ESO201A : THERMODYNAMICS
2020-21 Ist semester
IIT Kanpur
Instructor : [Link]
Lecture 2
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Basic quantities in Thermodynamics:
Density and specific volume :
Density is defined as : m
ρ= (kg/m3 )
V
Here, m is mass and V is volume
V
Specific volume is defined as : v= (m3 /kg)
m
Besides these there are other important
quantities like mole fractions, internal energy U
etc. We will describe these in detail later.
Intensive and extensive properties:
T, P, ρ are intensive
properties
m, V are extensive
properties
Equilibrium state :
Equilibrium state or state of equilibrium is where all
(macroscopic) driving forces are balanced and hence there is
no observable change in the system.
There are different types of equilibria depending upon the
driving force:
Besides mechanical and thermal equilibrium, we also deal
with chemical equilibrium in engineering applications.
When a system has achieved chemical equilibrium, there
is no further change in composition of the system.
Equilibrium state :
All systems reach an equilibrium state after sufficient
time
Initial (non-equilibrium) Final (equilibrium)
state state
‘Internal’ Equilibrium state :
This is based on separation of time scales of different
processes
Patm
T = 0.5 0C
Air
P = 110 kPa
(Gas)
Ice-water
mixture
P > Patm
Gas is in thermal Gas is in mechanical
equilibrium internally equilibrium internally
Energy transfer by work :
Mechanical work = (Force )(Displacement)
2
W = ∫ [Link]
1
If the force F is constant (as in the picture below)
and displacment is in the direction of the force,
W = Fs
Energy transfer by work :
Mechanical work :
W(for a single rotation) = F(2πr)
Shaft = F(2πr)n
W
work = 2πTn
W
Spring
2
W = ∫ [Link]
work
1
For a linear spring, F = k x
1
W = k( x2 − x1 )
2 2
2
Systems :
Thermodynamic analysis : we define
a system and its surroundings by
means of a boundary
Closed system or Control mass
Systems :
Open system or a control volume:
Examples :
Systems :
Isolated system : No mass or energy can can cross the
boundary
For example, System + Surroundings = Isolated system
Sometimes useful for analysis based on 2nd law of
thermodynamics
Energy transfer by Heat :
Heat is that part of the energy transfer which is
not work
Systems at different temperatures exchange
heat by three modes : (i) conduction (ii)
convection and (iii) radiation
Conduction :
Energy transfer by Heat :
Convection : is the heat transfer due to bulk movement of fluid
between regions with different temperatures
Energy transfer by Heat :
Radiation : is the heat transfer due to electromagnetic waves
generated by thermal motion of particles in matter . Thermal
radiation has a wavelength in the range of 0.1 to 100 μm (Infrared,
visible and UV)
Infrared thermometer
Adiabatic process :
In this process, energy transfer is only due to work.
System is enclosed in a container with ‘adiabatic’ walls
Adiabatic process :
If surface tension effects and force field effects are not important,
then the energy of the system can only be changed by
Compression, expansion or by causing internal motion.
Adiabatic process :
Careful work measurements (in adiabatic processes) were
performed by Joule in years 1843-1848
These experiments led to the concept of internal energy (U)
and the formulation of first law of thermodynamics.