical operating data for cocurrent rotary dryers are given in Table losses, K; and (Δt)m is as defined for Eq. (12-51). Equation (12-54) can
12-18. (Note that the driving force ΔTm must be based on wet-bulb be used to select an exit-gas temperature since it has been found
depression and not on material temperatures. Use of material tem- (empirically) that rotary dryers are most economically operated
peratures, particularly when the dry solids are superheated after dry- between Nt = 1.5 and Nt = 2.5.
ing, will yield conservative results.) The L/D (length-diameter) ratio found most efficient in commer-
In most cases, direct-heat rotary dryers are still sized on the basis of cial practice lies between 4 and 10. If the length calculated previously
pilot-plant tests, because rarely is all the moisture to be removed truly does not fall within these limits, another value of Nt which will place
“free” moisture, and residence time for diffusion is frequently needed. L/D in the proper range may be computed.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-55

(b)

(c)

(a)

FIG. 12-61 Rotary-dryer components. (a) Alternative rotary gas seals. (b) Alternative trunnion roll bearings. (c) Thrust roll assembly. (ABB
Raymond/Bartlett-Snow TM.)

Rotary dryers usually operate with 10 to 15 percent of their volume 0.23L BLG
filled with material. Lower fillage will be insufficient to utilize the θ=ᎏ ⫾ 0.6 ᎏ (12-55)
SN0.9D F
lifters fully, while greater fillage creates the possibility of short-
circuiting feed solids across the top of the bed. Under normal fillage B = 5(Dp)−0.5 (12-56)
conditions, the dryer usually can be made to hold solids long enough
to complete the removal of internal moisture. If the holdup in the where B = a constant depending upon the material being handled and
dryer is not great enough, the time of passage may be too short to approximately defined by Eq. (12-56); Dp = weight average particle
remove all internal moisture, or because of incomplete flight fillage size of material being handled, μm; F = feed rate to dryer, lb dry
performance may be erratic. The effect of fillage on retention time material/(h⋅ft2 of dryer cross section); θ = time of passage, min; S =
and uniformity in rotary dryers has been studied by Miskell and Mar- slope, ft/ft; N = speed, r/min; L = dryer length, ft; G = air-mass veloc-
shall [Chem. Eng. Prog., 52, 1 (1956)]. ity, lb/(h⋅ft2); and D = dryer diameter, ft. The plus sign refers to coun-
Time of passage is defined as holdup divided by feed rate. It can be tercurrent flow and the negative sign to cocurrent flow. To convert
measured directly in rotary dryers if holdup and feed rate can be mea- from British thermal units per hour to watts, multiply by 0.293; to con-
sured directly. Holdup cannot always be measured conveniently on vert from pounds per hour-square foot of cross section to kilograms
large plant dryers, however, unless a period of shutdown occurs when per second-square meter, multiply by 0.00135.
the dryer can be discharged and its contents weighed. Other methods Air-mass velocities in rotary dryers usually range from 0.5 to 5.0
have been resorted to, one of which consists of adding a pound or two kg /(s⋅m2). It is customary to employ the highest air velocity possible
of an inert detectable solid or a radioisotope of a feed constituent to without serious dusting. The amount of dusting occurring during
the feed and analyzing for it in the discharged product. The time operation is a complex function of the material being dried, its physi-
required for the maximum concentration to occur represents the aver- cal state, the air velocity employed, the holdup in the dryer, the
age time of passage. number of flights, the rate of rotation, and the construction of the
The time of passage in rotary dryers can be estimated by the rela- breeching at the end of the dryer. It can be predicted accurately only
tionships developed by Friedman and Marshall (op. cit.), as given by experimental tests. An air rate of 1.4 kg /(s⋅m2) can usually be safely
here: used with 35-mesh solids. Information on the dusting of a number of

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12-56 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

TABLE 12-18 Warm-Air Direct-Heat Cocurrent Rotary Dryers: Typical Performance Data*
Dryer size, m × m 1.219 × 7.62 1.372 × 7.621 1.524 × 9.144 1.839 × 10.668 2.134 × 12.192 2.438 × 13.716 3.048 × 16.767
Evaporation, kg/h 136.1 181.4 226.8 317.5 408.2 544.3 861.8
Work, 108 J/h 3.61 4.60 5.70 8.23 1.12 1.46 2.28
Steam, kg/h at kg/m2 gauge 317.5 408.2 521.6 725.7 997.9 131.5 2041
Discharge, kg/h 408 522 685 953 1270 1633 2586
Exhaust velocity, m/min 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Exhaust volume, m3/min 63.7 80.7 100.5 144.4 196.8 257.7 399.3
Exhaust fan, kW 3.7 3.7 5.6 7.5 11.2 18.6 22.4
Dryer drive, kW 2.2 5.6 5.6 7.5 14.9 18.6 37.3
Shipping weight, kg 7700 10,900 14,500 19,100 35,800 39,900 59,900
Price, FOB Chicago $158,000 $168,466 $173,066 $204,400 $241,066 $298,933 $393,333
*Courtesy of Swenson Process Equipment Inc.
NOTE:
Material: heat-sensitive solid
Maximum solids temperature: 65°C
Feed conditions: 25 percent moisture, 27°C
Product conditions: 0.5 percent moisture, 65°C
Inlet-air temperature: 165°C
Exit-air temperature: 71°C
Assumed pressure drop in system: 200 mm.
System includes finned air heaters, transition piece, dryer, drive, product collector, duct, and fan.
Prices are for carbon steel construction and include entire dryer system (November, 1994).
For 304 stainless-steel fabrication, multiply the prices given by 1.5.

materials in a 0.3- by 2-m rotary dryer has been presented by Fried- one diameter and the remainder being another diameter. It is claimed
man and Marshall (ibid.). Rotary dryers operate at peripheral speeds that this arrangement increases kiln capacity, decreases fuel consump-
of 0.25 to 0.5 m/s. Slopes of rotary-dryer shells vary from 0 to 8 cm/m. tion, and improves product quality. Two types of kilns are depicted in
In some cases of cocurrent-flow operations, negative slopes have been Fig. 12-62. An enlarged cross section near the discharge end (and hot-
used. The radial flight heights in a direct dryer will range from one- gas inlet) reduces the gas velocity and provides increased holdup for a
twelfth to one-eighth of the dryer diameter. The number of flights will “soaking” period at high temperature.
range from 0.6 D to D, where D = diameter, m, for dryers larger than The first rotary kilns used in the United States were very small, 2 by
0.6 m in diameter, and should be designed to carry and shower all the 20 m. Sizes gradually increased and seemed to stop for a period at a
holdup and minimize any kiln action. maximum size of 4 by 150 m. A few much larger units have been in-
Performance and Cost Data for Direct-Heat Rotary Dryers stalled for cement production.
Table 12-18 gives estimating-price data for direct rotary dryers Modern rotary-kiln shells are of all-welded construction. Riding
employing steam-heated air. Higher-temperature operations requir- rings are forged or cast steel; support rollers are forged or cast steel
ing combustion chambers and fuel burners will cost more. The total and, on rare occasions, tool steel. Main bearings are sleeve-type, nor-
installed cost of rotary dryers including instrumentation, auxiliaries, mally bronze. Antifriction bearings are frequently used on very small
allocated building space, etc., will run from 150 to 300 percent of the kilns but never on large units. However, bearings on the pinion shafts
purchase cost. Simple erection costs average 10 to 20 percent of the are normally of the antifriction type.
purchase cost. Gearing is single helical or spur; gear lubrication usually is an auto-
Operating costs will include 5 to 10 percent of one worker’s time, matic spray type. Single drives are used up to 150 kW. Kilns requiring
plus power and fuel required. Yearly maintenance costs will range more than 150 kW may be equipped with dual drives, i.e., two driving
from 50 to 10 percent of total installed costs. Total power for fans,
dryer drive, and feed and product conveyors will be in the range of 0.5
D2 to 1.0 D2. Thermal efficiency of a high-temperature direct-heat TABLE 12-19 Representative Materials Dried in Direct-Heat
rotary dryer will range from 55 to 75 percent and, with steam-heated Rotary Dryers*
air, from 30 to 55 percent. Moisture content, %
A representative list of materials dried in direct-heat rotary dryers is (wet basis)
given in Table 12-19. Heat effi-
Direct-Heat Rotary Kilns One of the most important of the Material dried Initial Final ciency, %
high-temperature process furnaces is the direct-fired rotary kiln. It High-temperature:
replaces the ordinary rotary dryer when the wall temperature exceeds Sand 10 0.5 61
that which can be tolerated by a bare metal shell (650 to 700 K for car- Stone 6 0.5 65
bon steel). Rotary-kiln shells are lined in part or for their entire length Fluorspar 6 0.5 59
Sodium chloride 3 0.04 70–80
with a refractory brick to prevent overheating of the steel with result- (vacuum salt)
ing weakening. Occasionally two linings are used, the one next Sodium sulfate 6 0.1 60
to the shell being an insulating brick. Insulation is infrequently used Ilmenite ore 6 0.2 60–65
on the outside of the shell, and caution must be observed not to over- Medium-temperature:
heat the shell metal by this confinement. When wet feeds are applied Copperas 7 1 (moles) 55
to a kiln lining at the cold end, there may be leakage of liquid through Ammonium sulfate 3 0.10 50–60
the lining to the shell, which will cause trouble if the liquid is corrosive. Cellulose acetate 60 0.5 51
The feed is introduced into the upper end of the kiln by various Sodium chloride 25 0.06 35
(grainer salt)
methods, i.e., inclined chutes, overhung screw conveyors, slurry pipes, Cast-iron borings 6 0.5 50–60
etc. Sometimes ring dams or chokes of a refractory material are Styrene 5 0.1 45
installed within the kiln to build a deeper bed at one or more points, Low-temperature:
thus changing the flow pattern. The hot product is discharged from Oxalic acid 5 0.2 29
the lower end of the kiln into quench tanks, onto conveyors, or into Vinyl resins 30 1 50–55
cooling devices which may or may not recover its heat content. These Ammonium nitrate prills 4 0.25 30–35
cooling and heat-recovery devices include rotating inclined cylinders, Urea prills 2 0.2 20–30
Urea crystals 3 0.1 50–55
inclined slow-moving grates, shaking grates, etc.
Some kilns have two or three diameters, part of the length being *Taken from Chem. Eng., June 19, 1967, p. 190, Table III.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-57

position toward the trough between the charge chord and the
descending kiln lining. The kiln and the hood (combustion chamber)
usually have open ends which coincide with each other with the gap
being closed by a sliding seal (Fig. 12-63). Sometimes a special offset
chamber for the introduction of secondary tempering air is provided
on dryers and kilns (Fig. 12-64).
The exhaust gases are generally discharged into dust and fume
knockdown equipment to avoid contamination of the atmosphere.
Gas-cleaning equipment includes cyclones, settling chambers, scrub-
bing towers, and electrical precipitators. Heat-recovery devices are
utilized both within and outside the kiln. These result in an increase in
(a) kiln capacity or a decrease in fuel consumption. Waste-heat boilers,
grates, coil systems, and chains are used for this purpose.
The feed end of a rotary kiln is partially closed by a ring-shaped
feed head which retains the end brick and dams back flow of solids.
On the discharge end, a brick retaining-ring casting is made up to suit
the application. For low temperatures, segmental alloy-iron rings may
be employed. For high-temperature processes, either segmental
(b) alloy-steel rings or kiln ends of the air-cooled type are employed; the
latter provides longer life for both kiln end and the brick ring.
FIG. 12-62 Rotary kilns. Efficient air seals are essential for the controlled and economical
operation of kilns. They reduce outside air entrance; certain types
pinions and two motors, both driving one bull gear. In this manner, the effectively prevent entrance of all outside air. The simplest type of air
power load is split through two separate driving mechanisms, meshing seal is a floating T-section ring mounted on a wearing pad around the
with one and the same gear. feed end of the kiln and free to slide with expansion of the kiln shell.
Kiln inclination varies wtih processes from 2 to 6 cm/m. Speed of The web of the T ring is confined within circular retainer plates. Fig-
rotation also varies from very slow, i.e., a peripheral speed of 0.15 m/s ure 12-65 shows two arrangements. The floating-type discharge-end
for a TiO2 pigment kiln, or 0.22 m/s for a cement kiln, to 0.64 m/s for air seal consists of a circular bar which floats on a wearing pad and
a unit calcining phosphate materials. which can be moved to provide the desired operating clearance
Special features include the discharge end designed for air cooling between air seal and firing hood. The floating ring and the fixed por-
or kilns that operate at high temperatures, such as cement, dead- tion of these seals can be furnished with renewable wearing surfaces.
burned dolomite, and magnesia. Firing hoods are designed with re- Air infiltration through this type of seal is usually less than 10 percent
tractable fronts and large side doors and are mounted on wheels. (Allis-Chalmers Corporation). For further reduction of air infiltration,
Internal heat recuperators are of numerous designs and are becoming lantern-ring-type floating seals, pressurized with inert gas or stack
more popular as fuel prices increase. Thermocouple collector rings are gases, are employed. Accelerated drying of slurries in the feed end of
placed at various points on the shell for indicating and recording inter- rotary kilns in wet-process operations is achieved by installation of
nal temperatures. hanging chains. Conveying spirals support suspended lengths of chain
Scoop systems are provided for introducing collected dust or, in which are arranged in such a way that they form an effective pattern
some cases, a feed component through the shell at some intermediate for drying. With the chain system, slurry is heated in three ways: by
point or points. Ports are installed in the shell for admitting combus- direct transfer from chains after suspension in hot gases, by lifting
tion air at points beyond the hot zone; these are used in reducing kilns material into the path of hot gases, and by directing the flow of hot gas
for burning carbon monoxide and volatiles from materials being over the slurry bed in the space formed under the suspended chains.
processed. Frequently, the product forms into uniformly sized pellets which
Firing may be accomplished at either end, depending on whether progress through the rest of the kiln in that form, resulting in
cocurrent or countercurrent flow of the charge and gases is desired. improved heat transfer and reduced dust losses (Fig. 12-66).
Sometimes a solid fuel is mixed with the charge and burned as it Design Methods for Rotary Kilns In rotary kilns, the material is
moves down the kiln. Gaseous, liquid, or powdered fuels may be used. not showered through the air stream but is retained in the lower part
The burner may be installed directly at the end of the kiln with com- of the cylinder. Gas-solids contacting is much less efficient than in
bustion occurring inside it. In this case, the discharge-end housing flighted units. Heat transfer is by radiation and convection from the
usually consists of a fixed or movable kiln hood through which the fuel flowing gas to the kiln brick and exposed bed surface and by radiation
pipe enters the kiln. A center position for the fuel pipe is used when from the brick to the bed. For units employing separate combustion
the flame is wanted off the charge. Some users prefer an off-center chambers, it can be assumed that at high temperatures the wall-film

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIG. 12-63 Alternative kiln firing hoods. (a) Plain firing hood. (b) Hood for high temperatures. (c) Hood with enlarged combus-
tion-air passage. (d) Hood with cooler connection. (Allis-Chalmers Corporation.)

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12-58 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

FIG. 12-64 Dryer firing hood with air-tempering chamber. (ABB Raymond/Bartlett-
Snow TM.)

1. Drying zone at feed end, when moisture is removed

2. Heating zone, where the charge is heated to the reaction tem-
perature, i.e., the decomposition temperature for limestone or “burn-
ing” temperature for cement
3. Reaction zone, in which the charge is burned, decomposed,
reduced, oxidized, etc.
4. Soaking zone, where the reacted charge is superheated or
“soaked” at temperature or, if desired, cooled before discharge
The rates of heat transfer in each zone will be different.
Rotary kilns operate at various temperatures throughout their
length. A graph of approximate gas and charge temperatures for wet-
process cement is shown in Fig. 12-67. The maximum charge temper-
ature is 1700 to 1800 K; for the gases, 1800 to 1925 K. Overall
heat-transfer rates have been estimated to be in the range of 25 to
60 KJ/(s⋅m3) on the basis of total kiln volume.
Some commercial performance data for cement and lime kilns are
(a) (b) shown in Table 12-20.
Some of the other major uses of direct rotary kilns are in the fol-
FIG. 12-65 Kiln-seal arrangements. (a) Single-floating-type feed end air seal.
(b) Single-floating-type air seal on an air-cooled tapered feed end. (Allis- lowing processes:
Chalmers Corp.) Roasting. Rotary kilns are used for oxidizing and driving off sulfur
and arsenic from various ores, including gold, silver, iron, etc. Tem-
peratures employed will vary from 800 to 1600 K.
Chloridizing. Silver ores are chloridized successfully in rotary kilns.
Temperatures must be closely controlled between 1030 and 1090 K.
Black ash. Barium sulfide (BaS) is produced by calcining a mix-
ture of barite (BaSO4) and carbon at a temperature of 1350 K in con-
tinuous rotary kilns.
Spodumene. A mixture of quartz, feldspar, and spodumene is
being calcined in rotary kilns at 1475 K to produce lithium aluminum
silicate.
Vermiculite. A micaceous mineral is roasted to cause exfoliation
for use as an insulating material.
Revivification. Temperatures of 800 to 1030 K are used to revivify
fuller’s and diatomaceous earth, although for some earths lower tem-
FIG. 12-66 Kiln chain installation (patented). (Allis-Chalmers Corp.) peratures are employed.

resistance to convection heat transfer from the gas to the brick is lim-
iting and that at any point the bed temperature approaches the wall
temperature. Hence, the effective heat-transfer area is the inner kiln
surface. For kilns under these conditions, the following empirical rela-
tionship is recommended for the convection heat-transfer coefficient
from gas to brick:
Us = 23.7G0.67 (12-57)
where Us = heat-transfer coefficient, J/(m2⋅s⋅K) [(Btu/(h⋅ft2 kiln sur-
face⋅°F)]; and G = gas mass flow rate, kg /(s⋅m2 kiln cross section)
[lb/(h⋅ft2)].
Equation (12-57) does not account for gas radiation at high tem-
perature when the kiln charge can “see” the burner flame; hence, the
method will yield a conservative design. When a kiln is fired internally,
the major source of heat transfer is radiation from the flame and hot
gases. This occurs directly to both the solids surface and the wall, and
from the latter to the product by reradiation (with some conduction).
Generally, a dry-feed kiln will have three zones of heating, and a
wet-feed kiln will have four: FIG. 12-67 Temperatures in rotary kiln on wet-process cement.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-59

TABLE 12-20 Typical Rotary-Kiln Installations*

Nominal 24-hr. capacities‡
Usual Range of Portland cement,
No. motor hp. 376-lb. bbl. Lime, net tons
of to
Size, diam. × length supports operate† Dry process Wet process Lime sludge Limestone
5 × 80 ft. 2 5–7.5 140 100 10 16
6 × 70 ft. 2 7.5–15 190 135 15 24
7 × 70 ft. 2 15–20 275 200 20 35
5 ft. 6 in. × 180 ft. 4 15–20 285 250 30 45
7 × 120 ft. 2 15–25 475 340 35 55

7 ft. 6 in. × 125 ft. 2 20–30 575 415 40 70

6 × 220 ft. 4 20–30 420 375 45 65
8 × 140 ft. 2 25–30 750 540 55 90
9 × 160 ft. 2 30–50 1100 800 80 130
8 ft. 6 in. × 185 ft. 4 30–50 1125 810 80 135

10 × 150 ft. 2 40–75 1300 950 — 145

10 × 175 ft. 2 50–75 1500 1100 — 155
8 × 300 ft. 5 50–75 1150 1000 110 160
7 ft. 6 in. × 8 ft. 6 in. × 320 ft. 5 50–75 1175 1020 115 165
7 ft. 6 in. × 10 ft. × 8 ft. 6 in. × 300 ft. 5 50–75 1175 1020

10 × 11 × 175 ft. 2 50–75 1650 1200 120 180

10 ft. 6 in. × 185 ft. 2 50–75 1800 1300 130 190
11 × 175 ft. 2 60–100 1850 1375 — 205
8 ft. 6 in. × 10 ft. × 8 ft. 6 in. × 300 ft. 5 50–75 1400 1200
8 × 10 × 300 ft. 5 50–75 1425 1225 140 200

9 ft. 6 in. × 265 ft. 4 60–100 1500 1300 150 215

9 × 10 ft. 6 in. × 9 ft. × 325 ft. 5 60–100 1700 1500
10 ft. 6 in. × 250 ft. 4 60–100 1750 1525 175 240
9 ft. 6 in. × 11 ft. × 9 ft. 6 in. × 300 ft. 5 60–100 1800 1550
10 × 300 ft. 5 75–125 1900 1650 190 250

9 ft. 6 in. × 11 ft. × 9 ft. 6 in. × 375 ft. 6 75–125 2025 1800
11 × 300 ft. 5 75–125 2400 2100 225 300
11 ft. 6 in. × 300 ft. 4 100–150 2600 2250 240 320
10 ft. 6 in. × 375 ft. 5 100–150 2700 2400 250 325
11 ft. 3 in. × 360 ft. 5 125–175 2900 2500 275 350

11 ft. 6 in. × 475 ft. 7 150–250 4000 3500 375 450

12 × 500 ft. 8 200–300 4600 4000 425 500
*Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Co.
†Power requirements vary according to size of kiln, character of material handled, and method of operation.
‡Capacities indicated are conservative, and apply to normal operation at sea level. Corrections would apply at increased altitudes, and for differing methods of
operation.

Zinc. Oxidized ores are calcined to drive off water of hydration produced. Magnesium hydroxide, recovered from seawater or salt
and carbon dioxide. The sulfide ore is always roasted before smelting. brine, is also being treated in a similar manner except that it is added
Titanium oxide (TiO2). This is produced from ilmenite ore by mix- in the form of a sludge.
ing ore with carbon and heating in a rotary kiln. Also, the rotary kiln is Sodium aluminum sulfate. This product is now being successfully
used in the process of recovery of titanium oxide from hydrated tita- calcined in rotary kilns. In this process, the salt cake is broken up just
nium precipitate at about 1250 K. before it enters the kiln. Calcination is for the purpose of driving off
Roofing granules. Crushed quartz or sand of definite size is the combined water (45 percent) and sulfuric acid (3 percent). Tem-
treated with various minerals, borax, soda ash, etc., and calcined at peratures employed are approximately 800 K.
temperatures ranging from 1250 to 1600 K. Glass of different colors Phosphate rock. In this application, the rotary kiln is used to
forms on the surface of the granules at various temperatures. An oxi- nodulize the fines in the ore and prepare them for electric-furnace
dizing or reducing flame is used to influence the final coloring. operation. Ore under 5 cm in size and containing 50 percent or more
Alumina (Al2O3). Alumina is produced by calcining either bauxite minus 100 mesh is calcined. Ore nodulizes at approximately 1475 to
or aluminum hydroxide in rotary kilns at temperatures from 1250 to 1500 K.
1600 K. In obtaining the highest-purity alumina, the bauxite is Mercury. In recovering mercury from cinnabar ores, the ore is
digested with alkali to remove impurities; the resultant aluminum crushed to minus 1.5 cm and fed to rotary kilns, where it is calcined to
hydroxide [Al2(OH)3], of approximately 200-mesh size, is then cal- over 800 K. Since the mercury exists as mercuric sulfide (HgS), the
cined in rotary kilns at 1350 K. sulfur is oxidized to SO2 and the mercury vaporized. The gases are
Potassium salts. In this operation, potassium chloride (KCl) is passed through cooling chambers, where the mercury condenses and
introduced to the rotary kiln at a fineness of minus 100 mesh and con- is collected. Mercury vaporizes at 625 K.
taining 9 percent water. The salt is brought to the fusion temperature Gypsum. The rotary kiln is rapidly replacing the kettle in producing
of 1048 K. plaster of paris. Great care is required, as the temperatures for reaction
Magnesium oxide. The natural minerals, i.e., magnesite (MgCO3), are low and within narrow limits, 382 to 403 K. Gypsum (CaSO4⋅2H2O)
brucite [Mg(OH)2], etc., after being crushed to predetermined size, is heated to drive off three-fourths of the water of crystallization to pro-
are calcined at temperatures varying from 1055 to 2000 K, depending duce plaster of paris [(CaSO2)⋅H2O]. Any overheating drives off all the
upon whether a caustic or a dead-burned product (periclase) is being water, producing gypsite (CaSO4), which is unsatisfactory.

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12-60 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

Clay. To produce lightweight aggregate for concrete, clay is cal- lized in the kiln and that recovered (or utilized) outside the kiln. With
cined in rotary kilns. Temperatures employed vary from 1350 to 1600 countercurrent flow of the combustion gases and the charge material,
K. The apparent density of the clay is reduced by 50 to 75 percent. an exceptionally long kiln will give high efficiencies within itself. How-
Iron ores. Crushed iron ores are partially reduced in rotary kilns ever, good economics may dictate that a shorter kiln be installed with
to obtain nodules which are used in blast-furnace charges. a waste-heat boiler on the hot gases to obtain an equivalent thermal
Manganese. Manganese ore, rhodochrosite, or manganese car- efficiency at a lower investment. The heat in the hot product usually is
bonate (MnCO2) is calcined at about 1525 K to produce the oxide recovered as preheat in the combustion air.
(Mn3O4). When the oxide ore is available but is in a finely divided Size Segregation in Kilns When an assemblage of solid parti-
state, the rotary kiln is used only for nodulizing. cles, not very closely screened, is rotated within a cylinder, the solids
Petroleum coke. In order to eliminate excess volatile matter, assume a lunar shape, as shown in Fig. 12-68. This causes serious size
petroleum coke is calcined at temperatures of 1475 to 1525 K. This is segregation. The finest sizes remain at the bottom, in contact with the
a sensitive material, and temperature control is difficult to maintain. hot brick. The coarser particles form the upper layer of the agitated
When it is desired to increase the capacity of an existing kiln instal- mass. As the kiln completes a revolution, the exposed brick, in an
lation, consideration should be given to the following changes: upper position, absorbs sensible heat from the gas mass. As the heated
1. Increase charge volume held in kiln. brick completes its circuit, it passes under and is in conductive contact
2. Increase temperature and quantity of combustion gases. with the fine particles. These fines are thus effectively heated by
3. Decrease quantity of air in excess of combustion needs. direct solid-to-solid transfer. The larger particles are heated by direct
4. Increase speed of rotation of kiln. radiation from gas and brick, and become adequately calcined. The
5. Install ring dams at intermediate and discharge points. particles of size intermediate between the fine and coarse remain,
6. Increase capacity of feeding and discharge mechanisms. throughout a complete revolution, “sandwiched” between the coarse
7. Decrease moisture content of feed material. and fine layers and are protected from heat by the excellent insulation
8. Increase temperature of feed material. properties of these layers, thus perhaps escaping complete calcina-
9. Install chains or flights, etc., in feed end. tion. This factor of segregation is offset by some kiln operators who
10. Preheat all combustion air. classify or screen the kiln feed so that only a narrow range of particle
11. Reduce leakage of cold air into kiln at hot end. size is fed at one time. Also, faster kiln speeds which give a better agi-
12. Increase stack draft by increasing height or by use of jets. tation of the charge are used.
13. Install instrumentation to control the kiln at maximum- Rotary kilns are usually operated with between 3 and 12 percent of
capacity conditions. their volume filled with material; 7 percent is considered normal.
The time of passage in rotary kilns (from which holdup can be cal- Cost Data for Kilns Purchase prices, weights, and horsepower
culated) can be estimated by the following formula (U.S. Bur. Mines requirements of typical units are given in Table 12-21. Installed costs
Tech. Pap. 384, 1927): will run to from 300 to 500 percent of purchase cost. Maintenance will
average 5 to 10 percent of the total installed cost per year but is
θ = 0.19L/NDS (12-58)
dependent largely on the life of the refractory lining.
where θ = time of passage in the kiln, min; L = kiln length, ft; N = rota- For estimating purposes refractory lining for a 2.7- to 3.4-m-
tional speed, r/min; S = slope of kiln, ft/ft; and D = diameter inside diameter kiln costs $6000 to $15,000 per meter of kiln length installed
brick, ft. Other equations for estimating the time of passage employ- (50 percent material, 50 percent labor).
ing internal dams and a discharge dam are given by Bayard [Chem. A discussion of retention time in rotary kilns is given in Brit. Chem.
Metall. Eng., 52(3), 100–102 (1945)]. Eng., 27–29 ( January 1966). Rotary-kiln heat control is discussed in
The total power required to drive a rotary kiln or a dryer with lifters detail by Bauer [Chem. Eng., 193–200 (May 1954)] and Zubrzycki
can be calculated by the following formulas (courtesy of ABB Ray- [Chem. Can., 33–37 (February 1957)]. Reduction of iron ore in rotary
mond). For a rotary kiln or calciner without lifters, kilns is described by Stewart [Min. Congr. J., 34–38 (December
N [18.85y (sin B)w + 0.1925DW + 0.33W] 1958)]. The use of balls to improve solids flow is discussed in [Chem.
bhp = ᎏᎏᎏᎏᎏ (12-59) Eng., 120–222 (March 1956)]. Brisbane examined problems of shell
100,000 deformation [(Min. Eng., 210–212 (February 1956)]. Instrumentation
For a rotary dryer or section of a kiln with lifters, is discussed by Dixon [Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 1436–1441
N (4.75dw + 0.1925DW + 0.33W) ( July 1954)], and a mathematical simulation of a rotary kiln was devel-
bhp = ᎏᎏᎏᎏ (12-60) oped by Sass [Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 532–535 (October
100,000 1967)]. This last paper employed the empirical convection heat-
where bhp = brake horsepower required (1 bhp = 0.75 kW); N = rota- transfer coefficient given previously, and its use is discussed in later
tional speed, r/min; y = distance between centerline of kiln and the correspondence [ibid., 318–319 (April 1968)].
center of gravity of material bed, ft; B = angle of repose of material; Indirect-Heat Rotary Steam-Tube Dryers Probably the most
W = total rotating load (equipment plus material), lb; w = live load common type of indirect-heat rotary dryer is the steam-tube dryer
(material), lb; D = riding-ring diameter, ft; and d = shell diameter, ft. (Fig. 12-69). Steam-heated tubes running the full length of the cylin-
For estimating purposes, let D = (d + 2). der are fastened symmetrically in one, two, or three concentric rows
Drive motors should be of the high-starting-torque type and inside the cylinder and rotate with it. Tubes may be simple pipe with
selected for 1.33 times maximum rotational speed. For two- or three- condensate draining by gravity into the discharge manifold or bayo-
diameter kilns, the brake horsepower for the several diameters should net-type. Bayonet-type tubes are also employed when units are used
be calculated separately and summed. Auxiliary drives should be pro-
vided to maintain shell rotation in the event of power failure. These
are usually gasoline or diesel engines.
Thermal Efficiency of Rotary Kilns Kiln length is a major fac-
tor in determining thermal efficiency, and kilns with a high ratio of
length to diameter have a greater thermal efficiency than those with a
low ratio. The use of chains inside the kiln and of heat-recovery equip-
ment on the gases and product leaving the kiln can increase substan-
tially the thermal efficiency of a kiln installation. Efficiencies ranging
from 45 to more than 80 percent have been reported. A reasonably
satisfactory range based on present fuel prices and construction costs
would be 65 to 75 percent utilization and recovery of the heat content
of the fuel plus any heat of reaction of the charge. No distinction is
made from an efficiency-calculation standpoint between the heat uti- FIG. 12-68 Size segregation of solids in a rotary kiln.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-61

TABLE 12-21 Approximate Purchase Costs and Weight of product discharges through peripheral openings in the shell in ordi-
Rotary Kilns* nary dryers. These openings also serve to admit purge air to sweep
Total purchase price includes
moisture or other evolved gases from the shell. In practically all cases,
drive, burner, and controls gas flow is countercurrent to solids flow. To retain a deep bed of mate-
Kiln size, diameter × length (not including brick)† rial within the dryer, normally 10 to 20 percent fillage, the discharge
openings are supplied with removable chutes extending radially into
8′0″ × 80′0″ $ 448,000 the dryer. These, on removal, permit complete emptying of the dryer.
8′0″ × 140′0″ 600,000
8′0″ × 200′0″ 960,000 Steam is admitted to the tubes through a revolving steam joint into
8′0″ × 300′0″ 1,240,000 the steam side of the manifold (Fig. 12-70). Condensate is removed
9′0″ × 250′0″ 1,373,000 continuously, by gravity through the steam joint to a condensate
9′0″ × 300′0″ 1,545,000 receiver and my means of lifters in the condensate side of the manifold.
10′0″ × 100′0″ 682,000 By employing simple tubes, noncondensables are continuously vented
10′0″ × 150′0″ 965,000 at the other ends of the tubes through Sarco-type vent valves mounted
10′0″ × 250′0″ 1,502,000 on an auxiliary manifold ring, also revolving with the cylinder.
10′0″ × 300′0″ 1,682,000
10′0″ × 350′0″ 1,779,000
Vapors (from drying) are removed at the feed end of the dryer to
10′6″ × 175′0″ 1,182,000 the atmosphere through a natural-draft stack and settling chamber or
10′6″ × 250′0″ 1,677,000 wet scrubber. When employed in simple drying operations with 3.5 ×
10′6″ × 350′0″ 1,942,000 105 to 10 × 105 Pa steam, draft is controlled by a damper to admit only
11′0″ × 160′0″ 1,213,000 sufficient outside air to sweep moisture from the cylinder, discharging
11′0″ × 250′0″ 1,670,000 the air at 340 to 365 K and 80 to 90 percent saturation. In this way,
11′0″ × 300′0″ 1,858,000 shell gas velocities and dusting are minimized. When used for solvent
11′0″ × 350′0″ 2,344,000 recovery or other processes requiring a sealed system, sweep gas is
11′0″ × 400′0″ 2,544,000
11′6″ × 160′0″ 1,251,000 recirculated through a scrubber-gas cooler and blower.
11′6″ × 250′0″ 1,768,000 Steam manifolds for pressures up to 10 × 105 Pa are of cast iron. For
11′6″ × 350′0″ 2,393,000 higher pressures, the manifold is fabricated from plate steel, stay-
11′6″ × 425′0″ 2,676,000 bolted, and welded. The tubes are fastened rigidly to the manifold
12′0″ × 250′0″ 1,837,000 face plate and are supported in a close-fitting annular plate at the
12′0″ × 325′0″ 2,598,000 other end to permit expansion. Packing on the steam neck is normally
12′0″ × 400′0″ 2,645,000 graphite-asbestos. Ordinary rotating seals are similar in design to
12′0″ × 450′0″ 3,570,000
13′0″ × 500′0″ 4,388,000
those depicted in Fig. 12-61, with allowance for the admission of small
14′0″ × 400′0″ 4,155,000 quantities of outside air when the dryer is operated under a slight neg-
16′6″ × 600′0″ 8,190,000 ative internal pressure.
Steam-tube dryers are used for the continuous drying, heating, or
*Courtesy of Fuller Co. cooling of granular or powdery solids which cannot be exposed to
†Prices for January 1982
ordinary atmospheric or combustion gases. They are especially suit-
able for fine dusty particles because of the low gas velocities required
as water-tube coolers. When handling sticky materials, one row of for purging of the cylinder. Tube sticking is avoided or reduced by
tubes is preferred. These are occasionally shielded at the feed end of employing recycle, shell knockers, etc., as previously described; tube
the dryer to prevent buildup of solids behind them. Lifting flights are scaling by sticky solids is one of the major hazards to efficient opera-
usually inserted behind the tubes to promote solids agitation. tion. The dryers are suitable for drying, solvent recovery, and chemi-
Wet feed enters the dryer through a chute or screw feeder. The cal reactions. Steam-tube units have found effective employment in

FIG. 12-69 Steam-tube rotary dryer.

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12-62 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

(a)

FIG. 12-71 Effect of steam pressure on the heat-transfer rate in steam-tube

dryers.

temperatures than can be obtained in steam-heated rotating equip-

ment. They generally require a minimum flow of gas to purge the cylin-
der, to reduce dusting and are suitable for gas-sealed operation with
oxidizing, inert, or reducing atmospheres. Indirect calciners are widely
utilized and some examples of specific applications are as follows:
1. Activating charcoal
2. Reducing mineral high oxides to low oxides
3. Drying and devolatilizing contaminated soils and sludges
4. Calcination of alumina oxide-based catalysts
5. Drying and removal of sulfur from cobalt, copper, and nickel
(b) 6. Reduction of metal oxides in a hydrogen atmosphere
7. Oxidizing and “burning off ” of organic impurities
FIG. 12-70 Rotary steam joint for a standard steam-tube dryer. (a) Section of
8. Calcination of ferrites
cast-steam manifold. (b) Section of manifold and steam joint.
This unit consists essentially of a cylindrical retort, rotating within a
stationary insulation lined furnace. The latter is arranged so that fuel
combustion occurs within the annular ring between the retort and the
soda-ash production, replacing more expensive indirect-heat rotary furnace. The retort cylinder extends beyond both ends of the furnace.
calciners. These end extensions carry the riding rings and drive gear. Material
Special types of steam-tube dryers employ packed and purged seals may be fed continuously at one end and discharged continuously at
on all rotating joints, with a central solids-discharge manifold through the other. Feeding and solids discharging are usually accomplished
the steam neck to reduce the seal diameter. This manifold contains with screw feeders or other positive feeders to prevent leakage of
the product discharge conveyor and a passage for the admission of gases into or out of the calciner.
sweep gas. Solids are removed from the shell by special volute lifters In some cases in which it is desirable to cool the product before
and dropped into the discharge conveyor. Units have been fabricated removal to the outside atmosphere, the discharge end of the cylinder
for operation at 76 mm of water, internal shell pressure, with no is provided with an additional extension, the exterior of which is water-
detectable air leakage. spray-cooled. In cocurrent-flow calciners, hot gases from the interior
Design Methods for Indirect-Heat Rotary Steam-Tube Dryers of the heated portion of the cylinder are withdrawn through a special
Heat-transfer coefficients in steam-tube dryers range from 30 to extraction tube. This tube extends centrally through the cooled sec-
85 J/(m2⋅s⋅K). Coefficients will increase with increasing steam temper- tion to prevent flow of gas near the cooled-shell surfaces and possible
ature because of increased heat transfer by radiation. In units carrying condensation. Frequently a separate cooler is used, isolated from the
saturated steam at 420 to 450 K, the heat flux UΔT will range from calciner by an air lock.
6300 J/(m2⋅s) for difficult-to-dry and organic solids and to 1890 to To prevent sliding of solids over the smooth interior of the shell,
3790 J/(m2⋅s) for finely divided inorganic materials. The effect of agitating flights running longitudinally along the inside wall are fre-
steam pressure on heat-transfer rates up to 8.6 × 105 Pa is illustrated quently provided. These normally do not shower the solids as in a
in Fig. 12-71. direct-heat vessel but merely prevent sliding so that the bed will turn
Performance and Cost Data for Indirect-Heat Rotary Steam- over and constantly expose new surface for heat and mass transfer. To
Tube Dryers Table 12-22 contains data for a number of standard prevent scaling of the shell interior by sticky solids, cylinder scraper
sizes of steam-tube dryers. Prices tabulated are for ordinary carbon and knocker arrangements are occasionally employed. For example, a
steel construction. Installed costs will run from 150 to 300 percent of scraper chain is fairly common practice in soda-ash calciners, while
purchase cost. knockers are frequently utilized on metallic-oxide calciners.
The thermal efficiency of steam-tube units will range from 70 to 90 Because indirect-heat calciners frequently require close-fitting gas
percent, if a well-insulated cylinder is assumed. This does not allow seals, it is customary to support all parts on a self-contained frame, for
for boiler efficiency, however, and is therefore not directly compara- sizes up to approximately 2 m in diameter. The furnace can employ
ble with direct-heat units such as the direct-heat rotary dryer or indi- electric heating elements or oil and/or gas burners as the heat source
rect-heat calciner. for the process. The hardware would be zoned down the length of the
Operating costs for these dryers include 5 to 10 percent of one per- furnace to match the heat requirements of the process. Process con-
son’s time. Maintenance will average 5 to 10 percent of total installed trol is normally by shell temperature, measured by thermocouples or
cost per year. radiation pyrometers. When a special gas atmosphere must be main-
Table 12-23 outlines typical performance data from three drying tained inside the cylinder, positive rotary gas seals, with one or more
applications in steam-tube dryers. pressurized and purged annular chambers, are employed. The
Indirect-Heat Calciners Indirect-heat rotary calciners, either diaphragm-type seal ABB Raymond (Bartlett-Snow TM) is suitable
batch or continuous, are employed for heat treating and drying at higher for pressures up to 5 cm of water, with no detectable leakage.

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 SOLIDS-DRYING EQUIPMENT 12-63

TABLE 12-22 Standard Steam-Tube Dryers*

Tubes Shipping
Size, diameter × m2 of Dryer speed, Motor size, weight, Estimated
length, m No. OD (mm) No. OD (mm) free area r/min hp kg price
0.965 × 4.572 14 (114) 21.4 6 2.2 5,500 $152,400
0.965 × 6.096 14 (114) 29.3 6 2.2 5,900 165,100
0.965 × 7.620 14 (114) 36.7 6 3.7 6,500 175,260
0.965 × 9.144 14 (114) 44.6 6 3.7 6,900 184,150
0.965 × 10.668 14 (114) 52.0 6 3.7 7,500 196,850
1.372 × 6.096 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 58.1 4.4 3.7 10,200 203,200
1.372 × 7.620 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 73.4 4.4 3.7 11,100 215,900
1.372 × 9.144 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 88.7 5 5.6 12,100 228,600
1.372 × 10.668 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 104 5 5.6 13,100 243,840
1.372 × 12.192 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 119 5 5.6 14,200 260,350
1.372 × 13.716 18 (114) 18 (63.5) 135 5.5 7.5 15,000 273,050
1.829 × 7.62 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 118 4 5.6 19,300 241,300
1.829 × 9.144 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 143 4 5.6 20,600 254,000
1.829 × 10.668 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 167 4 7.5 22,100 266,700
1.829 × 12.192 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 192 4 7.5 23,800 278,400
1.829 × 13.716 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 217 4 11.2 25,700 292,100
1.829 × 15.240 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 242 4 11.2 27,500 304,800
1.829 × 16.764 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 266 4 14.9 29,300 317,500
1.829 × 18.288 27 (114) 27 (76.2) 291 4 14.9 30,700 330,200
2.438 × 12.192 90 (114) 394 3 11.2 49,900 546,100
2.438 × 15.240 90 (114) 492 3 14.9 56,300 647,700
2.438 × 18.288 90 (114) 590 3 14.9 63,500 736,600
2.438 × 21.336 90 (114) 689 3 22.4 69,900 838,200
2.438 × 24.387 90 (114) 786 3 29.8 75,300 927,100
*Courtesy of Swenson Process Equipment Inc. (prices from November, 1994). Carbon steel fabrication; multiply by 1.75 for 304 stainless steel.

TABLE 12-23 Steam-Tube Dryer Performance Data

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Class of materials handled High-moisture organic, distillers’ Pigment filter cakes, blanc Finely divided inorganic solids,
grains, brewers’ grains, citrus pulp fixe, barium carbonate, water-ground mica, water-
precipitated chalk ground silica, flotation
concentrates
Description of class Wet feed is granular and damp but Wet feed is pasty, muddy, or Wet feed is crumbly and friable;
not sticky or muddy and dries to sloppy; product is mostly product is powder with very
granular meal hard pellets few lumps
Normal moisture content of wet 233 100 54
feed, % dry basis
Normal moisture content of product, 11 0.15 0.5
% dry basis
Normal temperature of wet feed, K 310–320 280–290 280–290
Normal temperature of product, K 350–355 380–410 365–375
Evaporation per product, kg 2 1 0.53
Heat load per lb product, kJ 2250 1190 625
Steam pressure normally used, kPa 860 860 860
gauge
Heating surface required per kg 0.34 0.4
product, m2 0.072
Steam consumption per kg product, kg 3.33 1.72 0.85

In general, the temperature range of operation for indirect-heated Cost Data for Calciners Power, operating, and maintenance
calciners can vary over a wide range, from 475 K at the low end to costs are similar to those previously outlined for direct- and indirect-
approximately 1475 K at the high end. All types of carbon steel, stain- heat rotary dryers. Estimating purchase costs for preassembled and
less, and alloy construction are used, depending upon temperature, frame-mounted rotary calciners with carbon steel and type 316 stain-
process, and corrosion requirements. Fabricated-alloy cylinders can less-steel cylinders are given in Table 12-24 together with size, weight,
be used over the greater part of the temperature range; however, the and motor requirements. Sale price includes the cylinder, ordinary
greater creep-stress abilities of cast alloys makes their use desirable angle seals, furnace, drive, feed conveyor, burners, and controls.
for the highest calciner-cylinder temperature applications. Installed cost may be estimated, not including building or foundation
Design Methods for Calciners In indirect-heated calciners, costs at up to 50 percent of the purchase cost. A layout of a typical con-
heat transfer is primarily by radiation from the cylinder wall to the tinuous calciner with an extended cooler section is illustrated in Fig.
solids bed. The thermal efficiency ranges from 30 to 65 percent. By 12-72.
utilization of the furnace exhaust gases for preheated combustion air, Small batch retorts, heated electrically or by combustion, are widely
steam production, or heat for other process steps, the thermal effi- used as carburizing furnaces and are applicable also to chemical
ciency can be increased considerably. The limiting factors in heat processes involving the heat treating of particulate solids. These are
transmission lie in the conductivity and radiation constants of the shell mounted on a structural-steel base, complete with cylinder, furnace,
metal and solids bed. If the characteristics of these are known, equip- drive motor, burner, etc. Units are commercially available in diame-
ment may be accurately sized by employing the Stefan-Boltzmann ters from 0.24 to 1.25 m and lengths of 1 to 2 m. Continuous retorts
radiation equation. Apparent heat-transfer coefficients will range with helical internal spirals are employed for metal-heat-treating pur-
from 17 J/(m2⋅s⋅K) in low-temperature operations to 85 J/(m2⋅s⋅K) in poses. Precise retention control is maintained in these operations.
high-temperature processes. Standard diameters are 0.33, 0.5, and 0.67 m with effective lengths up

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12-64 PSYCHROMETRY, EVAPORATIVE COOLING, AND SOLIDS DRYING

TABLE 12-24 Indirect-Heat Rotary Calciners: Sizes and Purchase Costs*

Overall Heated Cylinder Approximate sale price Approximate sale price
Diameter, cylinder cylinder drive Approximate in carbon steel in No. 316 stainless
ft length length motor hp Shipping weight, lb construction† construction
4 40 ft 30 ft 7.5 50,000 $275,000 $325,000
5 45 ft 35 ft 10 60,000 375,000 425,000
6 50 ft 40 ft 20 75,000 475,000 550,000
7 60 ft 50 ft 30 90,000 550,000 675,000
* ABB Raymond (Bartlett-Snow™).
† Prices for November, 1994.

FIG. 12-72 Gas-fired indirect-heat rotary calciner with a water-spray extended cooler and feeder assembly. (ABB Raymond/
Bartlett-Snow™.)

to 3 m. These vessels are employed in many small-scale chemical- employed. Because gas flow is through the bed of solids, high pressure
process operations which require accurate control of retention. Their drop, from 7 to 50 cm of water, may be encountered within the shell.
operating characteristics and applications are identical to those of the For this reason, both a pressure inlet fan and an exhaust fan are pro-
larger indirect-heat calciners. vided in most applications to maintain the static pressure within the
Direct-Heat Roto-Louvre Dryer One of the more important equipment as closely as possible to atmospheric. This prevents exces-
special types of rotating equipment is the Roto-Louvre dryer. As illus- sive in-leakage or blowing of hot gas and dust to the outside. For pres-
trated in Fig. 12-73, hot air (or cooling air) is blown through louvers in sure control, one fan is usually operated under fixed conditions, with
a double-wall rotating cylinder and up through the bed of solids. The an automatic damper control on the other, regulated by a pressure
latter moves continuously through the cylinder as it rotates. Constant detector-controller.
turnover of the bed ensures uniform gas contacting for heat and mass In heating or drying applications, when cooling of the product is
transfer. The annular gas passage behind the louvers is partitioned so desired before discharge to the atmosphere, cool air is blown through
that contacting air enters the cylinder only beneath the solids bed. a second annular space, outside the inlet hot-air annulus, and released
The number of louvers covered at any one time is roughly 30 percent. through the louvers at the solids-discharge end of the shell.
Because air circulates through the bed, fillages of 13 to 15 percent or Roto-Louvre dryers are suitable for processing coarse granular
greater are employed. solids which do not offer high resistance to air flow, require intimate
Roto-Louvre dryers range in size from 0.8 to 3.6 m in diameter and gas contacting, and do not contain significant quantities of dust.
from 2.5 to 11 m long. The largest unit is reported capable of evapo- Heat and mass transfer from the gas to the surface of the solids is
rating 5500 kg/h of water. Hot gases from 400 to 865 K may be extremely efficient; hence the equipment size required for a given
duty is frequently less than required when an ordinary direct-heat
rotary vessel with lifting flights is used. Purchase-price savings are par-
tially balanced, however, by the more complex construction of the
Roto-Louvre unit. A Roto-Louvre dryer will have a capacity roughly
1.5 times that of a single-shell rotary dryer of the same size under
equivalent operating conditions. Because of the cross-flow method of
heat exchange, the average Δt is not a simple function of inlet and out-
let Δt’s. There are currently no published data which permit the sizing
of equipment without pilot tests as recommended by the manufac-
turer. Three applications of Roto-Louvre dryers are outlined in Table
12-25. Installation, operating, power, and maintenance costs will be
similar to those experienced with ordinary direct-heat rotary dryers.
Thermal efficiency will range from 30 to 70 percent.

AGITATED DRYERS
Description An agitated dryer is defined as one on which the
housing enclosing the process is stationary while solids movement is
accomplished by an internal mechanical agitator. Many forms are in
FIG. 12-73 Link-Belt Roto-Louvre dryer. (Material Handling Systems Divi- use, including batch and continuous versions.
sion, FMC Corp.) Field of Application Agitated dryers are applicable to process-

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