Nuclear Engineering Notes

1. Atomic and Nuclear Physics:

Fundamental Particles:

In current theory, particles of interest to the nuclear engineer may be divided into leptons and hadrons. Leptons
are subjected to weak nuclear forces while the hadrons are subjected to both strong nuclear forces and weak
nuclear forces. Hadrons are composed of quarks and their exchange of gluons is responsible for the said

Fundamental
Particles

Leptons
{Electron, Positron Hadrons
Neutrino}

Mesons

Baryons
{Protons, Neutrons}

strong nuclear force.

The Electron:

−31
The electron has a rest mass of m e =9.10954 × 10 kg and carries a charge of e=1.60219 ×10−19 C .
There are two types of electrons that can either carry a charge of +e or −e . They are called the negatron or
positron respectively. When the two particles meet, they annihilate in a process called electron annihilation.
The electrons disappear and two photons appear which transmit annihilation radiation.

The Proton:

−27
The proton has a rest mass of m p=1.67265 ×10 kg and carries a charge of +e .

The Neutron:

−27
The neutron has a slightly larger mass than the proton, whereby m n=1.67495 ×10 kg and is electrically
neutral. The neutron is not a stable particle except when it is bound into an atomic nucleus. A free neutron
decays to a proton with the emission of a negatron and an antineutrino.

1
The Photon:

The particle associated with electromagnetic waves is called the photon. This is a particle with zero rest mass
8
and zero charge, which travels in a vacuum at the speed of light; c 0=2.9979 × 10 m/ s .

The Neutrino:

The neutrino is another particle with zero rest mass and no electrical charge that appears in the decay of certain
nuclei. There are at least six types of neutrinos of which two are important in the atomic process and are of
interest in nuclear engineering. These are the electron neutrinos and electron antineutrinos.

Atomic and Nuclear Structure:

The total number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number of the atom and is given the symbol Z.
A neutral atom has as many protons as neutrons. The number of neutrons in a nucleus is known as the neutron
number and is denoted by N . The total number of nucleons, given by the symbol A , is the number of protons
and neutrons in a nucleus.

Z+ N = A

The various species of atoms whose nuclei contain particular numbers of protons and neutrons are called
2
nuclides. Therefore, the symbol 1 H , represents the nuclide for deuterium or heavy hydrogen. Atoms whose
nuclei contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes. Isotopes
may be stable or unstable and their relative abundance on earth varies. The abundance is given in atom
percent or a /o.

Atomic and Molecular Weight:

The atomic weight of an atom is defined as the mass of the neutral atom relative to the mass of a neutral 12
❑C

atom such that;

A
M ( A. Z )
M ( Z ) =12×
N
M ( 12. C )

The atomic weight is usually defined according to the mean abundance of the different isotopes an element may
have.

2
 γiMi
M =∑
i 100

The molecular weight follows by the addition of the atomic weights of the atoms used to form the molecule.

Both the atomic and molecular weights are unitless. The gram atomic weight and the gram molecular weight
act as the amount of a substance having a mass, in grams, equal to the atomic or molecular weight of the
substance. The amount of substance is defined in terms of moles present. The number of particles in a mole of
any substance is equal as implied by Avogadro’s Law which defines this said number as Avogadro’s Number

( N A=6.022045 ×10 23). The atomic mass unit (amu) is the mass of one twelfth the mass of a neutral 12. C
atom, whereby 1 amu=1.6605 ×10−24 g.

Atomic and Nuclear Radii:

An atom’s size is difficult to define, as a result of the electron cloud that surrounds it which varies constantly
and unpredictably. A reasonable measure of atomic size is given by the average distance from the nucleus that
the outermost electron is to be found. Except for a few of the lightest atoms, the average atomic radii are

equivalent at around 2 ×10−11 m .

The nucleus follows by a similar challenge, whereby the ‘radius’, better still the boundary of the nucleus isn’t a
sharp definition. The nuclear radius increases with atomic size by the formula;

R=1.25× 10−15 × √3 A

This equation assumes a spherical nucleus and hence, the radius can itself be related to A whereby;

A
Nucleon Density=
V

The nucleon density is constant and uniform for all nuclei. The liquid-drop model of the nucleus accounts for
many of the physical properties of nuclei; that is with uniform and constant nucleon density.

Mass and Energy:

Mass and energy are equivalent and convertible, from one to the other as implied by;

3
E Rest =m0 c 2

A unit of energy used a lot in nuclear engineering is the Eletronvolt (1 eV =1.6 × 10−19 J ) which is

equivalent to the kinetic energy gained by an electron through a potential difference of 1 V .

When a body is in motion the mass varies according to an observer at rest such that;

m0
m=
v2
√ 1−
c2

The mass (m) keeps increasing indefinitely as a particle approaches the speed of light (c ). Therefore, the total
energy is equal to the rest mass energy but also its kinetic energy.

ETotal =mc 2

m0 c 2
ETotal =
v2
√ 1−
c2

The relativistic kinetic energy is given by;

E Kinetic=E Total −ERest

The kinetic energy may also by calculated through the application of classical mechanics. However, there are
limitations to the extent that this can be done. Its validity deteriorates as the kinetic energy increases, relative to
the larger rest mass energy. In practice it is estimated that;

E Kinetic ≤ 0.02 E Rest

4
In the case of the neutron which has a rest mass 1 GeV , the kinetic energy rarely exceeds 20 MeV threshold
and hence its nonrelativistic kinetic energy can be calculated through application of classical mechanics, that
is;

1
E Kinetic= m 0 v 2
2

Which when accounting for the mass of the neutron, a useful equation is derived;

v=1.383 ×106 √ E Kinetic

It should be noted that none of these equations apply for massless particles such as photons which follow by;

E=hf

Particle Wavelengths:

All particles have a wave nature and hence an associated wavelength. The wavelength of a particle is related to

its momentum ( p ).

h
λ=
p

For particles that do have a rest mass, momentum is calculated as done in classical mechanics, that is;

p=mv

For nonrelativistic energies, the momentum may be expressed as;

5
p= √ 2 m0 E

h
λ=
√2 m0 E

This equation is valid for neutrons and further computations in nuclear engineering. A more convenient method
of finding the wavelength of a neutron specifically is by;

2.860× 10−11
λ=
√E

whereby the kinetic energy is in Electronvolts.

For a relativistic case the particle momentum is given by;

1
p= √ ETotal 2−E Rest 2
c

hc
λ=
√ E Total2−E Rest2

In the case of a massless particle the determination of momentum doesn’t follow by previous calculations but
rather;

E
p=
c

hc
λ=
E

Excited States and Radiation:

The position of an electron relative to the nucleus can be defined according to different energy levels. The
innermost electron or K-Electron possess the most energy (88 keV), that is it impedes its own removal from its
energy level the most. The process of subtracting electrons is known as ionisation and the energy required to
remove the electrons is aptly called the ionisation energy.

6
The state of lowest energy is the one in which an atom is normally found, and this is called the ground state.
When an electron possesses more energy than its ground it is said to be excited to a higher energy level. The
highest energy level represents a state in which an electron is completely removed and has no attraction to the
nucleus at all. An electron may not remain excited indefinitely and does eventually fall to a lower energy level
while emitting the energy through the emission of a photon. The energy possessed by the photon, and hence the
frequency of the EMR emitted is proportional to the change in energy levels. Since electrostatic forces a
relatively weak, the energy released by the electron transition is with the visible light or UV range.

The nucleons in nuclei may also be thought of as moving in orbits albeit not as discrete as electron orbits. In any
case, there is a state of lowest energy, the ground state; except for the very lightest nuclei, all nuclei have excited
states as well. Similarly, excited nucleons decay to a lower energy level and again release photons. However,
since nuclear forces are much stronger than electrostatic force, the frequency of the EMR is usually gamma-
radiation.

A nucleus in an excited state can also lose its excitation energy by internal conversion. In this process, the
excitation energy of the nucleus is transferred into kinetic energy of one of the innermost atomic electrons. The
hole remaining in the electron cloud after the departure of the electron in internal conversion is later filled by
one of the outer atomic electrons. This transition is accompanied either by the emission of an x -ray or the
ejection of another electron in a process similar to internal conversion. Electrons originating in this way are
called Auger electrons.

Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay:

The Segre chart or the chart of the nuclides is a plot of the neutron number and proton number for different
20
nuclides. It noticeable how up to . Ca, the number of protons match the neutrons. After this point, the number
of neutrons supersede the protons in terms of abundance. These is necessary for larger nuclei to maintain
nuclear stability. Only specific combinations of neutrons and protons form stable nuclei. Certain isotopes for
instance, may not have sufficient neutrons such that the repulsive electrostatic forces within the nucleus are
overcome and the nucleus is kept hole. However, even an excess of neutrons may lead to nuclear instability as
well. A nucleus that is unstable always strives towards a state of better nuclear stability and hence it partakes in
the process of radioactive decay.

7
Nuclei that lack neutrons undergo β +¿−¿ ¿ decay, in the process losing a neutrino and consequentially a position
+¿¿
(β . Furthermore, one of the protons transforms into a neutron.

p →n+ β+¿+ v¿

By contrast, nuclei that have an excess of neutrons undergo β−¿−¿¿decay, such that one of the neutrons turns
into a proton while a negatron and antineutrino are emitted.

n → p+ β−¿+ v́ ¿

Under either decay process, the atomic mass remains fixed. The kinetic energy possessed by an emitted electron
can vary according to the following spectrum showing the magnitude of kinetic energy versus the number of

electrons. E Max is a definite value by which no electrons have ever been observed that exceed this threshold.
The average energy of an emitted electron ( É ) usually approximates at 0.3 E Max for both negatron and positron
decay.

8
Frequently, the daughter nucleus, the nucleus formed in β -decay, is also unstable and undergoes further β -
decay. This leads to decay chains until a stable nucleus is attained.

A nucleus which is lacking in neutrons can also increase its neutron number by means of electron capture. In
this process, an atomic electron interacts with one of the protons in the nucleus, and a neutron is formed of the
union. This leaves a vacancy in the electron cloud which is later filled by another electron, which in turn leads to
the emission of γ – rays. Usually, the electron captured by the nucleus is the K-electron and hence this mode of
decay is also called K-capture.

p+e → n+ v

Another method of achieving nuclear stability is by means of α −¿decay. This particle is the highly stable
4
nucleus of the isotope 2 He , consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Therefore, nuclear stability is achieved
by means of losing two protons and two neutrons. As can be noted in the Segre chart, decay by α -particle
emission is comparatively rare in nuclides lighter than lead, but it is common for the heavier nuclei. α -particles
are emitted in discrete spectra such as the case the of photons and unlike β -decay.

Decay Schemes:

It is useful to think of the decay scheme as placed in a coordinate system, where the ordinate axis is energy,
increasing from bottom to top, and the abscissa is the proton number, increasing from left to right. The arrows
indicate the emitted particles. Vertical arrows represent γ -rays energies and oblique arrows represent β -decay.

Most nuclei in excited states decay by the emission of γ -rays in an immeasurably short time after these states
are formed. However, owing to peculiarities in their internal structure, the decay of certain excited states is

9
delayed to a point where the nuclei in these states appear to be semistable. Such long-lived states are called
isomeric states of the nuclei in question. The decay by γ -rays emission of one of these states is called an
isomeric transition and is indicated as IT in nuclear data tabulations.

Radioactivity Calculations:

The probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay is a constant independent of time. This constant is called
the decay constant and is denoted by λ .

The rate at which atoms decay in the sample is therefore λ n(t) disintegrations per unit time. This decay rate is
called the activity of the sample and is denoted by the symbol α .

α (t)= λn(t)

A unit utilised to represent activity is the curie which is denoted as Ci. A single curie is equivalent to

3.7 ×1010 s−1. In terms of SI units, the becquerel is used which is denoted as Bq. One becquerel is equivalent
to one disintegration per second.

By considering the relation as a differential equation with limits shown on a graph representing the number of
nuclei against time, the equation can be derived into;

n=n0 e− λt

Similarly;

10
 α =α 0 e−λt

After one half-life ( T );

1
2

ln ( 2 )= λ T 1
2

The average life expectancy or mean-life, ( t́ ) of a radioactive nucleus is related to the decay constant by the
formula;

1
t́=
λ

Hence;

T1
2
t́=
ln ( 2 )

Within a nuclear reactor nucleus are continually being formed which may decay shortly after. The net change in

the number of atoms of the nuclide in the time ( dt ) is given intuitively by a simple rate equation;

Time Rate of Change of Nuclide = Rate of Production - Rate of Loss

Assuming that a nuclide is being produced at a constant rate (R);

dn
=−λn+ R
dt

Which may be integrated into;

R
n=n0 e− λt + ( 1−e−λt )
λ

11
and hence;

α =α 0 e−λt + R ( 1−e− λt )

Nuclear Reactions:

A nuclear reaction is said to have taken place when two nuclei or a nucleus and a nucleon interact to produce
two or more nuclear particles or γ -rays. Four fundamental conservation laws govern nuclear reactions;

1. Conservation of Nucleons
2. Conservation of Charge
3. Conservation of Momentum
4. Conservation of Energy

The total energy before the reaction is the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles (say a and b) plus the rest-
mass energy of each particle. Similarly, the energy after the reaction is the sum of the kinetic energies of
particles (say c and d) plus their rest-mass energies.

Ea + ma c 2 + Eb +m b c 2=Ec +m c c2 + E d +m d c 2

( E c + E d ) −( Ea + E b )=[ ( ma + mb ) −( mc +md ) ] c 2

The right-hand side is referred to as the Q-value of the reaction, that is;

Q= [ ( m a +m b )−( m c +m d ) ] c 2

The Q-value is always expressed in terms of MeV. Therefore for 1 amu which is equivalent to 931 MeV;

Q= [ ( ma +mb )−( mc +md ) ] 931 MeV

12
Whenever the Q-value is positive, there is a net increase in the kinetic energy of the particle s and the reaction is
said to be exothermic. On the contrary an endothermic reaction is one which results in an overall drop in
kinetic energies and a negative Q-value. Whenever it is possible to produce a more stable configuration by
combining two less stable nuclei, energy is released in the process.

By virtue of the conservation of charge the previous conservation equation can be rewritten in terms of atomic
numbers (Z) such that the there is no net change in charge.

Z a+ Z b=Z c + Z d

[ ]
Q= ( ( ma + Z a me ) + ( mb + Z b me ) ) −( ( mc + Z c me )+ ( md + Z d me ) ) 931 MeV

Notation:

It is common practice to abbreviate a nuclear reaction equation according to the following example;

16
. O +n → 16. N + p

Can be shortened to;

16
. O ( n , p ) 16. N

Binding Energy:

The difference in mass between a nucleus and its constituent nucleons is called the mass defect (∆ ).

∆=( Z m p + N m n )−ma

When the mass defect is expressed in terms of energy units, the new quantity represents that energy required to
break the nucleus into in its constituent particles (the separation energy). Conversely, it is the energy that holds
the nucleus whole and is therefore aptly termed the binding energy. As the atomic mass increases so does the
binding energy of the nucleus. Above A = 50 the function stabilises and decreases gradually.

13
The Q-value of a nuclear reaction can be expressed in terms of the binding energies of the reacting particles or

nuclei.

Q= [ ( BE ( a )+ BE ( b ) ) −( BE ( c ) + BE ( d )) ]

Reactions in which at least one heavier, more stable nucleus is produced from two lighter, less stable nuclei, are
known as fusion reactions. On the other hand, the division of larger nuclei into smaller ones is referred to as
fission reactions.

In actuality the binding energy per nucleon shown in the previous plot takes a mean value of energy per
nucleon. Each nucleon has it specific value of energy per nucleon. For instance, the least bound neutron, also
referred to as the last neutron follows by;

E S= m n+ ( m ( A −1. Z )−m ( A. Z ) ) 931.502 MeV /amu

[ ]

Rather interestingly it should be noted how especially stable nuclei have as many nuclei as the number of nuclei
required to fill shells; in similar fashion to electron orbitals. Therefore, the magic numbers of nuclear stability
are 2, 6, 8, 14, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 and so on.

In practical terms, magic numbered nuclei act as poor neutron absorbers and therefore their use within reactors
is reserved to areas where neutron absorption must be avoided.

Nuclear Models:

14
There exist two models that are used to explain phenomena in nuclear physics. These being the shell model and
the liquid drop model.

The Shell Model:

In this model, the collective interaction of the nucleons in the nucleus generate a potential well. One can then
think of a single nucleon as if it is moving in the well created by the average effect of the other nucleons. As in
the case of other such potential wells, such a well can have one or more quantized states. These states are then
populated in the same way that the atomic orbitals of an atom are populated by electrons. Just as in the atom,
there is a maximum number of nucleons that may occupy a shell. When this number is reached, a closed shell
results. This model explains the magic numbers of nucleons.

The Liquid Drop Model:

The liquid-drop model of the nucleus seeks to explain the mass defect in terms of a balance between the forces
binding the nucleons in the nucleus and the coulombic repulsion between the protons.

To a first approximation, the mass of a nuclear droplet is just the mass of the components which are bound by
nuclear forces. The binding of each nucleon to its neighbours means that energy and mass must be added to tear
the nucleus apart. The mass may be approximated by:

m=N m n +Z m p−αA

To correct for variation in the bonds according to the nuclear radius, a fourth term is added.

m=N mn +Z m p−αA + 4 π R 2 T

1
T denotes the surface tension. Recall that R ∝ A 3 . Therefore, the last term can be modified into;

2
m=N m n +Z m p−αA + β A 3

Now accounting for the repulsive coulombic forces;

2 1
m=N mn +Z m p−αA + β A 3 +γ Z 2 / A 3

15
In accordance with Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, a nucleus that has as many neutrons as protons is more stable
than one that isn’t. Therefore, the following term is added.

2 1
m=N m n +Z m p−αA + β A 3 +γ Z 2 / A 3 + ζ ( A−2 Z )2 / A

Lastly, it should be noted that two like nucleons are more strongly bonded than two unlike nucleons and
therefore there is a presence for an even number of nucleons.

2 1
m=N mn +Z m p−αA + β A 3 +γ Z 2 / A 3 + ζ ( A−2 Z )2 / A+ δ

whereby δ is 0 if N and Z are odd and even and 1 if N and Z are both odd or both even.

Typically, the constants are taken to be;

Constant Value
mp 938.280 MeV
mn 939.573 MeV
α 15.560 MeV
β 17.230 MeV
γ 0.697 MeV
ζ 23.285 MeV
δ 12.000 MeV

The Maxwellian Distribution:

In a gas, the energies of the atoms or molecules are distributed according to the Maxwellian distribution
function. The function gives a value for the density of particles per unit of energy.

1 −E
2 πN
N ( e )= 3
E 2 e kT
2
( πkT )

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N is the particle density; k is Boltzmann's constant k =8.6170 ×10−5 eV /K and T is the absolute
temperature of the gas in Kelvin.

The most probable energy can intuitively be defined as the most abundant value of energy; that is the peak of

the graph. Therefore, the most probable energy or ( E p ) is given by;

1
E p = kT
2

On the other hand, the average energy is given by;

∞
1
É= ∫ N ( E ) E dE
N 0

3
É= kT
2

Atom Density:

Often it is requested to find the number of atoms within a unit volume. By relation of the substance’s density
and atomic weight;

17
 ρ NA
N=
M

Whereby N represent the number atoms in a unit volume.

Similarly, the molecular density is found through the same relation. Furthermore, it is often the case where one
has to compute the abundance of certain isotope within a molecule. Thus, the atomic density of the i th isotope is

given according to its abundance ( γ ).

γi ρ N A
N i=
100 M

Moreover, the isotopic density of the ith isotope is given in terms of its weight percent ( w ) by;

wi ρ
ρi=
100

It follows that the atomic density of that isotope is;

wi ρ N A
N i=
100 M i

When expressing the weight of a specific element within a chemical formula. Consider an arbitrary chemical

formula X m Y n such that its molecular weight is mM X +n M Y . The abundance of X in term of the molecular
weight is given by;

mM X
w /o ( X ) =
mM X +n M Y

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2. Interaction of Radiation with Matter:

This chapter tackles the interaction of radiation with matter which in practical terms can mean a reactor or a
radiation shield. Energies of up to 20 MeV shall be considered as most radiation practically encountered lies
within this region.

Neutron Interaction:

Firstly, it is important to appreciate how a neutron has no coulombic interaction with protons and electrons.
Neutrons are therefore virtually not affected by the electron cloud and therefore are said to collide with the
nucleus rather than the atom as whole.

Scattering Processes:

1. Elastic Scattering ( σ e ) :

The neutron strikes the nucleus, which is almost always in its ground state, the neutron reappears, and the
nucleus is left in its ground state. The neutron in this case is said to have been elastically scattered by the
nucleus. In the notation of nuclear reactions, this interaction is abbreviated by the symbol (n, n).

2. Inelastic Scattering ( σ i ):

This process is identical to elastic scattering except that the nucleus is left in an excited state. Because energy is
retained by the nucleus, this is an endothermic interaction. Inelastic scattering is denoted by the symbol (n, n').
The excited nucleus decays, by the emission of γ -rays. In this case, since these γ -rays originate in inelastic
scattering, they are called inelastic γ -rays.

Absorption Processes:

1. Radiative Capture ( σ γ ) :

The neutron is captured by the nucleus, and one or more γ -rays called capture γ -rays are emitted. This is an
exothermic interaction and is denoted by (n, γ ).

2. Charged-Particle Reactions ( σ α ∧σ p ) :

Neutrons may also disappear as the result of absorption reactions of the type (n, α ) and (n, p). Such reactions
may be either exothermic or endothermic.

3. Neutron-Producing Reactions:

Reactions of the type (n, 2n) and (n, 3n) occur with energetic neutrons. These reactions are endothermic since
in the (n, 2n) reaction one neutron and in the (n, 3n) reaction 2 neutrons are extracted from the struck nucleus.

19
The (n, 2n) reaction is especially important in reactors containing heavy water or beryllium since deuterium and
9
. Be have loosely bound neutrons that can easily be ejected.

4. Fission ( σ f )

Cross-Sections:

Cross-sections refer to the extent by which neutrons interact with nuclei. Cross-sections are defined

experimentally through a mono-energetic beam which is made incident on to a target of thickness ( X ) and a

cross-sectional area ( A ) .

If there are ( n ) neutrons in a unit volume with a velocity of ( v ) than the intensity is given by;

I =nv

Since nuclei are small and the target is assumed to be thin, most of the neutrons striking the target in an
experiment ordinarily pass through the target without interacting with any of the nuclei. The number that do

collide are found to be proportional to the beam intensity ( I ), atom density ( N ) of the target, and to the area ( A )

and thickness of the target ( X ) . Therefore;

Collisions per Second=σINAX

Whereby σ represents the proportionality limit termed the microscopic cross-section. Therefore, a definition of
cross-section follows as the number of collisions per second in a nucleus per unit intensity.

Moreover, it may be concluded that;

20
σI σ
=
AI A

is equal to the probability that a neutron in the beam will collide with this nucleus. Cross-sections are expressed

in terms of barns abbreviated as b whereby one barn is equal to 10−24 cm 2. In practical terms the cross-
sectional A is much larger than the beam. The previous derivations still hold but the now A represents the cross-
sectional area of the beam rather than the target.

The sum of the cross-sections for all possible interactions is known as the total cross-section and is given by;

σ Total =σ e + σ i +σ γ +σ f

The sum of the cross-sections of all absorption reactions is known as the absorption cross-section and is given
by;

σ Absorption=σ γ + σ f +σ p +σ α

Furthermore;

σ Scattering =σ e +σ i

σ Total =σ Scattering +σ Absorption

Recall;

Collisions per Second=σ Total INAX

Since AX represents volume, the number of collisions per second is given by ( F ) which is the collision density.

F=¿ σ Total

21
The product of the cross-section and atomic density is generally reduced to one term ( Σ ) which is called the

macroscopic cross-section with cm−1 as the unit. Specifically, ( Σ Total =N σ Total ) is the macroscopic total

cross-section and ( Σ Scattering =N σ Scattering ) the macroscopic scattering cross-section.

F=I Σ

Neutron Attenuation:

So far relatively thin targets have been considered and this part elaborates on thicker targets. Suppose a thick

target of thickness X is placed in a monodirectional beam of intensity ( I 0 ) and a neutron detector is located at
some distance behind the target. By intuition it can be concluded that the detector only picks up uncollided and
unscattered neutrons.

Let I (x) be the intensity of the neutrons that have not collided after penetrating the distance x into the target.
Then in traversing an additional distance dx , the intensity of the uncollided beam is decreased by the number of

neutrons that have collided in the thin sheet of target having an area of 1 cm 2 and the thickness dx . This
decrease in intensity is given by;

−d I ( x )=N σ Total I ( x ) dx=Σ Total I ( x)dx

This differential equation can be integrated into;

x
I ( x )=I 0 e−Σ Total

22
The intensity of uncollided neutrons therefore decreases exponentially. It is important to point out that the
effectiveness of the proceeding derivation is limited to thinner targets as it fails to consider scattering of
neutrons. Thicker cross-sections usually imply that each neutron will most likely collide at least once within the
target.

Let the quantity p(x )dx be the probability that a neutron will have its first collision in dx in the
neighbourhood of x . This is evidently equal to the probability that the neutron survives up to x without a
collision times the probability that it does in fact collide in the additional distance dx. Since Σ Total is the
probability of interaction per path length, p(x )dx is given by;

x
p(x )dx=Σ Total e−Σ Total
dx

The mean free path is designated by the symbol λ , is equal to the average value of x , that is the distance
traversed by a neutron without a collision.

∞
λ=∫ x p(x ) dx
0

∞
x
λ=Σ Total ∫ x e−Σ Total
dx
0

1
λ=
Σ Total

Now consider a homogenous mixture of two nuclear species; X and Y. The total probability per unit path that a
neutron interacts with either nucleus is;

Σ=Σ X + Σ Y =N X σ X + N Y σ Y

The applicability of this equation is utile when dealing with molecules which pose more than a single nucleus. If

there are N molecules X m Y n per cm3 the cross-section for the molecule is;

23
 Σ
σ= =mσ X +n σ Y
N

Neutron Flux:

Consider a case where the target is bombarded by different neutron beams with different intensities.

Recall the expression for collision density;

F=I Σ

The collision density can be expressed in terms of each beam by;

F=Σ Total ( I A + I B + I C +… )

If the neutrons are assumed to be monenergistic the equation can be further elaborated into;

F=Σ Total ( n A +n B +nC +… ) v=v Σ Total ∑ n

whereby n refers to the density of neutrons of each beam.

24
The situation at any point in a reactor is a generalization of this model, but with the neutrons moving in all
directions.

The quantity nv is referred to as the neutron flux which is abbreviated as ϕ ;

ϕ=nv

In terms of the flux, the collision density is;

F=Σ Total ϕ

Neutron-Nuclei Interactions:

1. Compound Nucleus Formation:

Most neutron interactions proceed by striking the target nucleus, coalescing with it to form a compound nucleus
before decaying in a number of ways.

One of the striking features of interactions that proceed by way of compound nucleus formation is that their
cross-sections (number of collisions per second in a nucleus per unit intensity) exhibit maxima at certain
incident neutron energies called resonances. Recall that nuclei have various excited states corresponding to
different configurations of nucleons in the nucleus. The incident neutron and target nucleus are more likely to
combine and form a compound nucleus if the energy of the neutron is such that the compound nucleus is
produced in one of its excited states. The resonances show up in the cross-section because it is necessary to form
the compound nucleus before the interaction can proceed.

Separation energy, refers to the energy required to remove a neutron from a nucleus. This separation energy
reappears, however, when the neutron renters the nucleus. Therefore, it follows that when a neutron collides
with a nucleus, the compound nucleus is formed in an excited state having an energy equal to the kinetic energy
of the incident neutron plus the separation energy or binding energy of the neutron in the compound nucleus.

2. Elastic Scattering:

The elastic scattering cross-section as a function of energy of the incident neutron can be divided into three

distinct regions. In the first, low-energy region, σ e is approximately constant. The scattering in this region does
not occur by compound nucleus formation, but merely because of the forces exerted by the target nucleus on the
passing neutron. The cross-section for this potential scattering is given by;

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 σ e =4 π R2

whereby R represents the nuclear radius. Beyond the potential scattering region, there is a region of resonances
that is due to compound nucleus formation. At still higher energies, the resonances crowd together to such an

extent that the individual resonances can no longer be resolved and σ e is a smooth and slowly varying function
of energy; termed the smooth region.

3. Inelastic Scattering:

This process does not occur unless the neutron has sufficient energy to place the target nucleus in its first excited

state. As a result, σ i is 0 up to some threshold energy. Generally speaking, the energy at which the first excited

state is found decreases with increasing mass number. As a consequence, σ i is non-zero over a larger energy

region for the heavier nuclei than for the lighter nuclei. At energies well above threshold, σ i is roughly equal to

as σ s.

4. Radiative Capture:

26
As in the case of elastic scattering, it is convenient to divide the radiative capture cross-section into three

1
regions. In the low-energy region of most nuclei, σ γ varies at ,where E is the neutron energy. Since the
√E
1
neutron speed( v ) is proportional to √ E, this means that σ γ varies as . The low-energy region of σ γ is
v

1
therefore known as the region. Neutron cross-sections are often plotted on a log-log scale, and a cross-section
v

1 −1
that is then appears as a straight line with a slope of . For a few important nuclei,σ γ does not show exact
v 2

1 1
behavior at low energy, and such nuclei are called non - absorbers.
v v

1
Above the region, there is a region of resonances that occurs at the same energies as the resonances in σ s.
v
Near an isolated resonance at the energy Er , σ y is given by the Breit-Wigner one-level formula;

γr 2 g ΓnΓg
σ y= = 2
4π 2 Γ
( E−Er ) + 4

In this expression, γ r is the wavelength of neutrons with energy Er , g is a constant known as the statistical
factor, Γ n and Γ g are constants called, respectively, the neutron width and the radiation width, and Γ = Γ n +

27
Γ g is called the total width. It is easy to show that σ γ falls to one half of its maximum value at the energies
Er ± r /2. In short, Γ is the width of the resonance at one half its height. Above the resonance region, which
ends at about 1 keV in the heavy nuclei and at increasingly higher energies in lighter nuclei, σ γ drops rapidly
and smoothly to very small values.

5. Charged Particle Reactions:

As a rule, the ¿), ¿), and other charged particle reactions are endothermic and do not occur below some
threshold energy. Their cross-sections also tend to be small, even above threshold, especially for the heavier
nuclei. However, there are some important exothermic reactions in light nuclei. One of these is the reaction

B (n , α ) 7¿ Li , the cross-section of which is shown in the proceeding plot. It is observed that σ a is very large at
10
¿

low energy; for this reason, 10¿ B is often used to absorb low-energy neutrons. It should also be noted that σ a is

1
1/v over several orders of magnitude in energy. A similar exothermic reaction that also shows a strong
v
behavior is 6¿ Li (n , α ) 3¿ H . This reaction is used for the production of tritium. Some endothermic charged-
particle reactions are important in reactors even though their thresholds are high. In water reactors, for example,

the 16¿ O (n , p) 16¿ N reaction is the principal source of the radioactivity of the water despite that ordinarily only

one neutron in several thousand has an energy greater than the 9 MeV threshold for this reaction.

6. Total Cross-Section:

Since σ t is the sum of all the other cross-sections, the variation of σ t with energy reflects the behaviour of the
individual component cross-sections. In particular, at low energy, at behaves as;

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 C
σ t=4 π R 2+
√E

where C is a constant. The first term in this expression is the cross-section for elastic scattering while the
second term gives the cross-section for radiative capture or whatever other exothermic reaction is possible at

this energy. If the first term is much larger than the second, then σ t is a constant at low energy; if the second

1
term dominates, σ t is in this energy region. In the resonance region, at exhibits the resonances found in σ sand
v
σ i , all of which occur at the same energies in each of these cross-sections. At higher energies above the
resonance region, σ t becomes a smooth and rolling function of energy, as is the case in elastic scattering.

7. Hydrogen and Deuterium:

The nuclei 1¿ H and 2¿ H , which are present in large amounts in many nuclear reactors, interact with neutrons in a

somewhat different manner from other nuclei. For one thing, interactions with 1¿ H and 2¿ H do not involve the

formation of a compound nucleus. They also do not have any resonances. The cross-section, σ s. is constant up

1
to 10 keV , and σ γ is at all energies. Furthermore, these nuclei have no excited states since 1¿ H is essentially
V
a single proton and so inelastic scattering does not occur.

Energy Loss in Scattering Collisions:

When a neutron is elastically scattered from a nucleus at rest, the nucleus recoils from the site of the collision.
The kinetic energy of the scattered neutron is, therefore, smaller than the energy of the incident neutron by an
amount equal to the energy acquired by the recoiling nucleus. In this way, neutrons lose energy in elastic
collisions even though the internal energy of the nucleus does not change.

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The laws of conservation of energy and momentum apply such that if the collision is elastic;

E=E' + E A '

p= p' + P

p2=P2 + p'2−2 p p' cos ϑ

Since p2=2 mE ;

mnucleus E A =mneutron E+ mneutron E'−2 mneutron √ E E' cos ϑ

mnucleus
Since ≈ A;
mneutron

A E A =E+ E ' −2 √ E E' cos ϑ

( A+1 ) E' −2 √ E E ' cos ϑ−( A−1 ) E=0

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 E 2
E' = [2 cos ϑ + √ A 2−sin2 ϑ ]
( A+1 )

If ϑ=0 then there no energy losses in such a collision. On the contrary, a collision with ϑ=π involves the
neutron recoiling in the same incident direction. This involves the largest energy loss possible. For ϑ=π ;

E 2
E' = [2 cos ϑ + √ A 2−sin2 ϑ ]
( A+1 )

A−1 2
E' Min= ( A+1 ) E=αE

α is called the collision parameter.

Since the mass of 1¿ H is approximately equivalent to the mass of a neutron. The minimum energy of neutrons

π
scattered from1¿ H must therefore be found by placing ϑ= .
2

E' Min=0

It is also of interest to know the average energy of an elastically scattered neutron which is given approximately
by;

1
É' = ( 1+α ) E
2

Then the average loss is given by;

1
∆´E= ( 1−α ) E
2

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Neutrons lose less and less energy the heavier the target nucleus is. Often it is necessary to slow down fast
neutrons in a process known as moderation. Materials of a low mass number are most effective for this purpose
since the neutrons slow down most rapidly in such media.

Neutrons also lose energy through inelastic collisions, as a result of both recoil and internal excitation of the
target nucleus. With the heavier nuclei, the inelastic threshold is much lower, and inelastic scattering is often the
principal mechanism for neutron moderation.

In many reactor calculations, especially in connection with neutron moderation, it is convenient to describe

neutron collisions in terms of a new variable called lethargy ( u ) .

u=ln ( EE )
M

whereby E M is arbitrary energy, usually that of the highest energy neutron in the system. At high energy, a
neutron's lethargy is low while as it slows down and E decreases its lethargy increases. The average change in
lethargy in an elastic collision,∆´u , like the average fractional energy loss is independent of the energy of the

incident neutron. The quantity ∆´u appears in many nuclear engineering calculations and is denoted by ξ .

( A−1 )2 A+ 1
ξ=1−
2A
ln
A−1 ( )

Polyenergetic Neutrons:

A recurring assumption in previous derivations is the monoenergetic neutrons. In general neutrons have a
distribution of energies.

For this purpose, let n(E) dE be the number of neutrons per cm3 with energies between E and E+ dE in a
neutron beam incident on a thin target. The intensity of these neutrons is;

dI ( E)=n( E) v ( E) dE

whereby v( E) is the speed corresponding to the energy E .

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dF ( E)=n( E)v ( E) Σ t ( E)dE

F=∫ n(E)v (E) Σ t (E) dE

An especially important case is the absorption of thermal neutrons that is, neutrons whose energies are
distributed according to the Maxwellian function. These neutrons are found in certain types of nuclear reactors
called thermal reactors. The absorption rate in a beam of thermal neutrons is;

F a=∫ n( E) v( E) Σ a ( E) dE

1
At low energies most nuclei exhibit absorption, either as the result of radiative capture or some other
v
absorption reaction. At these energies, Σ a ( E) can be written as;

v0
Σ a ( E )=Σ a ( E 0)
v(E)

F a=Σ a ( E 0) v 0∫ n( E) dE

F a=Σ a (E 0) n v 0

1
It has become standard practice to specify all absorption cross-sections or not, at the single energy of
v
E0 =0.0253 eV . The corresponding speed is v 0=2 ,200 m/ s. Values of cross-sections at 0.0253 eV are
loosely referred to as thermal cross-sections.

3. Reactor Systems:

Magnox:

Magnox is a type of nuclear reactor designed to run on natural uranium with graphite as the

moderator and carbon dioxide gas as the heat exchange coolant. It belongs to the wider class of gas-cooled
reactors. The name comes from the magnesium-aluminium alloy used to clad the fuel rods inside the reactor.

33
Eight elements are loaded and unloaded in a channel individually. At the bottom end of each element, there is a
nose cone that sits into a conical receptacle on the top of the one below. The nose cone acts as a locator for the
grab from the refuelling machine. Also, at the top of each element, there is a spider that locates the element in
the centre of the fuel channel because it has a spring-loaded leg. This stops it rattling round in the channel due to
the high gas coolant flows. The spider and conical receptacle piece act as a locator for the grab from the
refuelling machine.

Hence, the refuelling is continuous at several fuel channels per day. On-load refuelling is essential for the
smooth operation of Magnox systems because excess reactivity is limited.

nFuel Channels
On Load Refuelling Rate=
T Life

Problems in Magnox Reactors:

1. Creep: Continuous deformation of a component under some form of load which in itself is insufficient
to lead to a direct failure. There exist two main types of creep mechanisms in magnox reactors being
irradiation creep at low temperatures and temperature creep at a high temperature. The weight of
the final element is sufficient to cause gradual bowing of the bottom elements under creep conditions.
Since this could lead to an element sticking in a channel, it is a problem.

The newer, herringbone pattern of the element, although of much stronger design since it is made from
a single piece of Magnox, does not resist bowing so well. Often, the bottom elements of a string are of
the old design known as polyzonal because can be used in any zone. Some reactors have used mixed
designs in the same core, some use just the same type of element throughout.

2. Ratcheting: Creep is also involved in the ratchetting of the fuel element. This phenomenon is caused
by recurring changes in temperature conditions. Initially, the cold co-efficient of expansion for
cladding is greater than that for the fuel. At the time the temperature change takes place, the cladding is
not in contact with the fuel because of radial expansion. At this temperature, the pressure causes the
clad to creep down onto the fuel. Eventually, when the temperature is lowered again, the fuel reverts to
its original position. However, the cladding cannot, since it is bonded to the fuel. The cladding is thus
elongated, with thinner sides. At each repeat of the thermal cycle the cladding is stretched further,
hence the name ratcheting. Eventually, the cladding will fail, because it will be stretched beyond its
elastic limit.

The phenomenon is remedied by inserting grooves. Now when the system is thermally cycled, the clad
is held in contact with the fuel and cannot suffer ratcheting.

34
 3. Oxidation by Carbon Dioxide: Uranium metal oxidises when it comes in contact with carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide is often discharged due to leaks from end-cap welds. The expansion thus occurs
inside the element until the cladding is so deformed that it ruptures (Fast Burst), spilling fission
products into the rest of the reactor. If the leak occurs because of a pin-hole in the cap weld, the fission
products escaping have a long leakage path down the screw thread of the end cap. Thus, many will
have decayed before they reach the carbon dioxide coolant stream, so that they will be less likely to be
recorded on the Burst Can Detection (BCD) systems which monitor for radioactivity in the coolant.
This is done by splitting the gas into two samples and checking for activity immediately and over a few
minutes on the second.

4. Fuel Element Swelling: The fuel swells in all direction at about 1 % per 1000 MW days /tonne –
burn up. The swelling rate increases at higher burn-up. Voids of moderate size appear, particularly in
certain temperature regimes. The net result is swelling and porosity occurring in that part of the fuel
which is between 390 ℃ and 450 ℃ . The swelling itself is a problem in normal operation and the
porosity also increases the rate at which oxidation would occur under accident conditions.

Cladding:

MAGNOX cladding has a composition of

Mg+ 0.8 %Al+ 0.002%−0.005 %Be +0.008 %Cu+0.006 %Fe. The magnesium reacts with the carbon
dioxide to form magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide and carbon residue. This forms a film on the
MAGNOX cladding which is inherently less dense than the cladding. This configuration acts similar to a
bimetallic strip which bows upon an increase in temperature (waving). This is remedied by a thicker
herringbone design which has higher flexural rigidity and bows significantly less. The application of caustic
soda reduces the extent to which carbon dioxide accelerates the corrosion of the cladding. However, the best
solution is to reduce the temperature and generally reduce the rate of reaction between the cladding and carbon
dioxide.

35
Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactors (AGR):

Uranium metal fuel has an α → β phase change at 660 ℃ accompanied by swelling. This sets a temperature
limit on fuel and some temperature limit on cladding. The cladding is spontaneously flammable in the air at
550 ℃ and softens at a similar temperature. This imposes a second temperature limit of around 450 ℃ on the
cladding.

AGR aims to solve most problems MAGNOX imposes. Uranium oxide is used as a fuel that has a melting
temperature greater than 2000 ℃ . Instead of MAGNOX, a stainless-steel cladding is used which solves most
issues caused by waving. The use of uranium oxide results in a lower uranium density and poorer thermal
conductivity. Hence, the multiple pin sub-assembly needs to be changed to provide a greater concentration.

Anti-stacking grooves (ASGs) are situated every third to fifth pellet. The cladding is bonded onto the pellet
in a similar way to the anti-ratchetting grooves in MAGNOX by external pressure applied to the pin
during manufacture.

36