BIOLOGY 12 - THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CHAPTER NOTES

• The nervous system is our processing system, and the system that keeps us in
contact with the outside world. It tells us that we exist, and along with the
muscles allows us to move and react to stimuli. Our consciousness resides
in our nervous systems, as do our thoughts and emotions.
• In short, the roles of the nervous system are: responsible for coordination of
movement, response to environmental stimuli, intelligence, self-awareness,
thought, emotion.
• Composed of nerve cells called neurons, which are specialized to carry
nerve impulses.
• Nervous system has two major divisions: (the division is arbitrary;
the two systems work together and are connected to one another). The two systems are:
1. Central Nervous System: (CNS) - includes spinal cord and brain. In the "center" of the body.
2. Peripheral Nervous System: (PNS) - the rest of the nervous system: PNS is further divided into the
Somatic Nervous System (connects to skeletal muscle) and Autonomic Nervous System (connects to
smooth (involuntary) muscles). The Autonomic Nervous System is further divided into the Sympathetic
Nervous System (usually causes effects associated with emergency situations) and the Parasympathetic
Nervous System (promotes activities associated with a normal state).

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal Chord

Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System

To Smooth Muscles To Skeletal Muscles,

excterior sensory organs

Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

“Fight or Flight” Non-emergency Situations

Nerve Cells are called “Neurons” - what is their structure?

All neurons have
three parts: i) PLEASE LABEL THIS DIAGRAM
DENDRITE(s) - A
conduct nerve
impulses E
towards the ii)
CELL BODY and
AXON (conducts
nerve impulses
away from the
cell body). B D F G H
Dendrites and
axons are
sometimes called C
FIBERS. Most
long fibers are covered by a MYELIN SHEATH. The sheath has spaces in it exposing the axon called NODES
OF RANVIER. The sheath is secreted by SCHWANN CELLS, each of which has a nucleus.

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There are three types of neurons:
PLEASE LABEL
1. SENSORY NEURON: (= afferent neuron) -
takes a message from a sense organ to
CNS. has long dendrite and short axon
T
2. MOTOR NEURON: (= efferent neuron) -
takes message away from CNS to a
muscle fiber or gland. Short dendrites,
long axon.
3. INTERNEURON: (= association neuron or
connector neuron): completely contained
within CNS. Conveys messages between
parts of the system. Dendrites, axons,
may be long or short.

Generation and Transmission of Nerve Impulses

• Scientists used giant axons in squids to figure out how nerve impulses are generated.
• Nerve Conduction is an ELECTROCHEMICAL CHANGE that moves in one direction along the length of a
nerve fiber. It is electrochemical because it involves changes in voltage as well as in the concentrations
of certain ions. Since it is electric, we can use an oscilloscope (a type of voltmeter that shows a graph of
voltage changes) to measure potential differences (voltages).
+ + + + + +
Na
+
Na
+
Na K Na Na
+
Na
+
K
+
Na
+ Na Na K Na
+
Na
+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
K K K K K Na K K K K Na K K K K

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
K K K K Na K K K K Na K K K K K
+ + + + + + + + + + +
Na Na K
+
Na
+ +
Na Na K Na Na Na K Na Na Na

Resting Potential
When not conducting impulses, there is a voltage difference across the
membrane of the axon of about -60 mV. The negative charge on the
inside of the axon is due to the presence of large negative ions. There are
more sodium ions on the outside of the axon compared to the inside of the
axon, and more potassium ions on the inside compared to the outside.
• We talk about three distinct phases in the generation of a
nerve impulse along an axon: the RESTING phase and the
ACTION phase, followed by a RECOVERY phase.
• RESTING POTENTIAL: the potential difference across the
membrane of the axon when it is NOT conducting an impulse.
equals - 60 mV. This negative polarity is caused by the
presence of large organic negative ions in the axoplasm
(the cytoplasm inside an axon).
• During the resting potential, Na+ ions are more
concentrated on the outside of the membrane than the
inside.
• K+ ions are more concentrated on the inside of the axon
• This uneven distribution of K and Na ions is maintained by
active transport across Na+/K+ pumps which operate
whenever the neuron is not conducting an impulse. On the above graph, label the RESTING PHASE and RECOVERY PHASE.
Then label where Na+ moves into the axon (DEPOLARIZATION). Label the
• ACTION POTENTIAL: if nerve is stimulated by electric place where Na+ gates close and the K+ gates open. Then label where K+
shock, pH change, mechanical stimulation, a nerve moves out of the axon (REPOLARIZATION). Indicate the place where the
[Na+] and [K+] are returned to their original concentrations.
impulse is generated, and a change in potential can be

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 seen on the oscilloscope. This nerve impulse is called the ACTION POTENTIAL.
• On the oscilloscope, can be broken into an upswing and downswing.
• During the upswing (-60 mV to +40 mV), membrane becomes permeable to Na+ ions. Na+ ions move
from outside to inside of axon (i.e. "depolarization" occurs -- the inside of the axon becomes positive).
• In the downswing (+40 mV to -60 mV), membrane becomes permeable to K+. K+ moves from outside to
inside of axon. This is called repolarization (since the inside of axon becomes negative again).
• RECOVERY PHASE: between transmissions, K+ ions are returned to inside of axon, Na+ to the outside.
This is done actively.
Step 1: Sodium moves in Step 2: Depolarization
Na+ Na+

+++++++

Sodium channels open, Na+ ions diffuse into axon. The inside of the axon has become positive in that
region. This is called depolarization.
+ +
Step 3: Na channels close, K open Step 4: Repolarization

K+ K+

Potassium channels open, K+ ions diffuse out of axon. The movement of K+ ions counters the depolarization.
The voltage differerence across the membrane returns to
the resting potential level (-60mV).
Step 5: Recovery Phase Step 6: Depolarization of adjacent part of axon
K+ Na+ Na+
Na+

Na+ and K+ actively transported back across

membrane until they are distributed in the same Sodium channels open, Na+ ions diffuse into axon.
concentrations as before the impulse was sent.
++−−−−++++++++++++++++++++++++
The impulse will continue to move down the axon until −−++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

it reaches the synapse. −−++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

++−−−−++++++++++++++++++++++++

++++++−−−−++++++++++++++++++++
−−−−−− ++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

−−−−−− ++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
++++++−−−−++++++++++++++++++++

++++++++++−−−−++++++++++++++++
−−−−−−−−−−++++ −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−

−−−−−−−−−−−++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
++++++++++−−−−++++++++++++++++

++++++++++++++−−−−++++++++++++
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−++++−−−−−−−−−−−−−

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−++++−−−−−−−−−−−−
++++++++++++++−−−−++++++++++++

• The speed of nerve impulses is quite rapid. This is due to the structure of the nerves. Specifically, the
MYELIN SHEATH of most nerve fibers (this sheath is formed by tightly packed spirals of the cell membrane
of Schwann cells) and the interruptions or gaps of the sheath called the NODES OF RANVIER. This
sheath gives nerves their characteristic white appearance.

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• The speed of transmission is ~200 m/s in myelinated fibers, but only 0.5 m/s in non-myelinated fibers.
• The reason is that the nerve impulse "jumps" from node to node in myelinated fibers. In non-myelinated
fiber, the nerve impulse must depolarize and repolarize each point along the nerve fiber.

Carefully examine this diagram that has appeared on several provincial exams. What
do you think structure Y is? Which direction is the impulse moving?

Transmission of Impulses across Synapses

• What happens to a nerve impulse once it reaches the end of an axon? How does one nerve communicate
with another? The answer lies in the specialized regions at the a)
ends of axons called SYNAPSES. Please Label
Z
• Synapse: the region between end of an axon and the cell body or
dendrite to which it is attached.
• Synaptic Endings: swollen terminal knobs on the ends of axon b)
terminal branches. W
• Presynaptic Membrane: the membrane of the axon synaptic
ending.
• Postsynaptic Membrane: the membrane of the next neuron just c)
beyond the axon's synaptic membrane. Y d)
• Synaptic Cleft: the space between the presynaptic and the e)
postsynaptic membranes
• Neurotransmitter Substances (neurotransmitters): chemicals f)
that transmit the nerve impulses across a synaptic cleft. X
• Synaptic Vesicles: contain the neurotransmitters. Contained near surface of synaptic endings.
• Acetylcholine (Ach), Noradrenalin (NA), Serotonin, Adrenalin (epinephrine) are some important
neurotransmitters.
• Transmission across a synapse is one-way because only the ends of axons have synaptic vesicles that are
able to release neurotransmitters to affect the potential of the next neurons.
• STIMULATION or INHIBITION of postsynaptic membranes can occur.
• A neuron is on the receiving end of many synapses -- some may be giving inhibitory and some may give
stimulatory impulses. Whether or not the neuron they are attached to fires depends on the SUMMARY
EFFECT of all the excitatory neurotransmitters received.
• If amount of excitatory neurotransmitters received is sufficient to overcome the amount of inhibitory
neurotransmitters received, the neuron fires. If not, only local excitation occurs. The total process allows
neurons to fine-tune to the environment.
Sequence of events:

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1. Nerve impulse travel along axon, reach a synaptic ending.
K+
Na+

2. Arrival of nerve impulse at synaptic ending changes

membrane ----> Ca++ flows into ending

Ca+
Ca+

3. Ca++ ions cause contractile proteins to pull synaptic

vesicles to inner surface of the presynaptic membrane.
Ca+
Ca+

4. Vesicle fuses with presynaptic membrane, releasing

neurotransmitters into synapse.

5. Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft to

receptors on postsynaptic membrane. The receptors
control selective ion channels; binding of a
neurotransmitter to its specific receptors opens the ion
channels.

6. The resulting ion flux (not shown on diagram) changes the

voltage of the postsynaptic membrane. This either moves
the membrane voltage closer to the ‘threshold voltage’
required for an action potential (an excitatory synapse), or
hyperpolarizes the membrane (an inhibitory synapse). In
this case, the neurotransmitters binding to receptors on the
dendrite causes the nerve impulse to be transmitted
down the dendrite of the second neuron. The nerve
impulse has now been transmitted from the first neuron to
the second neuron. K+
Na+

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7. Neurotransmitters are quickly deactivated to prevent them
from continually acting on postsynaptic membrane. This
can occur by:
a) neurotransmitter is degraded by enzymes (e.g.,
acetylcholinesterase (= “cholinesterase”) breaks down
acetycholine).
b) synaptic ending reabsorbs the neurotransmitter. e.g. this
is what happens to Serotonin.
• e.g. Monoamine oxidase breaks down noradrenalin after
it is absorbed.
K+
Na+

• neurotransmitters take nerve impulses across synapses. HO

Neurotransmiters are small molecules. They can be single amino
acids, short chains of amino acids, or derivatives of protein.
• proper brain and nervous system function depends on the proper
C CH2 CH2 NH2
balance of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmitters.
Excitatory transmitters: include ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh), CH
ADRENALIN (epinephrine), NORADRENALIN (norepinephrine), N
SEROTONIN (derived from the amino acid tryptophan), and
H
DOPAMINE.
Inhibitory transmitters: include GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid Structure of Serotonin
- a type of amino acid), glycine (an amino acid). Serotonin can also
act as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
• neurotransmitters include endorphins and enkephalins (a 5 amino-acid chain that functions as a natural
pain reliever in brain). Opium and heroin mimic the action of natural endorphins and enkephalins.

Axons from • A single neuron may receive

nearby neurons information from thousands of
neighbouring neuron through
thousands of synapse. Some of the
messages are excitatory (i.e. they tell
the neuron to “fire”) while others may
? be inhibitory (i.e. they tell the neuron
not to fire).
• Whether or not a neuron “fires” off an
action potential at any particular
instant depends on its ability to
integrate these multiple positive and
negative inputs.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: voluntary and involuntary control

• The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM consists of nerves that contain only long dendrites and/or long
axons. This is because neuron cell bodies are found only in the brain, spinal chord, and GANGLIA.
• Ganglia are collections of cell bodies within the PNS.
There are 3 types of nerves:
1. Sensory nerves: contain only long dendrites of sensory
neurons.
2. Motor nerves: contain only the long axons of motor
neurons.
3. Mixed nerves: contain both the long dendrites of sensory
neurons and the long axons of motor neurons.

• Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves attached to the A mixed nerve

brain. Some are sensory, some are motor, others are mixed. The cranial nerves are a part of the PNS.

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 The cranial nerves serve the head, neck, and face regions except for the VAGUS nerve, which branches to
serve internal organs.
W • Humans have 31 pairs of Spinal Nerves.
Spinal nerves are mixed nerves leaving the
spinal chord by two short branches (called
ROOTS) which lie within the vertebral
column. Of these, the DORSAL ROOT (Y)
can be identified by the presence of an
enlargement called the DORSAL ROOT
GANGLION (W), which contains the cell
bodies of the sensory neurons whose
dendrites conduct impulses toward the cord.
Please label dorsal root ganglion (W), sensory The VENTRAL ROOT (Z) of each spinal
nerve fiber, motor nerve fiber (Z), interneuron (X). nerve contains axons of motor neurons that
conduct impulses away from the cord.
• The two roots join just before the spinal nerve leaves the vertebral column.

• SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: includes all the nerves that serve the musculoskeletal system and the
exterior sense organs (including skin). Exterior sense organs are RECEPTORS (receive environmental
stimuli and begin nerve impulses). Muscle fibers are EFFECTORS that react to the stimulus.

The Reflex Arc

• Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to changes occurring inside or outside the body. Can
involve the brain (e.g. blinking) or not involve brain (e.g. withdraw hand from hot stove).
• The Reflex arc is the main functional unit of the nervous system. It allows us to react to internal and
external stimuli.

Path of a simple Reflex Arc:

1. Receptor (e.g. in skin) -
generates a nerve impulse
2. Sensory Neuron - takes
message to CNS. Impulses
move along dendrite,
proceed to cell body (in
dorsal root ganglia) and
then go from cell body to
axon in gray matter of cord.
3. Interneuron - passes
message to motor neuron
4. Motor neuron - takes
message away from CNS to
axon of spinal nerve
5. Effector - receives nerve
impulses and reacts:
glands secrete and muscles
contract
• LABEL ALL THESE
PARTS AND THE DIRECTION ON THIS DIAGRAM

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• is part of the PNS - made of motor neurons that control the internal organs AUTOMATICALLY (usually
unconsciously).
• Autonomic nervous system is divided into SYMPATHETIC and PARASYMPATHETIC nervous systems.
These two systems connect to the same organs by have opposite effects.
• Each system functions unconsciously on internal organs and utilize two motor neurons and one
ganglion for each nerve impulse.

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SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
• is especially important during EMERGENCY
SITUATIONS and is associated with "FIGHT OR
FLIGHT" reaction. For example, in an
emergency, it causes the following:
• energy directed away from digestion
• pupils dilate
• heart rate increases
• perspiration increases
• salivation decreases
• breathing rate increases
• the neurotransmitter released by the
postganglionic axon of the Sympathetic nervous
system is NORADRENALIN (which is closely
related to adrenalin -- a known heart stimulant).
Noradrenalin is released by postganglionic axon -
--> heart rate accelerates
• fibers for this system arise from middle part
(thoracic-lumbar) of the spinal cord.
Preganglionic fiber is short, postganglionic fiber
(which contacts the organ) is long.

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The parasympathetic System promotes all the
internal responses associated with a RELAXED
state. For example:
• causes the pupils to contract
• energy diverted for digestion of food
• heart rate slows
• Important neurotransmitter in this system is ACETYLCHOLINE.
• fibers for this system arise from upper and lower part of spinal cord (cranial and sacral nerves).
• Preganglionic fiber is long, postganglionic fiber is short because the ganglia lie near or within the organ.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The CNS consists of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD.

• The CNS lies in the mid-line of the body and is the place where sensory information is received and
motor control is initiated.
• Protected by BONE (skull, vertebrae). They are also wrapped up in
three protective membranes called MENINGES (spinal meningitis
is infection of these membranes). Spaces between meninges filled
with cerebrospinal fluid for cushioning and protection. This fluid
also found within central canal of the spinal cord and ventricle of
brain.

Spinal Cord: the nervous system’s “superhighway”

• contains central canal filled with cerebrospinal

fluid,
• GRAY MATTER (inner layer) containing cell
bodies of neurons and short fibers. Looks
kind of like the a butterfly with open wings.
• in grey matter, dorsal cell bodies function
primarily in receiving sensory information, and ventral cell bodies
send along primarily motor information.
• WHITE MATTER (outer layer) containing long fibers of

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 interneurons that run together in bundles called tracts that connect the cord to the brain.
• within white matter, ascending tracts take information to the brain, descending tracts in the ventral part
carry information down from the brain.

THE BRAIN
• The brain itself contains parts which function in the coordination of movement, sensing, & consciousness
(and all that entails), as well as areas that are below the level of conscious control. The brain has a volume,
2
on average, or 1,370 cubic centimeters (with a normal range of 950 to 2,200 cm ). It weighs about 1.35 kg
(or 3 pounds), and consists of hundreds of billions of neurons and glial cells. You had the maximum
number of neurons when you were born. Thousands are lost daily, never to be replaced and apparently not
missed, until the cumulative loss builds up in very old age. The brain is vastly complex, and is certainly not
thoroughly understood. There are many ways of looking at the brain functionally and structurally. The
simplest first way of looking at it is dividing it up into parts that run “automatically” (the unconscious brain)
and the parts in which our consciousness resides (the conscious brain).
The Unconscious Brain
• MEDULLA OBLONGATA (X)- Lies
closest to spinal cord. Controls heart
rate, breathing, blood pressure,
reflex reactions like coughing,
sneezing, vomiting, hiccoughing,
swallowing. An "ancient" part of
V brain. The Pons also participates in
some of these activities, having
ganglia that regulate the breathing
U centers in the medulla, for example.
• THALAMUS (V)- receives sensory
Pons information from all parts of the body
and channels them to the cerebrum.
It is the last portion of the brain for
sensory input before the cerebrum.
Serves as a CENTRAL RELAY STATION for sensory impulses coming up spinal cord and other parts of
brain to the cerebrum. Receives all sensory impulses (except for smell) and sends them to appropriate
regions of the cortex for interpretation.
• The thalamus has connections to various parts of the brain, and is part of the RAS (the reticular activating
system), which sorts out incoming stimuli, passing on to the cerebrum only those that require immediate
attention. i.e. it lets you ignore input (like your teacher talking) so you can do other things (yak to your
friends about Grad). The RAS extends from the medulla oblongata to the thalamus.
• CEREBELLUM (Z)- controls balance and complex muscular movement. It is the second largest portion
of the brain. Butterfly-shaped. Functions in muscle coordination and makes sure skeletal muscles
work together smoothly. Responsible for maintaining normal muscle tone, posture, balance. It
receives sensory information from the inner ear (which senses balance).
• HYPOTHALAMUS (W) one of the most important sites for the regulation of homeostasis. It maintains
internal environment, contains centers for hunger, sleep, thirst, body temperature, water balance,
blood pressure. Controls PITUITARY GLAND (U) (serves as a link between the nervous system and
the endocrine systems). The hypothalamus plays a role in sexual response and mating behaviors, and
the “fight-or-flight” response, and pleasure. Yes, there are pleasure centers in the hypothalamus (these
have been stimulated experimentally with electrodes in studies using rats).
• CORPUS CALLOSUM (Y)- horizontal connecting piece between the two hemispheres of the brain.
Transmits information between the two cerebral hemispheres. It has been noted that severing the
corpus callosum can control severe epilepsy (which is thought to be caused by a disturbance of the normal
communication between the RAS and the cortex), but also means the two halves of brain don't communicate
with each other normally and will function separately. Each half has its own memories and “style” of
thinking. Sometimes you’ll hear this discussed as “right brain” versus “left brain” thinking.
• The right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of the body (except for smell), and vice versa.
Thus, an image viewed with the right eye is actually “seen” with the left occipital lobe. The left hand is
controlled by the right frontal lobe, and so on.

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• A person with a severed corpus callosum may appear normal in most situations, but careful experiments
reveal much about lateralization of the brain. For example, a patient holding a key in the left hand, with
both eyes open, will readily name it as a “key.” If blindfolded, though, the subject will recognize the key by
touch and use it to open a lock, but will be completely unable to name it. The center for speech is in the left
hemisphere, but sensory information from the left hand crosses (normally) the corpus callosum and enters
the right side of the brain. In this patient, sensory input and spoken response are dissociated.

Right Brain/Left Brain: Different Qualities and an Uneasy Alliance?

The Left Hemisphere The Right Hemisphere
the “logical side” The “ intuitive side”
• speaks • creates images
• processes data • processes senses
• evaluates • symbolizes
• analyzes differences • seeks similarities
• is factual • is spiritual
• is structured • is spontaneous
• has time and measures • has no time and measures
• “speaks but cannot know” • “knows but cannot speak”
You use the LEFT side of the brain when you know You use the RIGHT side of the brain when you
what you’re looking for “know it when you see it”
• talking • feeling
• setting goals • speculating
• planning • visualizing
• measuring • empathizing
• seeing differences • sensing similarities
THE CONSCIOUS BRAIN = THE CEREBRUM

Primary Motor Area Primary Sensory Area

leg leg
arm arm
Motor hand hand Parietal Speech Production
Elaboration lips lips vocab/grammar storage.
Frontal tongue “Wernicke’s area”
mouth
Conscious tongue
Thought
swallowing Hearing Vision
Speech Production Olfaction (smell) Occcipital
(“Broca’s Area”) Temporal
perceptual judgment

• CEREBRUM - largest, most prominent, most highly developed portion of the brain.
• Consciousness resides only in this part of the brain.

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• Intellect, learning, memory, sensations are formed here.
• Outer layer is the CORTEX (gray in colour). It is the largest and most complex part of the human brain, and
the part that has changed the most during vertebrate evolution. The highly folded human cortex has a
2
surface area of about 0.5 m .
• Divided into right and left CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES, each consisting of FOUR LOBES: FRONTAL,
PARIETAL, TEMPORAL, and OCCIPITAL lobes. The a fifth lobe called the INSULA, that lies below the
surface. Its function is poorly understood. The cerebral cortex has been “mapped” in some detail. All the
lobes have association areas that receive information from other lobes and integrate it into higher, more
complex levels of consciousness. Association areas are concerned with intellect, artistic, and creative
abilities, learning, and memory.
1. FRONTAL - movement, higher intellectual processes (e.g. problem solving, concentration, planning,
judging the consequences of behavior, moving your tongue and mouth to speak (left side only).
2. PARIETAL - sensations e.g. touch, temperature, pressure, pain. Understanding speech, using words
3. TEMPORAL - hearing, smelling, interpretation of experiences, memory of visual scenes, music, and
complex sensory patterns.
4. OCCIPITAL - vision, combining visual experiences with other sensory experiences.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• An EEG is a record of the electrical Alpha Waves
activity of the brain, derived from a
machine called an Awake, eyes closed
electroencephalograph, which receives
information from the brain through Beta Waves
electrodes attached to the scalp. The Awake, eyes open
EEG can be used to diagnose epilepsy
and brain tumors, as well as brain Theta Waves
death. The average brain produces about Asleep
20 Watts of electrical power (barely
enough to power a compact fluorescent
light bulb). Delta Waves
• when people are awake, usually see two
Deep sleep REM sleep
types of waves: alpha waves and beta
waves. Alpha wave predominate when eyes are closed. Beta waves, which have higher frequencies but
lower voltages, appear when eyes are open.
• REM (rapid eye movement): in this period of sleep, brain waves are slower and larger, and eyes move back
and forth irregularly. This is the state, usually occurring 5 times per night, that corresponds with the act of
dreaming. REM sleep is needed for normal brain function.

The Extrapyramidal and Limbic Systems: movement and Emotion

• Masses of white matter that belong to the descending tracts are called the EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM
(includes parts of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and pons).
• The extrapyramidal system controls BODY MOVEMENT AND POSTURE.
• The extrapyramidal system passes into the basal nuclei (masses of grey matter that lie deep within each
hemisphere of the cerebrum). These basal nuclei are part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM, which connects portions
of the frontal lobes, temporal lobes, thalamus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
• The limbic system is involved in EMOTIONS, MEMORY, and LEARNING.
• It is sometimes called the emotional brain because it seems to control emotions: Pain, Pleasure, Rage,
Affection, Sexual interest, Fear, Sorrow.
• Memories can be stored all over the brain, but seem to be concentrated in the limbic system.
• The limbic system is also essential for short-term and long-term memory. An example of a short-term
memory is the ability to remember a phone number long enough to dial it. An example of long-term memory
is the ability recall what you did yesterday.
• Long-term memory involves protein synthesis and may include the formation of new connections
between neurons (this also occurs in learning).
• It is believed that at first, impulses move only within the limbic circuit, but eventually the basal nuclei transmit
the neurotransmitter Ach to the sensory areas where memories are stored. The involvement of the limbic
system explains why emotionally-charged events result in the most vivid memories. The fact that the limbic

Raycroft ! Notes - Nervous System - Student - Page 11 of 13

 system communicates with the sensory areas for touch, smell, vision, hearing, and taste accounts for the
ability of any particular sensory stimulus to awaken a complex memory.

DRUG ACTION AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

• There are many drugs that are used to alter the mood and/or emotional state of the user. In general, mood-
altering drugs particularly affect the RAS and limbic system, and they either promote or decrease the
action of a particular neurotransmitter.
• There are basically 5 ways a drug can act:
1. drug stimulates release of neurotransmitter.
2. drug blocks release of neurotransmitter
3. drug combines with neurotransmitter preventing its
breakdown
4. drug mimics neurotransmitter
5. drug blocks receptor so neurotransmitter can't be
received
• These drugs can be as common as the caffeine found
in coffee, theophylline in tea (both block the action of
adenosine, a chemical that inhibits the release of
4 1 3 neurotransmitters).
2 • Nicotine enhances the action of acetylcholine. Some
5 drugs (e.g. Thorazine) also affect cognitive or thinking
The 5 ways that drugs can act at synapes! processes. Mood-altering drugs particularly affect the
RAS.
• Drugs either promote or decrease the action of neurotransmitters, either stimulating or inhibiting the
action of excitatory transmitters or inhibitory transmitters. Stimulants either enhance excitatory transmitters
or block the action of inhibitory transmitters. Depressants either enhance the action of an inhibitory
transmitter or block the action of an excitatory transmitter.
Drug Action Type of Neurotransmitter Result
Blocks neurotransmitter Excitatory Depression
Enhances neurotransmitter Excitatory Stimulation
Blocks neurotransmitter Inhibitory Stimulation
Enhances neurotransmitter Inhibitory Depression

THE ACTION OF DRUGS ON NERVOUS SYSTEM

• AMPHETAMINES - structurally similar to noradrenalin (NA), stimulates release of NA and dopamine in

brain. e.g. cocaine blocks the uptake of dopamine so it is present in the synaptic cleft longer. As
dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, this causes the “rush” that cocaine users experience. Overuse
can lead to hallucinations and other neurological effects (e.g. extreme addicts can lose the ability to feel
pleasure).
• Methamphetamine (Ice) has the same stimulatory effects as cocaine, but its effects last longer.
• Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) leaves contain a resin rich in THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which is marijuana’s
active ingredient. It causes in many people a mild euphoria along with alterations in vision and judgment,
which result in distortions of space and time. Smokers will often have a very hard time speaking coherently
and concentrating. Like LSD, it is classified as a hallucinogen. It can be psychologically addicting.
Marijuana may act on the neurotransmitter serotonin.
• TRANQUILIZERS - e.g. Valium, Ativan, barbiturates, alcohol enhance the action of the inhibitory
transmitter GABA. Dependency develops when the body begins to produce less GABA on its own.
Overall, tranquilizers depress brain function, and overdoses can cause death due to this.
• LSD - (lysergic acid diethylamide) - affects the action of serotonin and dopamine on RAS cells involved in
vision and emotion -> produces visual and auditory hallucinations and bizarre sensory sensations. LSD can
cause permanent brain damage! Never take this drug.
• CAFFEINE - blocks the action of adenosine, a chemical that inhibits the release of neurotransmitters.
Therefore, it acts as a stimulant
• NICOTINE - enhances the action of acetylcholine. One of the most addictive compounds known.

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• ALCOHOL - enhances the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA. Therefore it acts as a depressant.
Dependency develops when the body begins to produce less GABA. Death can occur from over
consumption because of its depressing effect on brain functions. Habitual use can also damage areas of the
brain (especially the hippocampus, which can cause memory impairment). Also leads to cirrhosis of the
liver.
# of drinks Blood Alcohol Level Effect
1 0.02-0.03% Changes in behavior, coordination, and ability to think clearly
2 0.05% Sedation or tranquilized feeling
3 0.08 Legal intoxication in B.C. (it is lower in some other provinces)
5 0.15-0.20% Person is obviously intoxicated and may show signs of delirium
12 0.30-0.40% Loss of consciousness
24 0.50% Heart and respiration become so depressed that they cease to function
and death occurs.

• NARCOTICS such as HEROIN and MORPHINE block the transmission of pain signals, as they bind to
receptors meant for the body's natural opioids (endorphins and enkephalins). Opioids are believed to
relieve pain by preventing the release of a neurotransmitter (lets call it “P”) that causes the sensation of pain
from certain neurons in the spinal chord. Heroin addicts become physically dependent on the drug. With
time, the body’s production of endorphins decreases. Tolerance develops so that the user needs to take
more of the drug just to prevent withdrawal symptoms. The euphoria originally experienced upon injection
is no longer felt. Heroin withdrawal symptoms include perspiration, dilation of pupils, tremors, restlessness,
cramps, goose-flesh, involuntary defecation, vomiting, and increase in blood pressure and heart rate.

A Few Disorders of the Nervous System

• HUNTINGTON’S CHOREA - causes a progressive deterioration of nervous system culminating in insanity

and death. Thought to be due to GABA malfunctions. A genetic disorder -- children have a 50% chance of
developing Huntington's chorea if one of their parent has it. No cure yet.
• ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE - a severe form of senility marked by advanced memory loss. Affects 5 to 10% of
people over 65. Is a disorder of the limbic system, as it affects both emotion and memory. Protein plaques
build up in the brain and destroy brain cells. Ach secretion is considerably below normal in the brains of
Alzheimer’s patients. Some drugs show limited success in forestalling advancement of disease in some
patients. No cure yet.
• PARKINSON’S DISEASE - characterized by tremors of limbs (especially hands), muscular rigidity. Thought
to be due to a lack of dopamine. Some modern medicines are symptomatically effective. No cure yet.
• EPILEPSY - caused by disturbances of normal communication between RAS and cerebral cortex. Causes
episodes of convulsions known as seizures. There are "grand mal" and "petite mal" seizures. In a grand
mal seizure, the cerebrum becomes extremely excited, the individual may lose consciousness. The seizure
only stops when the neurons become fatigued. Medicines (like Dilantin) are effective in treating and
preventing seizures. There is still no cure for this disease.
• CEREBRAL PALSY - characterized by spastic weakness of arms and legs. Caused by lack of oxygen
during birth which damages motor areas of cerebral cortex.
• SCHIZOPHRENIA: severe mental illness is probably linked, in part, to a surplus of dopamine.
• DEPRESSION is thought to be linked to deficiencies in the neurotransmitter serotonin and/or
norepinephrine. Drugs such a imipramine and Prozac work by increase the concentrations of these
substances in limbic system synapses. Depression is a serious medical disorder that affects more one
person in 10 during their lifetime.

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