PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of PART 5, you will be able to:

1. To define different terminology on Work Measurement

2. To explain and illustrate the functions and methods in determining
time standards in work measurement
3. To demonstrate and apply work measurement techniques.

Learning Materials:

1. Laptop/Personal Computer/Cellphone/Tablet

2. Copy of Work Study and Measurement Module

3. LCD Projector (for Faculty use only during lectures)

4. Calculator

By: MJOR2021

LESSON 1: Time Standards and How They Are Determined

48
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Work measurement – evaluation of a task in terms of the time that should be allowed by an
average worker to perform the task
• 4 techniques
• Focus on human work

Standard time (allowed time) – amount of time that should be allowed for an average
worker to process one work unit using the standard method and working at normal pace
• It includes some additional time is called allowance to provides for the
workers:
- To provides for the workers personal needs
- To reduce fatigue
- Unavoidable delay during the shift

Time study – all the ways in which time is analyzed in work situations
 How much time it should take to accomplish a given task
 Both terms (work measurement and time study) can be used interchangeably

When Are Time Standards Beneficial?

 Characteristics of industrial situations in which time standards would be beneficial:
1. Low productivity: significant opportunities for improvement
2. Repeat orders: once the time standard is set for the first, it can be used for
successive ones
3. Long production runs: reduced average cost of work measurement
4. Repetitive work cycles: work measurement can be justified more readily
5. Short cycle times: requires less time to set standards

Functions of Time Standards

 They provide a means to convert workload into staffing and equipment needs
 They allow alternative methods to be compared objectively
By: MJOR2021

 They provide a basis for wage incentives and evaluation of worker performance
 They provide time data for:
o Production planning and scheduling

o Cost estimating

49
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
o Material requirements planning

 Vary in terms of
 accuracy and reliability of the values derived from the method
 amount of time required to apply the corresponding method

Methods to Determine Time Standards

Estimation
 Judgment of a person who is familiar with the job
 Subjective
 Least accurate method

Historical records
 Records on the actual times and production quantities for previous identical
or similar job orders - “Time card”
 Average time per part
 Improvement over estimates
 Limitation: No indication of efficiency measures

Work measurement techniques

 Time consuming
 More accurate than estimation and historical records
1. Direct time study (DTS)
By: MJOR2021

2. Predetermined motion time system (PMTS)

3. Standard data systems (SDS)
4. Work sampling

50
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Pyramidal Structure of Work

Work measurement techniques measure work at different levels

of this hierarchy

1. Direct Time Study

 Direct observation of a task using a stopwatch to record the time taken to accomplish
a task.
 The task is usually divided into work elements and each work element is timed
separately.
 During the observation, the analyst evaluates the worker’s pace - performance
rating

2. Predetermined Motion Time Systems

By: MJOR2021

 A database of normal times of basic motion elements (therbligs) such as reach,

grasp, move etc.
 Conditions under which the motion elements (work variables) are performed are
important.

51
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
 Example: normal time for object reach
 Distance moved
 Weight of the object being moved
 The analyst list all of the basic motion elements that comprise the task; then
normal times for basic motion elements are summed up to obtain the normal
time for the task
 Advantages:
 No need for performance rating
 Can be applied before production starts

3. Standard Data Systems

 A compilation of normal time values for work elements used in the tasks performed in
facility
 Used to establish time standards for tasks composed of work elements similar to
those in the database
 Source of data: direct time study, PMTS, work sampling, historical data
 Effect of work variables should be included
 Tables
 Charts
 Mathematical equations

4. Work Sampling
 A random sampling technique to estimate the proportions of time spent in
different activities
 Identify activities clearly.
o Example: machine setup, production, idleness

 Multiple subjects (entities) can be included

Observations:
 Random: minimize bias
By: MJOR2021

 Large in number: to achieve statistical accuracy

Objectives:
 Setting time standards
 Estimating resource utilization

52
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
 Determining an allowance factors

Computerized Work Measurement (work study methods)

 Facilitates collection of data
 Performs routine computations
 Organizes time standards files and databases
 Retrieves data in predetermined motion time systems and standard data systems
 Assists in the preparation of the documentation
 Methods descriptions
 Reports

Lesson 2: Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards

Time to perform a task depends on various factors:
• Worker (gender, strength, physical capability and mental abilities etc.),
• Worker’s pace (speed, skill, experience),
• Method used (hand tools, equipment, hand & body motion, wok environment)
• Work unit (nature of work or task)
Factors that must be standardized before a time standard can be set (except for the worker)

Average Worker & Standard Performance

 Average worker
 Is a persons who usually perform tasks similar to the task being measured.
 Gender factor, if the work is performed mostly by men ( not women),
By: MJOR2021

then the average worker is male ( not female)

 Age factor
 Have learned the task (experience and skill), practiced and proficient at it
 Is capable of performing the task consistently throughout the shift with
safety condition and without fatigue
53
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Standard (Normal) Performance

 Standard Performance is a pace (quantity & quality) of working that can be
maintained by an average worker throughout an entire work shift without harmful
effects on the worker’s health or physical well-being.
 Normal performance refers to 100% pace while the worker is working without
include the breaks period or any delay.
 Standard performance refers to 100% pace with the breaks period and any other
delay during the shift.

Normal time / Standard time

 Normal time: Time it takes to perform a task under the normal (standard) (100%)
performance
 Normal time is also called: Normalized time OR basic time
 Normal time does not include allowances for time losses (breaks or delay)
 Standard time minus allowances time = Normal time

Distribution of Worker Performance

Variations among workers →performance variations
Worker performance is expressed in terms of daily output

By: MJOR2021

More on Standard Performance

 Standard performance is commonly defined to be a pace that can be readily
attained by the majority of workers
 Companies want most workers to be able to achieve the standard performance
easily.

54
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
 A typical policy is to define standard performance so that an average worker
is able to work at a pace that is 130% of that pace
o Thus, most workers are able to easily achieve standard performance

How a Standard Time is defined

Distribution of worker performance, indicating how standard time is defined so that it can be
readily achieved by most workers

Standard Method
 Determining the optimum method for processing a work unit
 “One best method”: the safest, quickest, most productive, and least stressful to the
worker
 Must include all of the details on how the task is performed, including:
o Procedure - hand and body motions

o Tools (hand tools, power tools, fixtures and gauges)

o Equipment

o Workplace layout (what are the locations of the parts, tools)

o Irregular work

o Working conditions (is the work performed outside or inside)

By: MJOR2021

o Setup (what setup of physical tools & equipment are required)

Lesson 3: Allowances in Time Standards

 Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor Apfd to obtain the standard time

55
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
 Purpose of allowance factor (Apfd) is to compensate for lost time due to work
interruptions and other reasons during the shift.

Example: Standard time

 Problem # 12.3 (page 340)
The ABC Company uses a standard data system to set time standards. One of the time
study analysts listed the three work elements for a new task to be performed in the shop and
then determined the normal time values to be 0.73 min, 2.56 min, and 1.01 min. The
company uses a PFD allowance factor of 16%. Determine the standard time for the task.
Solution:
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)
Normal time Tn = 0.73 + 2.56 + 1.01 = 4.30 min
Standard time Tstd = 4.30(1 + 0.16) = 4.988 min

Reasons for Lost Time at Work

How to Allow for Lost Time

 Two approaches used by companies:
By: MJOR2021

1. Scheduled rest breaks during the shift

o Typical - one 15-minute break in mid-morning and another in mid-
afternoon
2. A PFD allowance factor is added to the normal time

56
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement
 This allows the worker to take a break on his/her own time
 PFD is called Relaxation Allowances represent in % value
 Relaxation allowance OR PFD are calculated to allow the worker to
recover from fatigue

PFD Allowance
Personal time
 Rest room breaks, phone calls, water fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5%
typical)
 For example: A larger value will be appropriate if the work environment is hot
Fatigue (Physical fatigue OR Mental fatigue)
 Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to work-related low or medium
stresses and conditions (5% or more)
 For example: If the work is physiologically very demanding (heavy workload),
then relaxation time should be allowed periodically for the body to recover (in
this case use 20% allowance)
Delays
 Random, unavoidable interruptions
 Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions (5% typical)
 Usually management is responsible for these delays.

Example: PFD Allowance factor

In the WS&FP plant, workers punch in at 8:00 a.m. and punch out at 5:00 p.m. The labor-
management agreement allows one hour for lunch, which is not counted as part of the 8-
hour shift. In determining the allowance for computing time standards, two 12 min breaks are
included (personal time and fatigue), one in the morning and one in the afternoon; and 35
min are included as lost time due to interruptions and delays. What PFD allowance factor
should be added to the normalized time to account for these losses in the computation of a
standard time, so that if the worker works at standard performance, he/she will earn exactly
eight standard hours?
By: MJOR2021

57
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Lesson 4: Factors causing Fatigue in Workers

1. Physical Factors

• Standing, Abnormal body position (Awkward posture), Use of force,

Expenditure of muscular energy
2. Mental & cognitive Factors

• Concentration & attention, mental strain, Monotony, Eye strain, Noise

3. Environmental & work Factors

• Poor lighting, Noise, Fumes, Heat, Atmospheric conditions (Ventilation), Dusts, Dirt,
Wet

Calculate the PFD Allowance Time (Relaxation allowances)

 Direct calculation includes that:
PFD allowance = 5% of normal time (personal time)+ 5% of normal time (low/medium
fatigue allowances) OR 20% (high fatigue allowances) + 5% of normal time (delay
allowances)
By: MJOR2021

58
 PART 5 Work Study and Measurement

Other Types of Allowances

 There are other reasons for adding allowances, which are not as common as PFD
allowances. They are applied in addition to Apfd
 Contingency ‫ ئ راوط‬allowance
 Additional allowance due to a problem with the task (e.g., raw material
problem ) - not greater than 5%
 Temporary basis – after solving the underlying problem, it will disappear
 Policy allowance: They are based on company policy
 Machine allowance - (set by company policy as a part of the wage
incentives.)
 Training allowance – for teaching new workers (for workers whose
responsibilities include teaching other workers)
 Learning allowance – learning a new task (for workers who are learning a
new job, or new employees)

Contingency Allowances

By: MJOR2021

59