2 The Project Management Context

2.1 Today’s Business Trends

a. The focus is on high-quality, speed-to-market, and superior customer satisfaction.
This can be accomplished only across functional lines of authority in a project
environment. With the shift from mass production to custom production of goods and
services, project management is an increasingly important aspect of a responsive
management style. Businesses are shifting from traditional hierarchical management
to project management. Organisational charts are changing from vertical structures to
team-centred project structures.

b. The traditional job of doing the same tasks every day is disappearing as routine office
and factory work become automated. Middle management is also disappearing as
companies rely on computers to gather and analyse information. The new focus is on
projects and project teams assigned to solve specific problems. Teams might be set up
to design a new product or re-engineer the ordering process. Projects are conceived,
staffed up, completed, then shut down. Project teams come and go with problems and
opportunities.

c. The traditional career path is changing. Companies offer less job security as they
refocus on core competencies and out-source noncore work. They teach marketable
skills but don’t promise a job tomorrow. People define their careers less by companies
(‘‘I work for Microsoft’’) and more by professions (‘‘I design computer programs’’).
Personal success is measured by the value of the projects on which a person works.
The goal is growth in the profession, not movement up the corporate ladder into
management. Pay is determined by skill level and the marketability of the person’s
services rather than by managerial hierarchy.

2.2 A Proactive Management Style

Today’s trends mean that management expects more with less. There is more pressure with
less time, more work with less staff and more cost control with less tolerance for mistakes.
The solution to this dilemma lies in a proactive rather than reactive management style.

Many companies conduct business by means of projects. Each project is justified because it
creates a product or service that the company can sell or because it reduces or controls costs.
As the number of a company’s potential projects increases, there is an increased necessity to
choose the right projects and execute them more efficiently. As competition between vendors
increases, the winning company will be the one with superior project management processes,
reports, tools, and organisation.

Organisations that were once hierarchical and bureaucratic now realise that success requires
internal and external networking. Functional departments are no longer self-sufficient, but
interdependent. Teams are formed from various functional departments to accomplish project

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work. When one project is completed, individuals are regrouped into another team to take on
yet another project.

2.3 Project organisation

Many organisations have no formal project management structure. When a project is
conceived, management might appoint a project manager and team members with little
attention to the skills needed for the job. They take people from their regular jobs to work on
the project - or worse yet, they ask team members to do the project in addition to their regular
work.

2.4 Adopting a Project Management Philosophy

People throughout the organisation must understand and implement common project
management principles. Everyone must recognise project management as a professional
discipline with specific skills and tools.

Senior management must recognise the need for project management and be willing to
establish a formal project management system. Managing projects is considerably different
from managing functional groups. Senior executives need to recognise that project
management requires special concepts, skills, and tools. Managers schooled in traditional
concepts of business management might find this difficult to understand. Functional line
managers might have difficulty understanding the difference between functional and project
responsibilities.

Implementing a project management system requires more than lip service; senior
management must provide the time, budget, and resources to do it. The entire organisation
must have a long-term commitment to the project management process and support it without
constantly shifting priorities.

The role and authority of the project managers must be clearly defined and supported. Project
managers are not simply people selected from among the project teams; they need to have
project management skills. If management simply assigns a technical person to be the project
manager, the organisation loses in two ways. First, if the person does not also have project
management skills, the project might fail. Second, the organisation loses a good technical
person from the project team.

The organisation also must be willing to change. Functional departments with a strong sense
of uniqueness might feel that project managers cannot fully understand or correct their
problems. Functional managers who have been unable to solve problems might work against
the project manager’s success. In some cases, people resist the project manager’s tools (such
as network planning and computerised tracking) because they represent change. Change is
often painful and takes time.

The project management system needs to be adapted to the organisation’s specific corporate
culture and needs. No one system works equally well in all organisations. The users be

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willing to adapt the system as they experience successes or failures so the system can operate
at optimum efficiency in the organisation.

For project management to be effective in any organisation, there should be formal, written
policies and procedures that explain the role and authority of project managers and how
project management functions in the organisation.

2.5 Organisational Structures

The organisational structure strongly influences how efficiently project management operates.
It often constrains the availability of resources or the terms under which resources are
available to the project. Organisational structures typically span the spectrum from functional
to project, with a variety of matrix structures in between. Any of these variations might be
appropriate and effective if the advantages and disadvantages are understood and handled
properly. The next sections cover characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of
functional, project, and matrix organisational structures.

2.5.1 Functional Organisation Structures

The classic functional organisation is a hierarchy in which people are grouped into functional
divisions, such as marketing or production. Each employee has one clear superior. In
functional organisations, the scope of projects is typically limited to the boundaries of the
functional division. Each division has its own project managers who report to the head of the
division, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. These project managers operate independently from
project managers in other divisions.

[Link] Characteristics
Project managers operate within the division and have a level of expertise within their areas
of responsibility. For example, project managers in the marketing division come from the
ranks of salespeople and have a level of knowledge or experience in sales.

Directors of the functional divisions manage both project and functional personnel. They are
responsible for defining requirements, scheduling work, setting priorities, providing facilities,
acquiring and managing resources, adhering to company policies, and ensuring quality.

People are assigned to work on projects for which their skills and services are needed. They
might be moved around within the division wherever they are needed.

[Link] Advantages
Projects can be completed more accurately. Because project managers and team members
have expertise in the functional area, project requirements can be defined and challenged
intelligently. This means that fewer changes will be made during the life of a project and that
a more practical end product can result.

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Project personnel are accountable for their work and must accept success or failure. Since
they must live with the end result of the project, they are committed to it.

Because personnel have functional expertise, learning time is reduced and projects can be
completed quickly. Problem situations can be identified and corrected quickly.

[Link] Disadvantages
The focus on the needs of the functional division might make it difficult to see and respond to
the needs of the organisation as a whole. Enterprise policies and practices might not be
enforced uniformly across divisions.

Project control and status reporting to upper management is not standardised across the
organisation. It might be difficult for senior executives to manage the various projects within
the organisation.

Project costs tend to have little or no accounting. Many aspects of a project are handled as on-
going functional work of the division, so it might be difficult to identify and account for the
true cost of a project.

The distinction between project and functional roles might be vague and projects might be
lost in routine work.

Figure [Link] organisational structure.

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2.5.2 Project Organisation Structures
In a project organisation, projects are centralised in a separate division of skilled project
managers that serves the project management needs of all divisions of the company (See
Figure 2-2). This is often referred to as a project office and is becoming increasingly popular
in organisations.

[Link] Characteristics
A central group is responsible for planning, controlling, managing, and reporting the progress
of all projects in the organisation.

Project managers have a great deal of independence and authority. Team members can be
collocated.

[Link] Advantages
A formal project management system is adopted and applied uniformly throughout the
organisation. This common understanding and application of project management practices
typically creates high efficiency in the organisation. Projects are more often completed on
time, within budget, and in accordance with project scope.

Common standards of planning, controlling, and reporting exist throughout the life of each
project and are applied across all projects. These common standards aid communication and
provide efficiency. Highly-skilled project managers can be available for the benefit of all.
Costs can be reduced by using common tools (such as project management software) to
manage all projects.

Centralised data from all projects can be analysed and applied to future projects to improve
the accuracy of estimates and practices. A centralised organisational structure makes it easier
to see productivity trends and take steps to improve processes in the organisation.

All projects of the organisation can be managed as a whole. Enterprise portfolio management
allows senior management to set priorities across projects and allocate resources for the
overall good of the organisation.

[Link] Disadvantages
Standards and documentation can become excessive, and without careful vigilance, this
centralisation of project managers and practices can become self-serving. Rather than serving
the needs of the project office, careful focus must be given to the needs of the project and the
people it benefits.

If processes become excessive, the total cost to manage a project under a centralised
organisational structure can be higher than under other structures. The project office must
constantly assess the value they provide to ensure that the value exceeds cost.

Qualified technical leaders might be scarce. Project managers might not have the technical
background needed for a project, and might have little access to people with the appropriate

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knowledge and skills. Project managers might seem unresponsive to the needs of people who
request their time and skills. Because project managers are located in a separate project
office, they might become out of touch with the needs and practices of individual
departments.

Figure 2-2. Project organisational structure.

2.5.3 Matrix
Matrix organisations are a blend of functional and project organisations. A weak matrix
organisation has many of the characteristics of a functional organisation, and the project
manager role is more that of a coordinator or expediter with limited authority. A strong
matrix organisation has many of the characteristics of a project organisation, with a full-time
project manager who has significant authority and a project administrative staff. In a matrix
organisation, the project team has a dual reporting role to a project manager, coordinator, or
expediter (who provides project management skills) and a functional manager (who provides
technical and functional skills).

[Link] Characteristics
Because a matrix organisation has characteristics of both the project and functional
organisations, project personnel report both to functional and project lines.

Project personnel report to a functional manager for definition of requirements, feasibility and
economic evaluation, changes in priorities, allocation of work, and ultimate success or failure
in meeting their goals.

Project personnel report to a project manager for refining tasks and assignments, planning and
budgets, and project schedules.

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In a strong matrix organisational structure, the project manager has more power than the
functional manager. In a weak matrix structure, the balance of power leans toward the
functional manager.

[Link] Advantages
A matrix structure capitalises on the advantages of both a project structure (project and a
functional structure. Personnel and skills are less redundant, and when expertise is scarce, it
can be applied more flexibly and efficiently to different projects.

The focus on teamwork easily accommodates changes in personnel requirements. Conflicts

between project requirements and functional organisation policies are perceived and resolved
more readily.

The expertise of both project and functional management is available to assist in the project,
and both can be applied to handle complex issues and coordinate various tasks. This can often
result in completing the project in less time and at lower cost.

[Link] Disadvantages
Dual management lines make communications more difficult to manage. When team
members receive conflicting instructions from project and functional managers, time and
effort are wasted clarifying the communication. The team might be unable to react fast
enough to meet changing project requirements.

Conflicts and competition can exist between project and functional management. In the
process of resolving conflicting priorities, project personnel can become confused and
demoralised.

If conflicting priorities and personal power struggles are not quickly resolved, it can be
damaging—or fatal—to the project. Projects are influenced by the organisational structure
under which they operate.

2.6 Functioning Effectively

When faced with difficulties, many project managers jump to the conclusion that
restructuring the organisation will solve all the problems. Although it is important to have the
right organisational structure, it is unhealthy to reorganise too often.

Each possible organisational structure has both advantages and disadvantages. Before you
reorganise, be sure that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages to your organisation. The
advantages must also be significant enough to make up for the confusion and pain of making
the change. Reorganising has a significant impact on any organisation. Don’t underestimate
the lost productivity during the time it takes to make the change. It will take time for people
to begin to function efficiently under the new structure.

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2.7 The project manager's role
The project manager is the person assigned to manage a specific project and is expected to
meet the approved objectives of a project, including project scope, budget, and schedule. The
project manager leads the project and provides vision, direction, and encouragement. The
project manager’s job is to ensure that the project is realistic, necessary, and well defined.
The project manager takes the lead in project planning to determine the schedules, resource
plans, and budgets necessary to accomplish the project objectives. Once the project plan has
been approved by top management, the project manager carries out the plan. This includes
carefully monitoring and reporting on progress, resolving problems as they arise, controlling
any changes in the project plan, and managing risk. When all project objectives have been
met, the project manager declares the project completed.

The project manager has overall responsibility for planning, organising, integrating,
controlling, leading, decision-making, communicating, and building a supportive climate for
the project.

Except for a project management support team, people and other resources are not typically
assigned directly to project managers. In a large project, the project manager might have a
staff of clerks, accountants, and other people to help with the numerous responsibilities
involved in managing the project. In a small project, there might be no support team.

2.7.1 Project Manager’s Skills

Figure 2-3 shows the basic skills a project manager needs. A project manager needs to be
strong in all five areas to be successful.

2.7.2 Project Management Skills

Project management skills include the tools of the trade to plan and execute a project, such as
being able to estimate costs and prepare workable schedules and adequate budget plans. To
execute a project, a project manager needs to be able to analyse status information, prepare
clear reports, and conduct project audits. These technical skills are discussed later in this
book, in Sections 2 and 3. To be successful, a project manager should constantly improve
skills in these areas through reading books and attending seminars and workshops.
Universities, private training companies, and organisations such as the Project Management
Institute routinely offer training opportunities.

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Figure [Link] project manager skills.

[Link] People Skills

In working with team members, project managers use a combination of formal authority and
persuasion skill. Authority is the ability to require another person to accept responsibility to
produce a desired result. Persuasion is the ability to convince another person to accept such
responsibility. The stronger a project manager’s people skills, the greater the chance of
successfully leading the project team. The project manager needs to be a master at
communication and have the skills to manage conflict and change.

[Link] Integration Skills

One of the project manager’s primary duties is to be sure that the many elements of the
project are properly coordinated. In particular, the various phases of project work such as
planning, execution, reporting, and control must be integrated. The more complex the
product, the more integration is needed. For example, the project manager might have to
integrate electrical drawings from the engineering staff with functional specifications from
the civil engineers. Engineers and designers should be involved not only in the design
process, but also in the approval of the final design and specifications. Other players that
likely need to be involved in the approval and acceptance phases include accounting and
executive management to sign off on the project.

Project integration management also involves making trade-offs among competing options to
accomplish the project objectives.

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[Link] Technical Skills
Since project managers do not do the actual work of the project, they do not need the same
technical skill level as the people performing the work. However, the more expertise the
project manager has in the technical area of the project, the greater his effectiveness in
managing the project. As the project manager integrates all aspects of the project, technical
expertise is essential to identify potential problems.

However, as the project manager gains technical experience, she must also be careful to
maintain a broad perspective and not let technical expertise lead to micro-managing - or
worse yet, doing—the project work! She must concentrate on managing the project, allowing
team members to perform the technical work and confining her technical involvement to
evaluating the work of the team.

[Link] Knowledge of the Organisation

The most proficient project management skills in the world will not compensate for a
procedural blunder caused by not understanding the company culture, policies, personalities,
or politics. The project manager negotiates with many people and needs to know their
personalities, needs, and desires. The more he knows about the organisation, the better
equipped that manager is to manoeuvre around pitfalls and get what is needed for the project.

Every organisation has a unique culture and individual divisions within an organisation often
have their own personalities. Understanding these cultures and personalities can help a
project manager be more successful.

2.8 The Makeup of a Project Manager

Project management is a combination of many ingredients. Among these are large measures
of common sense, ambition, flexibility, resourcefulness, and a healthy appetite for
negotiation, and a genuine belief that the service performed is of value to the organisation.

An effective project manager involves many people in the planning process and asks many
questions: ‘‘What could go wrong?’’ ‘‘What if this happens?’’ The project manager
anticipates problems and disagreements and builds agreements out of these conflicts. She
takes every opportunity to build commitment from the various members of the project team,
and she keeps appropriate people informed and involved throughout the process, soliciting
input and suggestions.

No matter how well a project manager plans and executes a project, there will always be
problems. The creative challenge is to be able to use imagination and experience to solve the
problems in creative ways. The problems that arise are seldom unique. Successful project
managers solve problems by applying their cumulative knowledge and experience to each
obstacle.

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Over time, their realm of experience likely offers a precedent to almost any problem. Lessons
learned in dealing with one project can, if applied imaginatively, go a long way toward
solving similar problems in other projects.

However, experience alone is not enough to make an individual a successful project manager.
Experience without the imagination to use it constructively and creatively is more likely to be
a handicap than an advantage. For some people, years of experience serve as a straitjacket.
They are blinded by their past experience and can only repeat what they first learned. They
can’t imagine new ways of addressing problems. Instead of adapting what they know to new
situations, they try to make all new situations conform to patterns with which they are
familiar.

The successful project manager is both a specialist and a generalist. As a generalist, the
manager has broad technical knowledge of the diverse factors that affect a project, including
aspects of the organisation’s operation and the related industry. As a specialist, the manager
has a depth of technical knowledge about the project at hand. He succeeds because of a drive
to understand the requirements, operations, and problems of clients, the project team, and the
industry in general.

A good example of the importance of gaining both specific and general knowledge is found
in the book How to Be a Successful Executive, 1 where J. Paul Getty tells of a company that
was embarking on an extensive plant modernisation and expansion program. Just before the
company placed an order for very expensive production machinery, one of the company’s
junior executives learned of an obscure company that had developed vastly improved
machinery. The company was saved from making a huge investment in machinery that would
have soon been obsolete, and instead obtained the latest equipment well ahead of its
competitors.

This is a good example of an individual’s alertness and enterprise, but it is not the full story.
The junior executive was not a technical expert or engineer. His duties were concerned with
sales, not production. After a meeting at which the plant modernisation program was
discussed, he took the initiative to research information about the new machinery in an
obscure trade journal. His keen interest helped the company succeed.

A project manager who shows this type of initiative and understanding can have positive
impact on the cost, quality, and timeliness of projects.

2.9 Role of Team Members

Team members are the people who work with the project manager directly or indirectly to
accomplish project goals and complete project activities. Team members can have various
roles in the project, such as engineers, technicians, construction workers, and others needed
to perform the project work. Each project is unique, and so are the roles of the people
performing the work.

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In each project, it is important to identify all the players and define their roles and
responsibilities. It only takes a short while and pays great dividends throughout the life of the
project as individual understands their roles and how to interface with other team members.
When it does not happen, communications are often confused or misdirected and conflicts
and power struggles arise.

2.10 Stakeholders
For every project, it is important to clearly identify the client who requested the project, the
stakeholders who have an interest in the project, and the customer who will use the product,
service, process, or plan the project produces. For example, the president of a company may
request a project to develop an order tracking system so that customers can look up the status
of their orders on the Internet. The president is the client, the customers of the project are the
people who will use the system to look up the status of their orders, and the stakeholders
include others in the company who benefit from the system, such as the marketing or finance
departments.

Although you might think these roles are obvious, they often are not.

Some projects get into serious trouble because they have several clients (requesters) who
each want something different from the project. Other projects have no clients who want to
take responsibility for the project. Still other projects are in trouble because the customer is
not well defined. Sometimes no one knows who will use the product or service the project
will create Other projects fail because the needs of a stakeholder were not addressed.

2.10.1 Client
The client is the person (or group) who requests the project. The client might come from a
variety of sources - usually from within the organisation, such as senior management, middle
management, functional managers, or other project managers. Someone in the organisation
might generate an idea for a project, which then percolates to someone in upper management,
who approves the project. In this case, who is the client? The individual who came up with
the idea or senior manager who approved the project? The key is in determining who takes
responsibility for the project and has the authority to give direction to the project by
approving the project objectives and deciding on issues that arise.

It is critical that you identify the individual or group of individuals with the authority to
approve the project objectives and give direction to the project. If senior management
identifies a person to be the client for a project, be sure that management also delegates to
that individual the authority to approve project objectives and make decisions for the project.
Some project managers assume that an individual has such authority, only to find out much
too late in the project that someone else actually has approval authority and has reversed
earlier decisions!

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Once you have identified the client, it is important to get a commitment of support for the
project. Discussions with the client can confirm understanding of the project scope and its
relative priority with other projects in the organisation.

For each project, determine the following about the project’s clients:

• Who (by name) is authorised to make decisions for the project?

• What access does the project manager have to this client?

• What approvals does the client require at which stages of the project?

• How will these approvals be obtained and how long will they take?

• Who (by name) has the authority to formally accept the project when it is completed?

If the project is cosponsored by more than one individual or group, it is important to define he
role each will play in the decision-making process.

2.10.2 Customers
The customer is the person or group of people who will use what the project is intended to
provide—the product, service, process, or plan.

For each project, it is important to determine the following about the project’s customers:

• Who are the customers who will use the outcome of the project?

• What access does the project team have to the customer?

• What approvals does the customer require at what stages of the project?

• How will these approvals be obtained and how long will they take?

Once you have identified your customers, it is important to get their commitment to support
the project. If there is more than one group of customers, it is important to define the role
each will play in the project.

It is important to identify and consult with the customer throughout the life of the project.
Many projects fail because they do not meet the needs of the customer. You cannot assume
that the needs of the customer have been fairly represented by the client when the project was
approved. You must confirm and reconfirm customer needs as the project progresses to
ensure that the final result meets the requirements.

2.10.3 Other Stakeholders

Most projects have stakeholders in addition to the client and customers, who have an interest
in (and perhaps control over) the project. It is important to identify people who have a stake
(interest) in the project and define their needs relative to the project. Stakeholders may be

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people in other departments, suppliers, contractors, vendors, government agencies,
management, or stockholders in the company. Some projects fail because the needs of a
stakeholder were not addressed. It is as important to manage the expectations of stakeholders
as it is to manage the expectations of clients and customers. If a stakeholder has concerns
about the project, he or she may be able to exert considerable influence on those who make
project decisions.

For each project, it is important to determine the following about the project’s stakeholders:

• Who are the stakeholders in the project and what role will each play?

• What access does the project team have to the stakeholders?

• What approvals, review, or information does each stakeholder require at what stages of
the project?

• How will the approvals and reviews take place? How will the appropriate information be
communicated?

• If there is more than one group of stakeholders, it is important to define the role each will
play in the project and get a commitment from each to support the project.

2.11 Stages of a major project

2.11.1 Setting Up a Planning and Control System
Planning and control go hand in hand. With a solid plan, a project manager can exercise
proper control. Without a plan, there is nothing to compare progress against and project
control is impossible. You cannot control without a plan.

Many organisations have no formal planning and control system. They operate using
rationalisations:

2.11.2 The Need for A Planning and Control System

Some people put a minimum of effort into planning. They argue that since things invariably
change during the life of the project, it is a waste of effort to make extensive up-front plans.
The average organisation spends only 5 percent of the total project effort on planning. More
successful organisations spend up to 45 percent. A good rule of thumb is to spend at least 25
percent of the project effort in concept and development and 75 percent in implementation
and termination.

Although it is true that factors might be introduced during the life of the project that
necessitate minor or major adjustments to the plan, it is still important to have a solid plan in
place. Without a solid plan, a project becomes even more chaotic in the face of change. If
plans are made using project management software, it is easy to make adjustments to the plan
as needed.

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In an ideal world, a project would be planned and approved, then work would start and be
completed according to the plan. In actual practice, however, you might have to adjust the
plan throughout the life of the project. Therefore, any good planning and control system must
be flexible enough to operate in the real world, but still be rigorous enough to provide control.

Some projects are managed in pieces. Because of time constraints or other factors, the project
manager might have to develop a plan for only part of the project, get it approved, and begin
that portion while other parts of the project are still in the planning stage.

Often, planning continues to some extent throughout the life of the project. Recognising this
reality, the successful project manager establishes a project management system that allows
for adjustments to the plan as needed throughout the project’s life.

2.11.3 Elements of a Planning and Control System

A project planning and control system that allows a project to react to the changing
conditions of the project environment.

Define the problem or opportunity. The first phase of project planning is to clearly define
the problem to be solved by the project or the opportunity of which the project will take
advantage. This includes understanding the business reasons for the project and the client’s
motive in requesting it. This step is important because you will use it to keep the project
focused and it might help you avoid damaging oversights that are not obvious to the client.
As the project manager seeks to clarify the justification for the project, it may bring to light
issues that the client was not able to see.

Establish project objectives. Once you have clearly identified the problem or opportunity,
the next step is to define the basic objectives of the project in terms of time, cost, and scope.
These define the strategy (the overall approach to the project).They describe what the project
will accomplish and ensure that customer requirements are met

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Figure 2-4. Project planning and control system.

Develop the plan. Within the framework of the project objectives, detailed plans are
developed, including the activities, schedules, cost plans, and resources required to complete
the project work. These are the tactics (the specific steps you take to implement the strategy).

Begin project work. When all plans are in place, approved, and communicated to project
personnel, project work can begin. Monitor. As project work progresses, the project manager
gathers status information and compares it to the plan to determine variances. These
deviations from the plan are then analysed to determine if corrective action should be taken.

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Control. When necessary, the project manager takes corrective action to get the project back
on track. Some deviations might require replanning the tactics by resequencing activities,
rescheduling, rebudgeting, or reallocating resources. Larger deviations can necessitate
reprogramming the strategy by renegotiating the basic project objectives of cost, time, and
scope. In some cases, the situation might be serious enough to warrant readdressing the
problem or opportunity to determine if it has been identified correctly and if the organisation
has the resources, expertise, and commitment necessary to handle it.

2.12 Close project.

Planning, monitoring, and controlling are not one-time events. They continue throughout the
life of the project to refine and adjust to current conditions. The remaining chapters take you
through project planning and control step by step. Even though you might spend less effort on
each step for a small project, it is important to address the concepts in each step. To help
understand these steps, they are presented in a specific sequence. In reality, you might
perform these steps several times throughout the project. For example, you might need to
repeat some project planning steps in various phases of project execution. Steps can also
overlap and interact in various ways. Every project will be different by definition. Therefore,
you might need to apply some of the concepts in this book differently with each project.

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