1 STATICS 1.

Identify the research objective

- A researcher must determine the
Branch of mathematics that deals with the question(s) he or she wants answered.
collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and The question(s) must be detailed so that it
organization of data. identifies a group that is to be studied and
the questions that are to be answered.
The word “STATISTICS” seems to be a The group to be studied is called the
familiar household word nowadays. There are several population.
reasons why we should study statistics. Among the a. Universe – is the set of all entities
important reasons are the following: under study.
b. Population – is the set of all
possible values of the variable.
c. Individual – is a person or object
that is a member of the population
being studied.
1. We must be able to read and understand the
various statistical studies performed around
2. Collect information needed to answer the
us. To understand these studies, we must be
questions
knowledgeable of the different concepts,
- Everybody collects and uses information,
principles. Symbols, and techniques and
much of it in numerical or statistical forms
procedures used in statistical analysis
in day-to-day life. Gaining access to an
2. We may conduct a research on growing
entire population is often difficult and
phenomena around us. To do this, we must
expensive. In conducting research, we
be able to perform experiments, and gather,
typically look at a subset of the population
organize, summarize, and analyze numerical
called sample.
data.
a. Sample – is the subset of the
3. We may have to make decisions based on the
universe or the population
data and information of statistical studies such
as what a product to purchase based on
3. Organize and Summarize the information
consumer studies, how much budget should
- This step in the process is referred to as
be allotted by a company for advertisement
descriptive statistics. Descriptive
expense, or how much, salaries and benefits
statistics describe the information
should be paid or given to employees
collected through numerical
measurements, charts, graphs, and
tables. The main purpose of descriptive
statistics is to provide an overview of the
• To conduct a research, we must collect data information collected.
about variables we intend to investigate. Data
are any pieces of information useful to the 4. Draw conclusion from the information
researcher. A collective of values form a data - In this step the information collected from
set. the sample is generalized to the
• The two main branches of statistics are the population. This process is referred to as
descriptive and inferential statistics. inferential statistics. Inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics consists of the uses methods that takes results obtained
collection, organization, presentation and from a sample, extends them to the
analysis of data. population, and measures the reliability of
• The second branch inferential statistics the result.
consists of a higher degree of analysis.
Interpretation, and inferences. The area of
inferential statistics is called hypothesis
testing is a decision-making procedure to find
out whether there is a significant difference
between a claim about a population and
another information obtained about the said
population.
Identify the population and sample in the study being A variable is a characteristic of a population
presented. or sample which makes one different from the other.

1. The Philippine Mental Health Associations Variable can be classified as qualitative or

contacts 1,028 teenagers who are 13 to 16 quantitative. Qualitative are those that can be
years of age and live in Antipolo City and placed into categories according to their
asked whether or not they had been characteristics or attributes. Quantitative are those
prescribed medications for any mental that are numerical in nature.
disorders such as depression or anxiety.

Answers:

Population: Teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who

live in Antipolo City Determine whether the following variables are
qualitative or quantitative:
Sample: 1,028 teenagers 13 to 17 years of age who
live in Antipolo City 1. Gender Qualitative
2. Temperature Quantitative
2. A farmer wanted to learn about the weight of
3. No. of Children Quantitative
his soybean crop. He randomly sampled 100
4. Hair Color Qualitative
plants and weighted the soybeans on each
5. Civil Status Qualitative
plant.
6. Height Quantitative
Answers:

Population: Entire soybean crop

Sample: 100 plants selected Quantitative variables may be further

classified as discrete, and continuous. Discrete
variable is a quantitative variable that ether has a
finite number of possible values or a countable
For the ff. statements, decide whether it
number of possible values. A Continuous variable
belongs to the field of descriptive statistics or
is a quantitative variable that has an infinite number
inferential statistics.
of possible values that are not countable.
1. A badminton player wants to know his
average score for the past 10 games.
(Ans: Descriptive Statistics)

2. A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the Determine whether the ff. variables are discrete or
average lifetime of batteries by testing sample continuous.
of 50 batteries.
(Ans: Inferential Statistics) 1. The number of heads obtained after flipping a
coin five times.
3. Janine wants to determine the variability of (Discrete)
her six exam scores in Algebra 2. The number of cars that arrive at a
(Ans: Descriptive Statistics) McDonald’s drive-through between 12:00 PM
and 1:00 PM.
4. A shipping company wishes to estimate the (Discrete)
number of passengers traveling via their ships 3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can
next year using their data on the number of travel in city conditions with a full tank of gas.
passengers in the past three years. (Continuous)
(Ans: Inferential Statistics) 4. Number of words correctly spelled.
(Discrete)
5. A Politician wants to determine the total 5. Time of a runner to finish one lap.
number of votes his rival obtained in the past (Continuous)
election based on his copies of the tally sheet
od electoral return.
(Ans: Descriptive Statistics)
 3. Interval Level of Measurement
- Specifies the precise difference between
A parameter is a value or measure obtained or among the values or ranks.
from a population. - Examples:
a. Temperature on
If one uses the mean, median, and standard Fahrenheit/Celsius Thermometer
deviation to differentiate the achievement of a class b. Trait Anxiety (High Anxious vs.
from another class, then these measures are Low Anxious)
parameter. c. IQ (High IQ vs. Low IQ)
Statistics is any value or measurement
obtained from a sample. Static is an estimate of
parameter. 4. Ratio Level of Measurement
- Has the same characteristics as the interval
Example: level; the only difference is that the ratio level
• a given popularity survey of a certain has an absolute zero, point.
program, if 10% of it are senior citizen with an - Examples:
average of 65, then this average age is a. Height
statistic. b. Weight
c. Number of words Correctly
Spelled

Variables are counted or measured using

four types of scales namely, nominal, ordinal, Categorize each of the following as nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio. interval, or ratio measurement

1. Ranking of college athletic teams (Ordinal)

2. Employee number (Nominal)
1. Nominal Level of Measurement
3. Number of vehicles registered (Ratio)
- Classifies data in non-overlapping scale.
4. Brands of soft drinks (Nominal)
This scale distinguishes one object from
5. Number of car passers along C5 on a given
another object for identifying purposes
day. (Ratio)
only.
- Examples:
a. Methods of Payment (cash, check,
debit card, credit card)
b. Type of School (Public vs Private)
c. Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown)
d. Subject Taught (Mathematics,
Geotechnical Engineering,
Structural Engineering)

2. Ordinal Level of Measurement

- Like nominal scales, identify, name,
classify, or categorize, objects or events
but have an additional property of a logical
or natural order to the categories or
values.
- However, we cannot tell how much less or
how much more one rank has over the
other.
- Examples:
a. Food Preferences
b. Military Ranking
c. Social Economic Class (First,
Middle, Lower)
 COLLECTION,
2
6. Texting Method
ORGANIZATION, AND - The researcher may ask or invite
individuals to send text opinion on certain
PRESENTATION OF DATA
issues or send in their choices on their
brand preferences.
Data Collection

- Is the process of gathering and measuring

information on variables of interest, in an “How many participants should be
established systematic fashion that enables chosen for a survey?”
one to answer stated research questions, test
hypothesis, and evaluate outcomes. • The sample size is typically denoted by n
and it is always a positive integer.

• Inability to answer research questions

accurately
• Inability to repeat and validate the study
• Distorted findings resulting in waste
resources
• Misleading other researchers to pursue
fruitless avenues of investigation
• Comprising decisions for public policy
• Causing harm to human participants and
animal subjects

Criteria Need to be Specified to Determine the

Appropriate Sample Size

1. Interview Method 1. Level of Precision

- The researcher makes direct and - Also called sampling error, the level of
personal contact with the interviewee. The precision, is the range in which the true
researcher gathers data by asking the value of the population is estimated to be.
interviewee series of questions.
2. Confidence Interval
2. Questionnaire Method - It is statistical measure of the number of
- The researcher distributes the times out of 100 that results can be
questionnaires either personally or by mail expected to be within a specified range.
and collects them by the same process
Desired Confidence
Z-score
Level
3. Registration Method
- This method of collecting data is governed 80% 1.28
by our existing laws. The researcher 85% 1.44
gathers data from offices concerned. 90% 1.65
95% 1.96
4. Experimental Method 99% 2.58
- This method of collecting data is used to
find out the cause-and-effect relationship 3. Degree of Variability
of certain phenomena under controlled - Depending upon the target population and
conditions. attributes under consideration, the degree
of variability varies considerably.
5. Observation Method
- The researcher may observe subjects
individually or group of individuals to
obtain data and information related to the
objectives of the investigation
 • Population proportion is fraction of a
population that has a certain characteristic. It
Estimating the Mean or Average is usually computed as;

• The sample size required to estimate the

population mean µ to with a level of
confidence with specified margin of error e,
given by

Infinite Population Correction

• The conservative formula using the strong law

- Z is the z-score corresponding to the of large number.
level of confidence
- e is the level of precision
- σ Standard Deviation

Reminders:
- Type equation here. Where:
• When σ is unknown, it is common practice to - Confidence level is 95%
conduct a preliminary survey to determine s - The level of precision is 0.05
and use it as an estimate of σ or use results
from previous studies to obtain an estimate of Example:
σ.
• Suppose we are doing a study on the
• When using this approach, the size of the inhabitants of a large town and want to find
sample should be at least 30. The formula for out how many households serve breakfast in
the sample standard deviation s is. the mornings.
• We don’t have much information on the
subject to begin with, so we’re going to
assume that half of the families serve
breakfast: this gives us maximum variability.
So, p=0.5. we want 99% confidence and at
Example: least 1% precision.
• A soft drink machine is regulated so that the
amount of drink dispensed is approximately
normally distributed with a standard deviation
equal to 0.5 ounce.
• Determine the sample size needed if we wish
to be 95% confident that our sample mean will
be within +. 03 ounce from the true mean.
We need a 16,641 sample for our study

Slovin’s Formula (Simplified form of Proportions for

We need a 1,068 sample for our study finite population)

• Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the

sample size n given the population size and
Estimating Proportion (Infinite Population)
error. It is computed as;
• The sample size required to obtain a
confidence interval for p with specified margin
of error e is given by.

p is the Population Proportion

 𝑁 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example: 2. Compute for the sampling interval k = =
𝑛 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒

• A researcher plans to conduct a survey about 3. Select a number, select a number, from 1 to k,
food preferences of BSCE students. using a randomization mechanism. The
• If the population of students is 1000, find the element in the population assigned to this
sample size of the error is 5%. number is the first element of the sample. The
other elements of the sample are those
assigned to the numbers and so on until you get
a sample size.

Example:
The researcher needs to survey 286 BSCE Students
• We want to select a sample of 50 students
from 500 students under this method kth item
Finite Population Correction and picked up from the sampling frame.

• If the population is small, then the sample

size can be reduced slightly.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

- It is obtained by separating the population
into non-overlapping groups called strata
and then obtaining a simple random
sample from each stratum

It is important that we have a complete listing

of population, so that every member is ready and
equally likely to be included in the sample. Among the
sampling techniques are:

1. Simple Random Sampling

- The most basic method of drawing a
probability sample. To obtain a simple
random sample, assign a number to each Example:
time in the lot. Select a random number in
the preplanned pattern. • A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from
a population consisting of 500 students
2. Systematic Random Sampling belonging to two institutions A and B. The
- It is obtained by selecting every kth number of students in the institution A is 200
individual from the population. The first and the institution B is 300. How will you draw
individual selected corresponds to a the sample using proportional allocation?
random number between 1 to k.

• The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from

B. Then the units from each institution are to
To obtain a systematic random sample be selected by simple random sampling.

1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial

number from 1 to N, to each one of the elements
in the population
 4. Cluster Sampling 5. Multi-Stage Sampling
- You take the sample from naturally - Selection of the sample is done in two or
occurring groups in your population more steps or stages, with sampling units
- The clusters are constructed such that the varying in each stage.
sampling units are heterogenous within
the cluster and homogenous among the
clusters

Example:

Obtaining a Cluster Sample

1) Divide the population into non-overlapping

clusters.
2) Number the clusters in the population from 1
to N.
3) Select n distinct number from 1 to N using a

3
randomization mechanism. The selected MEASURES OF
clusters are the clusters associated with
selected numbers. CENTRAL TENDENCY
4) The sample will consist of all the elements in
the selected clusters.

Example: Central Tendency

A researcher wants to survey academic performance - Is a summary statistic that represents the
of high school students in MIMAROPA center point or typical value of dataset.
- These measures indicate where most values
1) He / She can divide the entire population into
in a distribution fall and are referred as the
different clusters
central location of a distribution
2) Then the researcher selects several clusters
- The three most common measures of central
depending on his research through simple or
tendency are the mean, median, and mode
systematic random sampling.
3) Then, from the selected clusters the Ungrouped Data
researcher can either include all the high
- Is a data that is raw, not sorted into
school students as subject or he can select
categories, nor classified. Otherwise, the data
several subjects from each cluster through
will be called as grouped data.
simple or systematic random sampling.
- An example of ungrouped data is a collected
test scores {50, 47, 42, 51, 56}

- An example of a grouped data.

 3. Mode
- The value in the distribution with the highest
number of frequency or the greatest number
of cases.
- To determine the mode in an ungrouped data.
Arrange the data set in ascending/descending
order and observe the value with most cases
- For grouped data. The formula will be used.

1. Mean
- Mean or the arithmetic mean refers to the sum
of all the given values or items in a distribution
divided by the number values or items
summed.
- To compute for the mean of an ungrouped
data:

- For Grouped Data

2. Median
- Refers to the value of the middle observation
in an ordered distribution
- To determine the median for an ungrouped
data, arrange the data set into an ascending
or descending order. If the number of the data
set is an odd number simply get the middle
term of the data set. {4, 4, 6, 7, 9}
- If it is even, determine the two middle
numbers and get their mean or average. {4, 4,
6, 7, 9, 10}
 4
MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

- Is a summary statistic that represents the

amount of dispersion in data set.

1. Range
- Is the difference between the highest and
lowest value in a data set.

2. Mean Deviation
• Tells how far on average the value is from the
middle. It is determined by the formula:

3. Standard Deviation
• Is a statistic that measure the dispersion of a
dataset relative to its mean. It is the most
common measure of statistics.

Sample Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

Population Standard Deviation for Grouped

Data

4. Variance is the square of standard deviation

5. Quartile Deviation (Semi-Interquartile Range)

• Are values that measures how spread the

data from the mean using quartiles. Quartiles are
values that divides the data set into four
• Interquartile Range is a measure of where Methods for defining quartiles of an ungrouped
“middle 50%” is in a data set data.

• Tukey’s Method

Tukey’s Method of defining a quartile starts by

• Quartile Deviation is determined by the
formula finding the median of the data set.

• Quantiles

These are the values which divide the distribution

set into a given number of equal parts. These
quantities are the Quartiles, Deciles, ad the • Moore & McCabe’s Method
Percentiles or Centiles.

Also referred to as “M & M”. Their method is

• Quartiles similar to Tukey’s but without the inclusion of

the median to halves of the data set.

Are values that divide the distribution into four equal

parts. The quartiles are labeled as Q1 (First
Quartile), Q2 (Second Quartile), Q3 (Third Quartile),
Q4 (Fourth Quartile)

• Deciles
• Mendenhall and Sincich

Are values that divide the distribution into ten

define a different method of finding quartile
equal parts. The deciles are labeled as D1
values.
(First Decile) up to D10 (Tenth Decile)

• Percentile or Centiles

Are values that divide a distribution into one-

hundred equal parts. The percentiles or
centiles are labeled as P1 (First Percentile) up
to P100
 5
• Minitab SAMPLE PROBLEMS FOR
MEASURE OF VARIABILITY
uses the same method as the Mendenhall and
Sincich except that it doesn’t round the values of L
and U. Instead, it uses linear interpolation between
Situation 1: Given the data set:
the two closest data points.

1. What is the population standard deviation?

*For defining Deciles and Percentiles of an

ungrouped data

*For defining Deciles and Percentiles of a grouped

data 2. What is the sample standard deviation?
Situation 2: Given the data set The Q3 is the median of the upper half of the data set.

{50, 5, 12, 12, 15, 18, 22, 6} Since n = 4, the median of the upper half of the data
set is the average of the 3rd and 4th value.

Determine the first quartile, second quartile, and

third quartile using Tukey’s method, M&M,
Mendenhall & Sincich, & Linear Interpolation.
M & M’S METHOD

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

TUKEY’S METHOD
Determine the Median
{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}
Since n = 8, the median of the data set is the average
Determine the Median of the 4th and 5th term.

Since n=8, the median of the data set is the average

of the 4th and 5th term.

Divide the data set into equal parts. Take note we

DO NOT INCLUDE the median even if there is an
ODD number of data set.
Divide the data set into equal parts. Take note that if
there is an ODD number of data set, the median is {5, 6, 12, 13} {15, 18, 22, 50}
INCLUDED for both parts, if it is an EVEN number
For Q1
of data set, the median is NOT INCLUDED for
both parts. {5, 6, 12, 13}

The Q1 is the median of the lower half of the data set.

{5, 6, 12, 13} {15, 18, 22, 50} Since n = 4, the median of the lower half of the data
set is the average of the 3rd and 4th value.

For Q1

{5, 6, 12, 13}

The Q3 is the median of the upper half of the data set.
The Q1 is the median of the lower half of the data set.
Since n = 4, the median of the upper half of the data
Since n = 4, the median of the lower half of the data
set is the average of the 3rd and 4th value.
rd th
set is the average of the 3 and 4 value.

For Q2

The Q2 is also the median of the data set, Q2=14

For Q3

{15, 18, 22, 50}

MENDENHALL & SINCICH For Q3,

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

For Q1

The 6.75th term is in between the 4th and 5th term of

the data set.

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

The Q2 is also the median of the data set. Q2=14
Q3 = 18 + 0.75(22 – 18) = 21
For Q3

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

Situation 3: Refer to the table below

LINEAR INTERPOLATION (MINITAB)

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

For Q1

The 2.25th term is in between the 2nd and 3rd term of

the data set.

1. What is the range?

R = 80 – 10 = 70

For Q2, it is also the median of the data set

2. What is the coefficient of range?

The 4.5th term is midway between the 4th and 5th

term of the data set.

{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

Q2 = 13 + 0.5 (15 – 13) = 14

3. What is the coefficient of Interquartile Range?

4. Determine the outlier.

Situation 5: Given the data set

Are the extremely high or low values in a data
set. {50, 5, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 6}

Values lower the Q1 – 1.5(IQR)

Values greater than Q3 + 1.5(IQR) 8. Determine the 66th percentile
{5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50}

IQR = 40 – 20 = 20
20 – 1.5(20) = -10
40 + 1.5(20) = 70
OUTLIER = 80

9. Determine the 8th decile.

Situation 4: Refer to the table below.

10. Determine the 75th decile

5. What is the semi-interquartile range?

6. What is the Class Size?

7. What is the coefficient of the interquartile

range?
 MEASURES OF RELATIVE
6 DISPERSION, SKEWNESS,
AND KURTOSIS
A businessman calculated the average price
of variety A rice per kilo P32 with a standard deviation
of P5.01 for a 6-month period. For variety B rice, he
recorded the following average prices for the same
period: P40, P38, P42, P33, P41, P28. He wishes to
make a comparison on the variations in the prices of
- The measure that is expressed as the the two rice varieties.
quotient of the absolute dispersion or amount
of variability, and the average is known as
relative dispersion.
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Coefficient of Variation

- This coefficient of variation is a type of

measure of relative dispersion that expresses
the standard deviation as a percentage of the
mean.
- The formulas in calculating the coefficient of
variation (CV) are:
𝑆 Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑥 100%
𝑋
- Another measure of relative dispersion that
or
can be used when the quartiles are known is
𝜎 the coefficient of quartile deviation (CQD).
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑥 100%
µ The CQD is calculated as the ratio of the
difference of the third and first quartile to the
sum of the third and first quartile.

A dealer sells two classes of quality lamps, A

and B. Lamp A has a mean life span of 2,000 with a
standard deviation of 200 hours, while lamp B has a - Another measure of coefficient of quartile
mean life span of 2,500 hours with a standard deviation for an ungrouped data whose Q1 =
deviation of 300 hours. 20.5 and Q3 = 50.5

The mean age of 9 sample children is 10

years with s = 2 years and their mean weight is 45
pounds with s = 5 pounds, calculate the coefficient of
- The shape of the curve or graph of a data set
variation
of numerical data is dependent on several
values such as the measures of the central
tendency and the spread or dispersion of the
data.
- Two sets of data that have the same mean
and standard deviation may show different
curves, the first data set might have very stiff
 curve and the other one might have an almost
flat curve.
- The measure of shape or peakedness will Calculate the coefficient of skewness of the
provide us additional data information for a following frequency distribution given their
more accurate description of a numerical corresponding means, median, and standard
data. deviations, as follows.

- A distribution shown in a frequency curve is

said to be symmetric if when folded along a
vertical axis results to two coinciding curves. For distribution A, since the SK is positive, it
- On the other hand, a frequency distribution is is positively skewed meaning more values are found
skewed if it is not symmetric with the vertical on the left side of the distribution curve
axis.
- Skewness defines the degree of departure
from symmetry. A frequency curve has a
longer tail to the right than to the left is said to
be skewed to the right or simply positively
skewed distribution. Reversely, a distribution
is negatively skewed.

- The degree of peakedness of a frequency

curve of a distribution in relation to a normal
distribution is known as kurtosis (Ku).

a. Leptokurtic is a frequency with a

relatively high curve or peak. This means
that the values in the distribution are
heavily concentrated or piled up in the
center.
- The direction of the skewness of a distribution b. Platykurtic is a flat-topped distribution,
is based on the relationship between the where the values are relatively even in
mean and median. if the mean is higher than distribution about the center.
the median, the curve is skewed to the right c. Mesokurtic is a distribution curve which
(positively skewed) but skewed to the left does not have a relatively high curve or
(negatively skewed) if it is the reserve. peak or is not too flat.
- The measure of skewness is called the
Pearson Coefficient of Skewness (SK),
expressed as:

- The directions of skewness can be easily

determined based on the algebraic sign of the
value of the coefficient of skewness. The - In calculating the coefficient of kurtosis, there
amount or magnitude of the coefficient of are 4 moments of the mean that are normally
skewness will indicate the extent of the used. Moments of statistics are defined based
skewness of the curve on the deviations of the individual values
about the mean. One such measure of the
coefficient of kurtosis based on the fourth
moment from the mean is computed by using
the following formula:
 Determine the measure of kurtosis using the 7 PROBABILITY I
fourth moment of the mean for the following 7 raw
sample data: 3, 7, 10, 14, 18, 21, and 25.
Design (ex: uses)
Solutions:
- Procedure
- Codes
- Formula
- Mostly common sense

- the Fundamental Principles of Counting is

a way to figure out number of outcomes in a
From the given data, the standard deviation is √62. probability problem. Basically, we multiply the
The kurtosis for the given distribution is equal to: events together to get the total number of
outcomes
- states that that if one event has m possible
outcomes, and a second independent event
has n possible outcomes, then there are m x
n number of total possible outcomes for the
two events together

How many outfits you could wear if you have

3 shirts and 2 pants?
Calculate the measure of coefficient of Solution:
kurtosis using the fourth moment from the mean of
the frequency distribution of the production sales of a
sample of 80 salesmen of a manufacturing company,
as shown in the table below.

Solutions:
 A fast-food restaurant has a special meal: A car seller offers a brand-new car having two
P50 for a drink, sandwich, side item and dessert. body types, available with five colors and three
The choices are: models. How many choices does a buyer will have in
choosing a brand-new car?
- Sandwich: Grilled Chicken, All beef patty,
vege-burger; and fish fillet Solution:
- Side: Regular Fried, Cheese Fries, Potato
- 2 body types
Wedges
- 5 colors
- Dessert: Chocolate Chip Cookie or Apple Pie
- 3 models
- Drink: C2, Royal, Coke, Coke Zero, and Sprite
2 x 5 x 3 = 30 choices
How many meal combos are possible?

Solution:

- There are 4 options. (choose a sandwich,

side, dessert, and drink)
- We have 4 choices for sandwich, 3 for side,
2 for desserts, and 5 for drinks

So, the total number of meal combos is

4 x 3 x 2 x 5 = 120 possible meal combos From the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, how

many three-digit numbers can be formed if each digit
can only be used?

Solution:

Supposes a pair of dice is rolled once. How

many possible outcomes are there?

Solution:

- For a 1 die, we have 6 faces

- For the 2nd die, we also have 6 faces

The possible number of outcomes = 6 x 6

= 36 outcomes
We can also breakdown on solving these types of problem.
 •

8
PERMUTATION AND Linear Permutation of Things some of
which are Alike
COMBINATIONS - Is a case of permutation where there are
n objects such that n1 are identical objects
of type 1, n2 are identical objects of type 2,
and n3 are identical objects of type k.

• Permutation
- Is an arrangement of a set of objects or
things in a specific or definite order.
- Example: How many two letters can be
arranged from letters A, B, C, D

How many ways can 3 blue, 2 red, and 4

yellow bulbs be arranged in a string of Christmas tree
lights with 9 sockets?

• Linear Permutation of Distinct Objects

- An arrangement of objects in a specific
order without repetition.

How many distinct permutations can be made

from the letters of the word “ENGINEERING”?
In how many ways can 5 persons be seated
in a row of 5 chairs?

Solution:

• Factorial (!)
- Is the product of all numbers less than or
equal to the number itself
- n! = n x (n-1) x (n-2) x (n-3) ….
0! is equal to 1
There are 15 books. Of these, there are 5
Mathematics, 7 Physics, and 3 books on Chemistry.
In how many ways can they be arranged together in
In how many ways 5 persons sit in 9 chairs? a shelf if the three subjects are to be grouped
together?
 There are 5 persons to be seated in a row of How many circular arrangements can be
5 chairs. If the two of them does want to be seated made from 10 objects taken at a time?
together, in how many ways can they be seated?

• Combinations
- Is an arrangement of set objects where
order does not matter
- Example: How many two letters can be
arranged from letters A, B, C, D

• Circular Permutation
- Is an arrangement of objects in a circular
manner
- Supposed we arrange 3 persons A, B, C
in a linear permutation.

- Now, for Circular Permutations,

- If we arrange these 3 persons in a circular
manner, notice the arrangements are not
actually different, by moving clockwise 7. How many number combinations can be
and starting with A. made from a lotto game 6/42?

It turns out that 3 Linear Permutations is equal

to 1 Circular Permutation.

We have 3 ways to arrange 3 persons in a

circular manner.

6. From a group of professionals consisting of 5

Engineers and 4 Architects, find the number
of committees that can be formed consisting
of 5 professionals
9 PROBABILITY II - Is a measure of the probability of an event
occurring given that another event has
occurred

- Is the measure of the likelihood of am event

to occur 4. Find the probability that a single toss of a die
results in a number less than 4 if it is given
that the toss resulted in an odd number

1. A jar of candies contains 4 mints, 6 toffees,

and 3 chocolates. Find the probability of
getting a mint if one candy is picked at a
random? - A measure of probability where to events
cannot happen simultaneously

5. In a deck of 52 cards, find the probability of

getting an ace or a king if one card is picked
at a random?
2. Find the probability of getting a face card if a
card is picked at a random from a deck of 52
cards

3. In tossing a coin thrice, let A be the event “at - A measure of probability where events have
least one head occurs.” And B the event “third some overlaps with each other
toss results in a tail.” Find the probability that
both A and B occurs
6. In a deck of 52 cards, find the probability of
getting an ace or a heart if one card is picked
randomly?
 10. A box contains 3 green, 4 red, and 5 white
balls. If 2 balls are picked at random without
- A measure of probability of events that do replacement, what is the probability that both
not influence each other’s outcome. The are of the same color?
probability is the product of the outcomes of
the two independent events

7. If a pair of dice is thrown, what is the

probability of getting 2 aces in a single
throw?

- A measure of probability where the event will

occur exactly r times out of n trials.
- The probability of repeated trials is
8. A box contains 6 white balls and 4 black determined by the formula
balls. If 2 balls are drawn in succession, what
is the probability that both are black if the
first ball is replaced before the second is
drawn?

11. The probability of Steph Curry shooting a 3-

point is 35%. If he is given 10 shots,
determine his probability of shooting exactly
6 balls

- A measure of probability of events where the

outcome or occurrence of the first event
affects the outcome or occurrence of the
second event so that the probability is
changed

EXAMPLE: 12. Each question in a multiple-choice type of

9. A box contains 6 white balls and 4 black exam contains 4 possible answers. Find the
balls. If two balls are drawn in succession, probability that a student will get exactly 21
what is the probability that both are black if correct answers in a 30-item if he relies on
the first ball is not replaced before the guessing
second is drawn?