SANSKRITIZATION AND DETRIBALIZATION IN EARLY ASSAM: SOME GEOGRAPHICAL

ASPECTS
Author(s): Nirode Boruah
Source: Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 69 (2008), pp. 167-179
Published by: Indian History Congress
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 SANSKRITIZATION AND
DETRIBALIZATION IN EARLY ASSAM:
SOME GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS
Nirode Boruah

Scholars are in consonance with the fact that the process of

Sanskritization1 and Detribalization2 are two of the major factors
socio-cultural change in early Assam. The Australoid, Mongoloid an
Alpine elements along with the close companion of animistic an
fetishtic beliefs have laid the primary foundation of socio-religiou
life of early Assam. The advent and systematic settlements of the
Brahmanas in early Assam facilitated the process of Sanskritization
and Detribalization of the tribes of the region. However, scholars
differing on the earliest date of the commencement of these two
processes have propounded different theories. Referring to the Agn
Videgha-Mathava episode of the Saiapatha Brahmano, P.C. Choudhur
has put forward the 8th century BC as the earliest date of spread
Brahmanical culture to the region of northeast.3 But M.M. Sarma clearly
shows that "the present legend has nothing to do with the state of affai
in ancient Assam."4 Another text called Samkhyanagrihasamgrahasut
where a passage is wrongly supposed to refer to the land of Pragjyotisha
is seen to suggest the earliest Brahmana settlement in Assam.5 M.M
Sarma has rightly pointed out that the word 'Pragjyotisha' in the sut
means 'before the appearance of any light and it has no relation wit
the country Pragjyotisha.'6 Scholars like V.R. Ramachandra Dikshita
referring to the story of Naraka found mentioned in the Kalika a
some other Puranas, write that after Naraka's death Pragjyotisha wa
taken as a part of Aryavarta from the time of the epics and it result
in the fusion of pre-Aryan culture in the land. But the story of Naraka
is not corroborated by any historical documents. Therefore, he can n
be considered as a historical figure.
Inscriptions show that from the 5th century A.D. onwards the
granting of lands to Brahmanas in different parts of the region became
a common practice for the miers of early Assam. These settlement
emerged as the pockets of Brahmanical culture. Some other factor
which had significant contribution to the process of Sanskritizatio
and Detribalization in early Assam were the appointment and patrona
of Brahmanas and the Brahmanical religious beliefs from the roya
court, construction of temples of different gods and goddesses of
Brahmanical pantheon, Sanskritization of tribal cults, peasantisatio
and caste formation among the autochthons, etc.

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168 IHC: Proceedings, 69th Session, 2008

It is well known that till recent times some of the major tribes of
Assam have remained beyond the pale of Sanskritization and some of
them are still maintaining their own cultural traits. Therefore, it would
be not tenable, if we identify the whole Brahmaputra valley and its
adjoining areas as the region influenced by the Brahmanical faiths (as
projected by some scholars). Although, religious beliefs never confine
within a particular geographic space with fixed boundaries, it is possible
to draw a tentative area, region or a belt showing their prominent
presence in a particular time-frame. The geographic provenance of the
archaeological remains belonging to early Assam show that in some
particular geographic spaces the beliefs have shown their prominence
and left their distinguishable marks in the form of Brahmanical
architectural and sculptural remains. These archaeological remains are
found in such a compact manner which lead us to believe that only
some specific regions might have been distinctly occupied by the
aforesaid religious beliefs. Again, the geographic provenance of the
donated land to the Brahmanas by the early rulers of Assam have shown
that though it covers a vast tract of land of present north-east and north
Bengal of India and north Bangladesh, it does not necessarily mean
that the whole region was ridden by the Brahmanical culture. In this
paper, an attempt has been made to find out the geography of the
trajectories of the process of Sanskritization and Detribalization in early
Assam with a study of geographic provenance of the archaeological
remains of Brahmanical faiths and the land grants made to the
Brahmanas.

It has been observed that the archaeological remains bearing

Brahmanical characters are found in compact manner in different
regions of Assam and for convenient study, these are enlisted in a tabular
form by giving some working names of the regions.

Guwahati Region:

Places Archaeological Remains

(8,h to 12th century A.D.)

Nilachala Hill, Ujan Bazar, Jorpukhuri, Krisna,

Judges Field, Dighalipukhuri, Panbazar, Ganesa
Ambari, Narakasur hill, Urvasi, a rocky Siva, N
island in the Brahmaputra near Umananda, Satur
Hajo (25 km. north east of Guwahati), Mahisha
Madan Kamdev Parbat, 3 kms from Kinnar, Surya, Siva, Rishi, Nandi,
Baihata Chariali, Pingalesvara, north Kartikeya, Indra, Mahesha, Tara,
of Bezera, Baihata Chariali, Chhayagaon Bodhisatta, Gaja-Vyala, Ganga, Yamuna,
(30 km from Guwahati), Manikarnesvar, Agni, Kartikeya, Visvapadma, Devi,
Ďirgheswari, Asvaklanta, Doul-Govinda Nandin Nataraja, Dwarf Sivagana

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 Ancient India 1 69

of North Guwahati, Siddheswari temple Bra

of Sualkuchi, Bam an (5 km up-stream of m
North Guwahati) etc.

* All the Tables in this Paper include only

remains. Along with these remains, some ru
have been discovered in the regions.

This table shows that the archaeological remains bearing

Brahmanical faiths are found in the present Guwahati city and its
adjoining areas in a compact manner. It shows that the worship of Siva
both in phallic and iconic representations has a great antiquity in this
region. The literary sources like the Kalika Purana (ch. 3 8/96) refers
to Siva as a guardian deity of the land before introduction of Devi
worship in Kamakhya by Naraka. The Harsacharita 8 depicts
Bhaskaravarman as a devotee of Siva. The tradition of devadasi which
is one of the special features of Saiva cult has been seen in the Siva
temples of Barpeta and Hajo till recent times.
The prevalence of worship of both Vishnu and his incarnations
was not only substantiated by the archaeological remains but also the
literary sources give sufficient data for it. According to the Kalika
Purana (ch. 38/99fï) and the Visnu Purana (29. 1 1 5), Visnu established
Naraka in the city of Pragjyotisa. The rulers of Kamarupa over the
centuries trace their descent from Vishnu. The Umachal Rock
Inscription of Surendravarman testifies to the prevalence of Vaisna
cult as early as the 5th century A.D. in the region.9 The names of Vishn
Devaki, Krishna, Lokesa (Vishnu) Lakshmi, Balarama, Hari etc. have
found frequent mention in the inscriptions of early Assam. The Kal
Purana (ch. 78/80, 88) describes in details about the worship of Visn
in the form of Hayagriva on Manikuta (Hajo), Matsa (Fish incarnatio
of Visnu) on the Matsyadhvaja mount to the east of Manikuta and o
Pandunatha situated to the east of the Raksahkuta hill.

The Kamakhya temple of Guwahati ever remains as the celebrated

centre of the Sakta cult since antiquity. The Kalika Purana (ch. 64/
40f) glorifying the goddess, relates its origin to a story of the falling of
genital organ of the Devi, when her dead body has been carried by lord
Siva. The deity of the temple is represented not by any icon but by the
phallic representation oiyoni . It further records (ch. 38/22-23-24) that
the goddess was already there before the advent of Naraka. So it is
reasonable to believe that Kamakhya was originally a tribal mother
goddess which has later been given a place of honour in the Brahmanical
pantheon. It is believed that the Khasis and the Garos were the original
worshippers of the goddess.10 The prevalence of Saktism can be traced

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170 IHC : Proceedings, 69th Session , 2008

in the epigraphic records. The comparison of Nayanadevi, the queen

of Sthiravarman with Durga and Parvati,11 Kaliswami, a name of a
donee12 and other references to Gauri, 13 Mahagauri, 14 goddess in the
Ardhayuvatisvara form and Girija15 and Parvati16 have been found in
the early inscriptions.
The archaeological finds in the Guwahati region show the
prevalence of the Surya cult. The name Pragjyotisapura may be shown
to be connected with the worship of Surya and grahas. The Kamarupiya
Nibandhaniya Khandsadhya , a treatise on the system of astronomy for
calculating the almanac has been developed in the region, manuscripts
of which are found in large number in the district of Kamrup.17 The
Kalika Purana refers to Citrasaila hill as the centre of worshipping of
the nine grahas which is identified with the Navagraha temple on the
Citrachala hill of Guwahati."18

The sculptures of Ganesa found in the region lead us to believe

that Ganesha was worshipped as a minor deity. The Assam Plates of
Vallbhadeva shows respect to Ganesha in its very first verse. Indra,
the king of heaven was worshipped in the region. The Bhatheli, which
is considered to be reminiscent of an ancient festival known as Puruhuta
or the Sakrotthana, reference of which is found in the Kalika Purana
(ch. 87) and Uttarbarbil Copper Plate Inscription of Balavarman (v.30)
is a popular festival celebrated in honour of Indra in the district of
Kamrup. Manasa, a serpent goddess connected with the cult of the
mother goddess at Kamakhya is still a popular cult in lower Assam.
The Umachal Rock Inscription testifies that Balabhadraswami
(Balarama?) is also an important minor deity in the region.
From the discussion we may prepare a map showing the outline of
the core area (darkened area) in the Guwahati Region where the process
of Sanskritization and Detribalization were more active.

A
f '

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 Ancient India 1 7 1

Goalpara Region:
Places Archaeological Remains

Mornoi, Dekdhoa, Dekaidol, Mahamaya Rama, twelve Adityas, Sarasvati,

than, Paglatek (5 km. west of Goalpara Lakshmi, Surya, Nandin, Dvarapala,
town), Surya Pahar (15 km. from the Visnu, incarnation of Visnu, terracotta
Goalpara town), Vadagokugiri plaques of Female figure, Siva, Ganesa,
(Bhaitbari, West Garo Hills district) Brahma, Vinadhara, Kali, Ugratara,
Vaisnavi, Manasa, Uma-Mahesvara,
Arjuna in Penance, Ascetic Tantric
Figures, ascetic pregnant women,
Fragment of a pot-bellied figure,
Dancing ascetic, Gandharva, Female
figure, Mridanga Vadini, Dancing Girls

The table shows that the Saivism, Vaisnavism and Saktism were popular
religious faiths in the Goalpara region from the 7th-8th century A.D.
onwards. According to a local legend, one short of one lakh old
Sivalingas were in Surya Pahar. A.K. Sarma, on the basis of his
exploration at Vadagokugiri comes to the conclusion that Saivism was
the predominant religious faith in the region.19 The discovery of the
images of Vishnu and his incarnations, terracotta plaques of Ganesa,
Kali, Ugratara, Uma-Mahesvara, Manasa, etc. at Marnoi and
Vadagokugiri testify the prevalence of Vaisnavism and Saktism in the
region.
The table further shows a popular religious cult of the Goalpara
region was the worship of the Sun god. The Kalika Purana 20 refers to
Raviksetra situated on a hill called Tattva to the west of the river
Trisruta21 as one of the important seats of Sun worship. The Raviksetra
is evidently Surya Pahar near Goalpara.
Here, we may
draw a sketch map
showing the core
area (darkened
area) of
Brahmanical faiths
and the region
remained outside
the process of
Sanskritization in
the Goalpara
region.

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172 IHC: Proceedings, 69th Session , 2008

Tezpur Region:
Places Archaeological Remains
(5th to 12th century A.D.)
Da-Parbatiya, Bamuni Pahar, Majgaon, Sury
Chitralekha Udyan (remains of this Udyan G
are some collections from different places Da
of the Tezpur Town), Bam-Parbatiya Vara
(near Da-Parbatiya), Baralimarasatra, Balar
Singri (30 km. from Tezpur), Mathajhar, N
Silputa Mandir, Niz-Barsala (Near Matsy
Dhekiajuli), Dewalkhanda (Near Majbat Svar
Railway Station), Singimari, Narikal Uma
Bhanga Mandir, Buda Madhav Devalya, Pan
Behali, Kalyanithan etc. Vidyadhara, Manasa, Visnu,
Mahisamardini', Gandharva, Kinnaras,
Vamana, Amorous Figures, waiting
Maid, damsels in dancing posture,
some nude figures, Navagrahas,
Pratihari, Durga, Kinnara, Tara

Along with these archaeological remains (shown in the Table) the

literary and inscriptional evidences reveal that the regions (shown in
the table) witnessed the popularity of Saivism, Vaisnavism and Saktism.
It is to be mentioned here that Bana, the legendary king of Sonitpura,
was a staunch devotee of Siva. Looking to the archaeological evidence,
we can infer that the cult became well developed in the early centuries
of the Christian era."22 Vanamala is described as devotee of Siva and
he rebuilt the temple of Hataka-Sulin. He abdicated the throne in favour
of his able son and vanished in the rays of Mahesvara by observing
fast.23 The Tezpur and Parbatiya Copper Plate Inscription (vv.39-40)
speak of a hill called Kamakutagiri the chief deities of which were Sri
Kamesvara and Mahagauri. Almost all the epigraphs issued from
Hadappesvara begin with the sign which was called anji. P.N.
Bhattacharya defines it as the snake-shaped Kulakundalini of the Sakti
of Siva that remains coiling round the Svayambhu (self-begotten) linga
and muladhara cakra.24

The association of Krishna with the story of Bana points to an

early belief in the divine character of the god Vishnu in the Tezpur
region. The earliest iconographie evidence (i.e. 5^/6* century A.D.) of
prevalence of Vaisnavism is found in the Da-Parvatiya door frame,
where in the middle of the lower patta of the lintel of high relief a
Garuda is shown. Inscriptional evidences show that the adoption of
Vishnu's name as a personal name becomes common among the rulers.
In the Uttarbarbil and Nagaon Copper Plate Inscription of Balavarman,
Vanamala is referred to as devotee of Siva but at the same time his

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 Ancient India 173

name Vanamala, itself an epithet of

Vishnu.

The prevalence of the Sakti cult in the Tezpur region is found in

the comprehensive description of the holy places of Kamarupa in the
Kalika Purana , where we find reference to a seat of Devi worship at
Visvanath in the Sonitpur district. The Purana depicts that the phallic
representation25 of the goddess Visvadevi occurs with the Sivalinga
called Visvanath by the side of the rivers Vriddha-Ganga and
Brahmaputra. The Tezpur26 and Parbatiya Copper plate inscriptions27
of Vanamala record the presence of goddess Mahagauri on the top of
the hill called Kamakutagiri. Kamakuta may be identified with the
Natakasaila, described in the Kalika Purana 28 as the place of a regular
soft dalliance of Gauri and Hara. The Kamakutagiri was identical with
the present Bamuni hill to the east of present Tezpur of Assam. The
Brahmanical Sakti-Tantricism came into closer contact with the
Buddhist-Tantricism from the 7th century onwards. Both the faith
admixture in such a manner that there ceased to be any sharp distinctions
between Brahmanical and Buddhist deities and practices. The referenc
to the death of Vanamala by religious suicide and the abdication of the
throne of Jayamala in favour of his son, as he considered this world t
be vain and human life as a water drop29 may indicate that they had
come under the influence of this type of mixed religious beliefs.
Besides, the worship of the Sun god, Navagrahas, Ganesa and some
minor deities were prevalent in the Tezpur region. Ruins of temples
dedicated to the Sun god and many images of the deity have been found
in Da-Parvtiya, Gahpur, Mangaldoi and in the Tezpur town. R.D.
Banerjee identifies a gigantic Surya temple among the ruins noticed a
Tezpur town.30 The cult of Surya and grahas were always connected
with the astrological study. Discovery of navagrahas in the area of
Bamuni Pahar, Tezpur town and other parts of the region show that
distinct system of astrology and astronomy had been developed.
Here, we may show the sketch of the core area (darkened area) of
Brahmanical faiths and the region remained outside the fold of
Sanskritization in the Tezpur region.

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174 IHC : Proceedings, 69th Session , 2008

Nagaon Region:
Places Archaeological Remains
(6lh to 1 1th century AD)

Barganga, Gosaijuri, Mikirati (near Davaka), V

Gachtal (near Mikirati), Jogijan Mauja of D
Rajbari, Sankhadevi temple (near Jogijan), Dr
Akasiganga (7 km from Davaka), Kenduguri l
(near Rajbari), Mahadeosal (8 km west of F
Raha town), Kawaimari, Mathorbari, Karti
Devasthan or Maudanga (15 km east of Mat
Davaka), Dumukhi-Jaljuri, Buda Gosain fig
than (near Dokmoka), Pacim-Tarabasa, Gan
Changchowki, Burha Burhi, Davaka, Dvar
Kathiatali Block Hatiswag-Gedabari, Hojai, N
Dighalpani, Mahamayathan, Buda Mayang, Ku
Kasosilapahar, Ganeshpahar, Chanaka, Laku
Vasundhari, Nabhanga, Silghat, Bahapahar, B
Jakhalabandha, Boiparbat etc. Navagrahas, Amorous figures, Surya,
Rama, Simhavahini-Durga, Camunda,
Kubera, Matsya, Manasa

Most of the temples (now in ruins) of Nagaon region of the period

of 8th and 9th century A.D. belong to the Saiva cult. Ruins of Siva temples
of Mikir-Ati, Gachtal, Jugijan, Akashiganga, Kenduguri, Kawaimari,
Dumukhi-jaljuri and the Sivalingas and the images of Siva found in
large numbers prove that the Saiva cult was highly developed during
the early period in the region. The temple ruins and images of Vishnu
with his ten-incarnations clearly show that Vaisnavism was equally
popular in the Nagaon region.
Discovery of the images of Mahakali, Uma-Mahesvara, Tripura-
Bhairavi, Ardhanariswara, Simhabahini-Durga, Mahishamardini,
Camunda, etc. in different places undisputedly prove the prevalence
of Saktism in the Nagaon region. The Kalika Purana describes the
goddess Raktadevi on the Kshovaka hill as one of the important seats
of Devi worship. The Devi is accompanied by five Yoginis namely
Ugracanda, Pracanda, Candogra, Candanayika and Canda.31 R.M. Nath
has identified Raktadevi with Kamala devi shrine of Davaka where
there are still five small tanks nearby the temple.32
The ruins of Ganesa temple at Mahadeoshal, Kawaimari, Devasthan
and discovery of large number of images of Ganesa belonging to the
9th century A.D. onwards show the prevalence of the worship of Ganesa
in the Nagaon region. Besides these, rock cut images of Ganesa occurs
in a large number. The minor deities like Kartikeya, Indra, Kuvēra,
Agni, Lakshmi, Saraswati were also worshipped in the region. No
temple of Surya has so far been noticed but the discovery of the images

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 Ancient India 175

of Surya and the navagrahas in th

areas prove the prevalence of Su
astrological studies.
The areas where Sanskritization and Detribalization were more
active and areas which remained untouched by these processes in the
Nagaon region may be drawn as below:
ti i
•

Doiyang-Dhansiri Valley Region:

Places Archaeological Remains
(8th to 1 1th century AD)

Duborani, Rajabari (5 km. to the north of Yon

Barpathar), Ahom gaon of Kamarbandha, N
Nagajari Khanikargaon, Sarupathar, Mahesvara, Hari-Hara, Siva, Ganesa,
Deopani, Rajapukhuri (20 km. from Durga, Mahakali, Vidyadhara, Dvarapala,
Sarupathar), Telisal in Kasomaripathar, Ekamukhalinga, Lakshmi, Trisula,
Jogyapur, Gelabil, Oparlangtha, Borhola, Gajasurasamhara-tripurimurti, Nandin,
Naojan, Barpathasna Gaon, Deoparvat, Apsara, Bull, Ascetic Dancing figure,
Numaligarh, Arlongpira, Sivatal pathar scene from epic, Vidyadhara
near Dergaon, Dimapur etc.

The Nagajari Khanikargaon stone inscription stands as an

unquestionable testimony to the spread of the Brahmanical culture in
the Doiyang-Dhansiri valley as early as the beginning part of the 5th
century A.D. As the valley was inhabited by heterogeneous ethnic
groups,33 majority of whom were non-Aryan, a process of social
assimilation was continued through the liberalization of the cultural
elements by the Brahmanical as well as the non-Brahmanical faiths.

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176 IHC : Proceedings , 69th Session, 2008

Figures of Saivite and Tantric affiliation were worshipped along with

the figures of Vishnu. Syncretism appears to have become a
predominant religious belief in the valley. Discovery of some composite
figures of Hari-Hara (Vishnu and Siva) in the valley indicates the
religious tolerance and liberal attitude of the different groups of people.
The Deopani Vishnu image inscription which has a single image but
bearing composite character, records a proclamation that Vishnu in
association with Siva was worshippable by the Sudras and Dvijas (the
twice bron classes) and women. The term bhakta or devotee found in
the inscription shows that the cult of Bhakti was already gaining some
ground in the religious life of early Assam.34 Further, the Sankar
Narayan stone image inscription from Deopani records the chanting
(kirttana) of the nama of Sankara-Narayana before ( adau ) the
consecration of the image of the deity in the concerned temple. M.M.
Sarma opines that most probably the cult of nama-samkirtana which
was popularized by Sankaradeva the neo-Vaisnava apostle of Assam
in the 16th century A.D. became prevalent in Assam as early as the 8th
century A.D.35 Syncretism which appears to be a regional character of
the valley, might have created a spontaneous process to bring the non-
Aryan inhabitants of lower strata of the society within the fold of
Hinduism.

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 Ancient India 1 77

Besides these regions of Brahmanic

of Brahmanical culture may be iden
showing the tentative locations36 of
Brahmanas by the rulers of early As

Tentative locations of the donated lands gra

by the rulers of early Assam

Tentative locations of the donated

by the rulers of early Assam.
A superimposition of the sketch m
of the donated lands granted to the
Assam (up to the 12th century) are
areas of the Brïhmanical culture wh
and Detribalization were found to be m
map of the specific Sanskritized an
which remained beyond the pale of
regions projected here are very muc
on the basis of the information from the extant sources. As has been
mentioned earlier the drawing of a fixed boundary of cultural regions
is not possible. In spite of these technicalities, this paper may help to
have an idea on some issues like the regions where the processes of
Sanskritization and Detribalization were more noticeable and the
regions which remained outside these processes. It may also show the
course and the paths of movement, expansion and limitations of cultural
traits in different regions of early Assam.

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178 IHC: Proceedings, 69th Session, 2008
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 . M.N. Srinivas, in his work Religion and Society among the Coorgs of Sou
(1952) for the first time explains the term Sanskritization in terms of ca
caste mobility. He opines that an existent tendency for upward movement
a high social status has been observed among the low castes or tribes in th
system. In this process a low caste is able to rise to a higher caste by ado
vegetarianism and teetotalism and by sanskritizing its rituals and beliefs. Ho
Srinivas later modified his earlier opinion on the term Sanskritization as "a p
by which a low Hindu caste, tribal or other group changes its customs, r
ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice bor
Generally such changes are followed by a claim to a high position in t
hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by t
community. Broadening the scope of theory of Sanskritization, J.F. Staal, a
scholar says that Sanskritization is a two way process where there are the in
of Sanskritic Hindusim on regional cultures and the influence of regional
on Sanskritic Hinduism.

2. Detribalization is "a term which was applied especially to African nations in a

process of social change, in which it was supposed that tribal identities were being
lost in new urban and national contexts." Charlotte Seymour-Smith, Macmillan
Dictionary of Anthropology, The Macmillan Press, London, 1986, p. 75, In this
paper, the term is being used to mean a process through which a tribe gradually
gives up partly or fully their common dialect, customs, traditions, cultural
homogeneity and even sometimes their unified social organization owing to the
process of Sanskritization.
3. The History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelfth Century A.D.
(here after HCPA) (revised), 3rd Edn., Spectrum Publications, Delhi, Guwahati,
1987, p. 102.
4. Inscriptions of Ancient Assam (hereafter IAA), Department of Publication, Gauhati
University, 1978, p. 2.
5. P.C. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 102.
6 . IAA, p. 3.
7. 'Aryanisation of East India (Assam)', Indian Historical Quarterly, 1945.
8. Harshacharita of Banabhatta , ed., P.V. Kane, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1918,
eh. vii.

9. It records the establishment of a cave dedicated to lord Balabhadra, the elder brother
and close association of Krishna.

10. B. Kakati, The Mother Goddess Kamakhya , Publication Board Assam, Guwahati,
p.37.
1 1 . Dubi Copper Plate Inscription of Bhaskaravarman, vv. 51-53.
12. Nidhanpur Copper Plate Inscription, line 87.
1 3 . Guwahati Copper Plate Inscription, v. 1 .
14. Guwakuci Copper Plate Inscription, lines 49-60.
1 5 . Mangala verse of Khanamukh Copper Plate Inscription.
1 6 Subhankarapataka Copper Plate Inscription, v. 1 9 and v. 1 1 .
1 7. P. Bhattacharya, Ancient Kamarupa in Culture of Astronomy, Journal of the Assam
Research Society (hereafter, JARS) X, p.73f.

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 A ncient India 1 79

18. The present temple had been constructed by th

Singha in 1752 A.D.
19. Emergence of Early Culture in North-East Ind
20. Chapter 78, v.42.
21. This is one of the three different rivers know
M M. Sarma, IAA, p. 63.
22. N.D. Choudhury, Historical Archaeology of C
Corporation, Delhi, 1985, p. 105.
23. Uttarbarbil Copper Plate Inscription of Balavar
24. 'The Sign

pp. 1-6.
25. Kalika Puranam , ed., Panchanan Tarkaratna and Dr. Sri Jiv. Nyayatirtha,
Nababharat Publisher, Calcutta, 1384 B.S. also ed., Biswanarayan ShaWi, NAG
Publishers, Delhi, 1993, 80/23.
26. Lines, 10-11.
27. Lines, 39-40.
28. 51/82, 51/85, 51/88 and 80/12-3.
29. Nagaon Copper Plate Inscription, v. 1 7 and vv.22-23.
30. Annual Report of Archaeological Survey of India , 1924-25, pp.94f.
31. Ch. 79, v. 162-171.
32. R.M. Nath, op. cit., p. 85.
33. S.K. Chaterji, 'Kirata-Jana-Krti,' Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal ,
Vol. XVI, 1950, No. 2.
34. M M. Sarma, IAA, p.309.
35. Ibid., p. 311.
36. The identification of the geographic locations of the donated lands to Brahmanas
are made on the basis of the study of the scholars like M.M. Sarma, P.C. Choudhury,
B.K. Barua, B. Kakati, etc. for details see, Nirode Boruah, Early Assam, State
Formation, Political Centres , Cultural Zones , Spectrum Publication, Guwahati,
Delhi, 2007, [Link].

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