An Introduction to APA Style

A Student Guide for the 7th edition of the

APA Publication Manual

22/01/2021
/mcym
Introduction to APA Style 1

An Introduction to Writing in APA Style

This document provides an introduction to writing in American Psychological Association (APA)

style. All of the information in this document is contained within the seventh edition of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. If you need more details, please
refer to the APA manual available in the: Douglas College Library, Psychology Lab, and
Learning Centre.

Student papers for psychology courses usually fall into 2 categories: a literature review or an
empirical study.

Literature Review
A literature review, also referred to as a “narrative literature review”, provides a narrative
summary or evaluation of the findings or theories of an area of research. A thorough, if not
exhaustive, search of published work (qualitative, quantitative, mixed-model research) is
conducted for a given topic within a defined time frame. The resulting list of research articles
are carefully examined to find trends, similarities, differences, contradictions, gaps, and
inconsistencies. The resulting literature review synthesises this information resulting in an
overview of past research with suggestions for future research. In sum, the narrative literature
review should:
• define and clarify the problem;
• summarise previous research by identifying trends, similarities, differences, contradictions,
gaps, and inconsistencies; and
• suggest directions for future research.

The organisational structure of a narrative literature review is at the author’s discretion. The
paper may be organised based on similarities in concepts, research methodology, outcomes,
theoretical perspectives, etc., with subsections detailing specifics when necessary. A literature
review consists of, at minimum:
• title page
• introduction
• body — divided into sections and/or subsections
• conclusion
• references list

Empirical Study
An empirical study is a report of original research in which an hypothesis is tested; data is
collected; and the results are presented and evaluated. An empirical study consists of, at
minimum:

• title page • results

• abstract • discussion
• introduction • references
• method

Formatting for a literature review and empirical study follows the same conventions. Because
the sections within an empirical study are more prescriptive, this document focuses on writing
an empirical study.
Introduction to APA Style 2

This document is divided into three sections:

1. Writing an APA style Empirical Study

The first section provides a description of each of the major sections of an APA style
empirical study.

2. Citations and References



The second section provides information on how to document your work: it tells you how to
cite and reference the research articles that you will include in your paper. Read this
section before gathering library materials (e.g., journal articles and books) and taking notes
so you know what type of information to record (e.g., author’s name, date of publication,
name of journal, DOI). Also, carefully read the subsection on plagiarism.


3. Sample APA style Empirical Study



The third section provides an example of an APA style empirical study.
Introduction to APA Style 3

Formatting

General Guidelines

• Leave 2.54 cm (1”) margins at the top, bottom, left and right sides of all the pages of the paper.
• Double space all lines of text including the title page and the reference section.
• Bold section headings and sub-headings (see “Level of Headings” on page 4).
• Insert one space after all punctuation; in other words, one space follows a period at the end of a
sentence, a comma, a semi-colon, a colon, and after each initial in the author’s name.
• Use an Oxford comma (serial comma) to separate items in a list including the last item. For
example, “The stimuli colours were blue, green, orange, purple, and red.”
• Use left justification only; leave the right edge of the text ragged.
• Choose one of the following fonts. Once a font is chosen, it must be used throughout the paper
including page numbers; the only exception is for figures and tables (see “Results” on page 8 for
additional information).

• Arial 11 pt. • Lucida Sans Unicode 10 pt.
• Calibri 11 pt. • Times New Roman 12 pt.

• Georgia 11 pt.

• Begin page numbering on the title page. Page numbers appear on the upper-right-hand corner of
each page of the document. Use the “page number” function on your word processing program;
do not manually type-in the page numbers.
• Indent paragraphs 5-7 spaces (1.27cm or ½”); do not indent the first line of the “Abstract”.
• When reporting a numerical value, present the numerical value as digits if the value is greater
than or equal to 10. If the numerical value is less than 10, type the value as a word, unless it
contains a decimal. Exception: Do not begin a sentence with a digit, even if it is greater than or
equal to 10.
• Submit a single-sided copy of your paper for grading.
• Staple the paper once in the upper left-hand corner. Do not use folders or duo-tangs.
• Keep a back-up copy of your paper.

Comments on Writing Style

• You should strive to present your ideas clearly and logically. Be precise in your choice of words.
Get to the point, this is a scientific paper and therefore wordiness is frowned upon.
• Do not use colloquialisms (informal language): this is a formal paper.
• Refrain from making over-generalisations. For example, "Since the dawn of time, man has been
intrigued about . . . "
• Academic papers are generally written in the third person. Although the use of personal
pronouns are acceptable (e.g., we, our, I, my), they should be used judiciously: this is, after all, a
formal paper. For example, both “The hypothesis for the experiment was . . .” (third person) and
“Our hypothesis for the experiment was . . .” (first person), would be acceptable whereas “In my
opinion, . . .” would be unacceptable because of the shift in tone from formal to informal.
• The active voice is preferable to the passive voice. For example, it is preferable to say
“Participants completed a questionnaire" (active voice) rather than “Participants were given a
questionnaire" (passive voice).

Introduction to APA Style 4

Level of Headings
Use different heading levels to divide the body of the paper into sections and subsections.
Format the heading levels according to APA Style; see table below. Generally, speaking there
should be at minimum Level 1 headings with increasing levels dependent on the content of a
section.

Level Format

1 Centred, Bold, Title Case Heading

Text begins as a new paragraph.
2 Flush left, Bold, Title Case Heading
Text begins as a new paragraph.
3 Flush left, Bold, Italics, Title Case Heading
Text begins as a new paragraph.
4 Indent, Bold, Title Case Heading, ending with a period. Text begins
on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

5 Indent, Bold, Italics, Title Case Heading, ending with a period.

Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.
Introduction to APA Style 5

Title Page
(See p. 1 of the Sample Paper)
The title page is comprised of the following elements:
• title
• author's name(s)
• affiliation
• course name
• instructor’s name
• due date

Title
The title summarises the main topic of the paper and mentions the variables considered in the
study (e.g., The Effectiveness of Excuse-Validation in Reducing Negative Affect). Remove
unnecessary phrases such as "A Study of . . . ".
Typing
The title is centred, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case. The title appears in the top
one-third of the page.

Author's Name
Each author's name should be included on the title page.
Typing
The author's first and last name is centred and quadruple spaced below the title. If there is
more than one author, then list the names in alphabetical order; for example, Melanie
Anderson, Jaspreet Brar, Jason Huang, etc. Each author's name should be centred, doubled
spaced, and on a separate line below the previous author's name.
NOTE: If your student number is required, type this after your name, on the same line.

Affiliation
The affiliation is the name of the department and institution at which the study or experiment
was conducted.
Typing
The affiliation is centred, typed-in upper and lower case, and is double spaced below the
author(s) name. The department name is typed first followed by a comma, then the name of
the institution. All this information is presented on one line. For example, “Psychology
Department, Douglas College”.

Course Name
The course name includes the abbreviated name, section, and full name of the course for
which the paper is to be submitted.
Typing
The course name is centred, typed-in upper and lower case, and is double spaced below the
affiliation. The abbreviated course name, number, and section is first, followed by a colon with
the full name of the course typed after the colon. For example, “Psyc 1100 (001): An
Introduction to Psychology I”.

Instructor’s name
The name of the instructor to whom the paper is to be submitted.
Typing
The instructor’s name is centred, typed-in upper and lower case, and is double spaced below
the course name. Your instructor’s name may take any of the following forms: “Dr. Nicole
Vittoz”; “Dr. N. Vittoz”; “Nicole Vittoz, PhD”; or “N. Vittoz, PhD”. Ask your instructor which form
they prefer.

Due date
Include the due date for the paper. Use Canadian date format: day month year.
Typing
The due date is centred, typed-in upper and lower case, and is double spaced below the
instructor’s name. The day is typed using two digits; the name of the month is typed in full;
and the year is typed using all 4 digits. For example, “01 June 2020”.
Introduction to APA Style 6

Abstract

(See p. 2 of the Sample Paper)

The “Abstract” is a summary of the entire paper; do not include material that is not presented
in the paper. The “Abstract” is comprised of the following:
• the purpose of the research
• the variables being investigated
• a description of the participants
• a description of the method including materials, data gathering procedures, names of
tests, etc.
• a description of your findings; do NOT include numerical results
• a conclusion, implication, or application of the research findings
The “Abstract” is written in past tense. Report numerical values (e.g., number of participants)
as digits unless the numerical value begins a sentence, in which case, report the numerical
value as a word. The “Abstract” is no more than 250 words.
Typing
The abstract appears on the second page of the paper. The word "Abstract" is centred, bolded,
and typed-in upper and lower case. Do NOT indent the first line of the abstract.

Introduction

(See pp. 3-5 of the Sample Paper)

This section introduces the topic being studied, reviews previous research, and clearly states
the hypothesis for the study.

Academic journal articles are used to review previous research; this is referred to as a
literature review. The literature review is NOT a passive summary of each academic journal
article, but an active, critical discussion of past research. The active discussion involves
integrating and synthesising the main research trends as well as noting limitations of past
research. Because you are borrowing ideas from previous research, this section will be filled
with citations (see pp. 16-18 for examples of APA style citations). In addition, APA style rarely
uses direct quotes; paraphrasing (putting it into your own words), with proper citations, is
preferred. The literature review should serve as a rationale for the present study, and the
hypothesis becomes a logical extension of the literature review. Past tense is used for the
literature review.

Following the literature review, the variables used in the present study are defined and the
rationale for the hypothesis is developed. The hypothesis is then stated and predictions are
made. At the end of the introduction, the reader should have a clear idea of what was expected
to happen in the study and the reasons for the predictions. It is important to emphasise that
the “Introduction” section moves from the general (i.e., the general topic, why it is important,
theory, previous research findings) to the specific (i.e., the present study).
Typing
The “Introduction” section begins on the third page of the paper. The title of the paper is
centred, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case instead of the word "Introduction". The
“Introduction” is approximately two to three pages in length. Each new paragraph should be
indented 5-7 spaces (1.27cm or ½”) .
Introduction to APA Style 7

Method

(See pp. 5-6 of the Sample Paper)

The “Method” section describes how the study was conducted, and provides enough
information to facilitate replication. The “Method” section is usually divided into, at minimum,
two subsections: (1) “Participants”, and (2) “Procedure”.
Typing
The word "Method" is centred, bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, and immediately follows
the last sentence of the “Introduction” section.

Participants
The “Participants” subsection describes the individuals who participated in the study. Include
information about the number of participants, their sex, gender identity, and average age.
Describe how and from where participants were selected, and whether there were any
incentives to participate (for example, course credit). Provide any other defining characteristics,
but do not list details of individual participants. A clear description of the participants enables
the reader to understand for whom the results may be generalised.
Typing
The word "Participants" is left justified, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case. This
subsection is written in past tense. The first line of this subsection is indented 5-7 spaces
(1.27cm or ½”). When reporting the number of participants, present the number as digits if
the numerical value is greater than or equal to 10. If the number of participants is less than
10, type the numerical value as a word.

Procedure
The “Procedure” subsection provides a description of: the equipment and/or tests that were
used; the research design; and a summary of the steps followed during data collection. Provide
enough information to enable replication.

When describing standard materials (e.g., a stop-watch) a detailed description is not required.
If a test was used, cite the test name and author(s) in APA style and include the source of the
test in the “References” list. If the test (or data recording form) has instructions typed on the
test form, describe the instructions; do not provide verbatim instructions. If the test uses a
rating scale, include a description of the rating scale and how total scores are produced. When
describing a test that uses a rating scale, type the rating scale as digits and the anchors for the
scale should be italicised and in parentheses. For example, the participants rated their
responses from 1 (most important) to 5 (least important).

The description of the procedure should be in chronological order. Provide enough detail to
enable the reader to understand how the data was collected. This description should include:
how participants were separated into groups or conditions; where the testing took place; any
verbal instructions given to each group or condition; the order of presentation of testing
material; a description of the testing materials; any experimental manipulations; how the
dependent variable(s) were measured; and any variables that were held constant.
Typing
The word "Procedure" is left justified, bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, and immediately
follows the last sentence of the “Participants” subsection. This subsection is written in past
tense. The first line of this subsection and subsequent paragraphs are indented 5-7 spaces
(1.27cm or ½”).
Introduction to APA Style 8

Results

(See pp. 7-8 of the Sample Paper)

The main purpose of the “Results” section is to convey the numerical data obtained. Begin
with a reiteration of the hypothesis. Describe the statistic(s) that will be used to evaluate the
results. Include all relevant data even those that may contradict the hypothesis. If data
exclusion occurred (e.g., incomplete responses) indicate the number that was excluded along
with the rationale for exclusion; and state whether there were any demographic differences
between excluded and included responses. Follow this with a written description of the results
for each group or condition. Once all results have been reported, clearly state whether the
results support the hypothesis; do not draw any conclusions.

Report the mean (M), standard deviation (SD) for each group or condition and, when
appropriate, the correlation coefficient (r); do NOT include the participants' individual scores.
Raw data, if requested by your instructor, is included in the “Appendix” section (see the
“Appendix” sub-section of this document for appropriate APA style). Numerical results (M, SD,
r,) are reported as digits. Report all results in sentence format. If a figure or table (see below
for a description of an APA style figure or table) is included in this section, refer to the figure or
table and state its relevance in the text of this section. The values you choose to report in this
section should justify any conclusions you draw in the “Discussion” section.
NOTE: this section is written as a coherent paragraph(s).
Typing
The word "Results" is centred, bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, and appears immediately
after the last sentence of the “Procedure” subsection. This section is written in past tense and
should be approximately one-half to one page long including a table or figure. The first line of
this section and subsequent paragraphs are indented 5-7 spaces (1.27cm or ½”).

Tables (see p. 8 of the Sample Paper)

Your instructor may require a table as part of the “Results” section. Tables are usually
included if the results contain several sets of numbers that would be difficult to understand in
sentence format. For example, if the results consisted of several means (M) and standard
deviations (SD), reporting these values as a list of digits would detract from the readability and
comprehension of the overall results. A table, therefore, serves as an organised presentation of
the results. Values that are to be compared should be next to each other. For example, means
(M) should be in one column, standard deviation (SD) should be in an adjacent column.
Provide a brief summary of the table in the text of the “Results” section; highlighting the
relevant comparisons.
Typing
Number each table with an Arabic numeral. The word "Table" and its corresponding number is
left justified, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case. The title for the table appears below
the table number and is left justified, italicised, typed-in upper and lower case with the first
letter of each main word in upper case. The heading for each column should be clear and
concise; in addition, the heading should not be wider than the longest column entry. A
horizontal line divides: the title from the headings; the headings from the numerical values;
and the last row of the table from the rest of the text. Do not use vertical lines to separate
each column. Line spacing may deviate from the required double-spacing for the rest of the
paper. The table may be single-spaced, one-and-a-half spaced, or double-spaced. Choose
spacing that optimises the readability of the data. Do not vary the line spacing within a table:
keep the line spacing consistent within a table.

Figures (see p. 7 of the Sample Paper)

“Figures” are graphs, charts, maps, drawings, photographs, or diagrams. Your instructor may
require a graph (referred to as a “figure”) of your results. The graph should provide a visual
representation of the over-all results. Provide a brief description of the graph in the text of the
“Results” section. Unless otherwise specified, the graph should be computer generated.
Typing
Number each figure with an Arabic numeral. The word "Figure" and its corresponding number
is left justified, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case. The title for the figure appears
below the figure number and is left justified, italicised, and typed-in upper and lower case with
the first letter of each main word in upper case. Label each axis indicating the quantity being
measured and the units used. Use abbreviations — “no.” instead of “number” — or symbols —
Introduction to APA Style 9

“%” instead of “percentage” — in the axis label. Each label is parallel to its axis; for example,
the label for the ordinate/vertical axis should be printed vertically whereas the label for the
abscissa/horizontal axis is printed horizontally. Provide the unit of measure in brackets after
the label. Always include a zero point. Use a sans serif font, for example, Arial, Calibri, or
Lucida Sans Unicode for the labels and numbers of the ordinate and abscissa. The font size
should be no larger than 14 pt and no smaller than 8 pt; the point size should not vary more
than 4 pt. For example, if 8 pt is used for the ordinate then the font size cannot be greater
than 12 pt for the abscissa. Axis labels are bolded. When choosing a grid scale, take into
consideration the range of both axes. The graph should be two dimensional NOT three
dimensional. Unless printing from a colour printer, limit the colours for the bars to black and
white: visually discriminating between different levels of shading can be difficult. If your graph
includes a legend, then the legend should be centred, above the graph, with a box around it.

Discussion

(See pp. 8-10 of the Sample Paper)

In the “Discussion” section, the results are examined, interpreted, and evaluated. Inferences
may be drawn. The “Discussion” moves from the specific (e.g., your results described in words)
to the general (e.g., why the results are theoretically important and how they relate to other
findings in psychology).

The “Discussion” section usually opens by clearly stating whether the hypothesis was
supported by the results. The results of the study are then evaluated against previous
research.

Discuss the similarities and differences between your results and past research results; limit
your comments to those journal articles used in your literature review (include citations).
Follow-up with a discussion of the limitations and strengths of your study, and generalisability
of results. Methodological problems should be discussed with the expectation of suggestions to
improve the study.

End the “Discussion” with a comment about the implications of the study: how does the study
contribute to your understanding of the phenomenon being investigated; are there real-world
applications; are there unanswered questions; if “yes”, then provide suggestions for future
research; and finally, provide an overall general conclusion.

Do NOT introduce new journal articles in this section. Do NOT repeat points already made or
refer back to the introduction section; each new comment should help bolster your
conclusions. If the results do not support the hypothesis, provide a plausible explanation; this
should NOT be a list of excuses.
Typing
The word "Discussion" is centred, bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, and immediately
follows the “Results” section. This section is written in present tense. The “Discussion” is
approximately 2-3 pages in length. The first line of this section and subsequent paragraphs are
indented 5-7 spaces (1.27cm or ½”).

References

(See p. 11 of the Sample Paper)

The “References” section is a list of cited works in an APA paper. It appears as a separate page
at the end of the paper. Entries are listed in alphabetical order by the first author’s surname,
or title if there is no author. Do not list articles that were not cited in your report, but include
all articles that were cited. For more information on how to complete a references list, please
refer to pp. 18-25 of this document.
Introduction to APA Style 10

Appendix
(See pp. 12-13 of the Sample Paper)
This section is optional; check with your instructor.

The “Appendix” contains information that is essential for the reader, but would be distracting
in the body of the paper. For example, a long and detailed description of a complex piece of
equipment may be necessary for the replication of a study but detracts from the readability of
the “Method” section. This description would then be placed in an appendix and referred to in
the body of the paper. As mentioned in the “Results” section, your instructor may want you to
include the participants' scores. The participants' scores would be included in the “Appendix”.
To draw the reader's attention to the participants' scores refer to them in the “Results” section
of the paper. Signed consent forms, if required by your instructor, should also be included as
part of the “Appendix”.
Typing
The “Appendix” follows the “References” list on a new page. The word "Appendix" is centred,
bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, with an identifying letter typed-in upper case. Double-
spaced beneath the “Appendix” label is the “Appendix” title. The “Appendix” title is also
centred, bolded, and typed-in upper and lower case. The title should succinctly describe the
content of the appendix. If there is more than one appendix, then type each appendix on a
separate page with the corresponding appendix letter and title. The order of appearance is
based on the order in which the items are mentioned in the paper; for example, “Appendix A”
materials would have been mentioned prior to “Appendix B” materials, etc. If there is only one
appendix, then an identifying letter is not necessary.
Introduction to APA Style 11

Citations and References

Empirical research is based on previous research. When formulating an hypothesis for a new
study, the researcher pursues a line of inquiry that is an extension of previous published work.
To acknowledge the influence of previous published work, authors routinely cite sources in
their “Introduction” and “Discussion” sections of their empirical report. In the case of narrative
literature reviews, cited sources would be used throughout the paper: a literature review
without extensive citations would be inadequate because the purpose of a literature review is to
provide narrative summary of an area of research.

APA follows particular conventions when citing published work:

• the citations are in text rather than as footnotes;
• work cited is primarily paraphrased rather than quoted;
• primary sources are preferred over secondary sources; and
• all cited work must be included with a full reference in the “References” section.

A “full reference” means providing enough information so that the reader is able to retrieve the
original source. To facilitate this, APA follows particular conventions for references; broadly,
these elements are provided for all references:
• the author(s);
• the date of publication;
• the title of the work;
• title of source (journal, book, newspaper, magazine, etc.); and
• DOIs or URLs when applicable.

APA has specific conventions based on the source of the information; several examples will
follow.

Appropriately citing sources and including them in your “References” section is a professional
courtesy: it is respectfully acknowledging those who have contributed ideas for your research
and, consequently, your paper. Failure to acknowledge your sources or to cite your sources
properly is considered academic dishonesty and in particular plagiarism. Before we continue
with the discussion of APA style citations and references, it is important that you are familiar
with what the college considers academic integrity and the consequences if one engages in
academic dishonesty.

Below are selected excerpts from the Douglas College “Academic Integrity Policy”. To view the
entire document go to: [Link]
and-deadlines/Academic%20Integrity%20Policy%20w%[Link]

Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity: the fundamental ethics of scholarship and knowledge creation and
transmission, including the principles of honesty, respect for truth and knowledge, fairness
and responsibility.

Academic Dishonesty: any act that breaches one or more of the principles of academic
integrity identified in the definition, above, or the policy statement, below. Acts of academic
dishonesty may include but are not limited to the following types:

• Misuse or misrepresentation of sources: presenting source material in such a way as to

distort its original purpose or implication(s); misattributing words, ideas, etc. to someone
other than the original source; massaging or manipulating research findings or data;
suppressing aspects of findings or data in order to present conclusions in a light other than
the research, taken as a whole, would support.

• Plagiarism: presenting or submitting as one’s own work the work, research, words, ideas,
artistic imagery, arguments, calculations, illustrations or diagrams of another person or
persons without explicit or accurate citation or credit; this includes submission of
purchased material as well as material in which the student has permitted someone else (a
Introduction to APA Style 12

fellow student, tutor, mentor or teaching assistant, friend, etc.) to contribute

unacknowledged.
• Self-plagiarism: submitting one’s own work for credit in more than one course without the
permission of the instructors, or re-submitting work, in whole or in part, for which credit
has already been granted.

PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS OF THE ACADEMIC INTEGRITY POLICY

It is recognized that acts of academic dishonesty or misconduct will vary in degree of
seriousness. This policy allows for a range of penalties and encourages Responsible
Administrators to consider the context and severity of each confirmed policy breach, as well as
any recommendation made by the faculty member bringing the instance forward. It is
understood that penalties with the most serious of consequences, such as expulsion or the
recording of a grade of “FD” (fail, academic dishonesty) or “NMD” (non-mastery, academic
dishonesty) on a transcript, will be reserved for egregious breaches of academic integrity and/
or for repeat violations of a significant nature.

First and Second Offense

Typical penalties for first and second offenses may include (but are not limited to) one or more
of the following:
• completion of a replacement assignment / test (the same or a substitute)
• a reduction in the grade earned for the assignment / test (e.g., a 50% reduction)
• a grade of zero on the assignment / test, which may or may not lead to failure in the course
• failure of the course and a notation on the transcript of “FD”
• non-mastery of the course and notation on the transcript of “NMD”
• suspension of the student, effective immediately and for a minimum of one additional
semester
• a recommendation to the President to expel the student from Douglas College

Third Offense
For a third offense, the Responsible Administrator will recommend to the President that the
student be expelled from Douglas College.

Note: Where a student is expelled from Douglas College for reasons of academic dishonesty, a
notation such as “Expelled for reason of academic dishonesty, effective (date or date range)”
will be placed on the student’s permanent file and transcript.

Paraphrasing
APA style writing rarely includes direct quotes; paraphrasing is more common. Paraphrasing
requires the internalisation of ideas, concepts, and theories; and then, in your own words,
summarising and integrating them to provide a unique perspective of past research. Replacing
a few words, rearranging the words, and/or splicing sentences together from a source is NOT
paraphrasing – this would be considered plagiarism because you are using the source’s words,
but claiming them as your own. Although the ideas, concepts and/or theories are now in your
own words, you still need to acknowledge the source hence the use of citations: see pages
16-18 for examples of APA citations.

Quotations
It is better to paraphrase than to quote. Any material of three or more words taken from
another source is a quote. When quoting, ensure that the words, punctuation, and grammar is
an exact replica of the original source. In addition to the author(s) surname(s) and year of
publication, the page number for the quotation MUST be included. When quoting from a
source that does not provide page numbers use paragraph numbers (type “para.” and the
number) or, if the paper is divided into sections, provide the section and the paragraph number
(type “para.” and the number) within that section.
Introduction to APA Style 13

If the quotation is short (≤ 40 words) insert the quotation as part of the sentence. Remember to
enclose the quote within quotation marks.

Example of a short (≤ 40 words) quotation with page number:

Kahneman (2011) states “ . . . that when people believe a conclusion is true, they are also very likely to believe

arguments that appear to support it, even when these arguments are unsound” (p. 45).

OR

“. . . when people believe a conclusion is true, they are also very likely to believe arguments that appear to

support it, even when these arguments are unsound” (Kahneman, 2011, p. 45).

Citations in “References” list:

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Doubleday Canada.

If the quote is greater than 40 words type the quote as a separate block. The block quote is
double spaced, indented 5-7 spaces, (1.27cm or ½"), and is NOT surrounded by quotation
marks.

Example of a long (> 40 words) quotation with page number:

Kahneman (2011) states that:

Sunstein came to believe that biased reactions to risks are an important source of erratic and

misplaced priorities in public policy. Lawmakers and regulators may be overly responsive to the

irrational concerns of citizens, both because of political sensitivity and because they are prone to the

same cognitive biases as other citizens (p. 142).

OR
Sunstein came to believe that biased reactions to risks are an important source of erratic and

misplaced priorities in public policy. Lawmakers and regulators may be overly responsive to the

irrational concerns of citizens, both because of political sensitivity and because they are prone to the

same cognitive biases as other citizens (Kahneman, 2011, p. 142).

Citations in “References” list:

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Doubleday Canada.


Introduction to APA Style 14

If the source document does not provide page numbers — common with e-textbooks — include
the section or heading name and paragraph number from which the quote was taken.

Example of a short (≤ 40 words) quotation without a page number:

In describing how sensory thresholds are established, Schacter et al. (2017) state that “[p]sychophysicists

begin the measurement process with a single sensory signal to determine precisely how much physical

energy is required for an observer to become aware of the sensation” (Measuring Thresholds section, para. 1).

OR

To establish a sensory threshold “[p]sychophysicists begin the measurement process with a single sensory

signal to determine precisely how much physical energy is required for an observer to become aware of the

sensation” (Schacter et al., 2017, Measuring Thresholds section, para. 1).

Citations in “References” list

Schacter, D., Gilbert, D., Nock, M., Johnsrude, I., & Wegner, D. (2017). Psychology (Canadian 4th ed.). Worth
Publishers MacMillan Learning.

Example of a long (> 40 words) quotation without a page number:

Jensen Arnett and Arnett Jensen (2019) deZines heritability as:

. . . an estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for differences among persons within a

speciZic population. The value of the heritability estimate ranges from 0 to 1.00. If the heritability

estimate is 0.70, for example, this means that genetic and environmental factors are estimated to

contribute 70% and 30 % to a trait, respectively. (Principles of Behavior Genetics section, para. 2)

OR

Heritability is:

. . . an estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for differences among persons within a

speciZic population. The value of the heritability estimate ranges from 0 to 1.00. If the heritability

estimate is 0.70, for example, this means that genetic and environmental factors are estimated to

contribute 70% and 30 % to a trait, respectively. (Jensen Arnett & Arnett Jensen, 2019, Principles of

Behavior Genetics section, para. 2)

Citations in “References” List:

Jensen Arnett, J., & Arnett Jensen, L. (2019). Human Development: A cultural approach (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Introduction to APA Style 15

Primary versus Secondary Source

A primary source refers to information, ideas, or research findings obtained from reading the
original research article whereas secondary sources refers to information, ideas, or research
findings that were obtained from a source other than the original research article; a secondary
source is analogous to second-hand information. Primary sources are preferred over
secondary sources because you are obtaining first-hand information from the original
author(s). If you should come across information that you find intriguing and would like to
include in your paper: look-up the cited work in the paper’s “References” list; obtain the
original research article; read it; paraphrase the idea(s) from the original source; and cite the
original author(s) in your paper.

If your instructor allows you to cite material from your textbook without having to obtain the
original source of the information, then: cite the author(s) of the original idea along with the
year of publication; followed by the phrase “as cited in”; and then the secondary source and
year of publication. See examples below.

Example of a secondary source citation:

Parenthetical citation: Observational learning not only occurs with humans, but also occurs across
species. For example, pigeons given the opportunity to watch other pigeons
pecking a feeder or pressing a lever for food mimicked the behaviour when
placed in the same apparatus (Zental et al., 1996, as cited in Schacter et al.,
2017).

Narrative citation: Observational learning not only occurs with humans, but it also occurs across
species. For example, Zental et al. (1996, as cited in Schacter et al., 2017)
found that pigeons who had observed other pigeons pecking a feeder or
pressing a lever to obtain food tended to emit the observed behaviour when
placed in the same apparatus.

NOTE: Only include the secondary source in your “References” list.

Citation in “References” list:

Schacter, D., Gilbert, D., Nock, M., Johnsrude, I., & Wegner, D. (2017). Psychology (Canadian 4th ed.). Worth
Publishers MacMillan Learning.
Introduction to APA Style 16

Reference Citations in Text

The surname(s) of the author(s) and the date of publication are inserted directly into the text at
the point were the author's work is mentioned. The complete citation is included in the
“References” list at the end of the paper. Put parentheses around the author, the date, or both
if they do not form a normal part of the sentence.

To ensure your sentence is grammatically correct, the sentence should be complete without the
information contained within the parentheses.

1. One Author

Insert the author's last name and the date of publication into the text.

Example: In 2006, Brown investigated shame resilience theory . . .

or Brown’s (2006) investigation of shame resilience theory . . .

or Shame resilience theory (Brown, 2006) . . .

Citations in “References” list

Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory: A grounded theory study on women and shame. Families in
Society, 87(1), 43-52. [Link]

2. Two Authors

When there are two authors always cite both surnames.

Parenthetical citation: In an earlier study (Tooby & Cosmides, 2006) . . .

Narrative citation: An earlier study by Tooby and Cosmides (2006)

Citations in “References” list

Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2006). The evolved architecture of hazard management: Risk detection reasoning
and the motivational computation of threat magnitudes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29(6),
631-633. [Link]

3. More than Two Authors

When there are more than two authors, cite the first author’s surname followed with “et
al.” (which is Latin for "and others").

NOTE: that "et" is not followed by a period, but "al" is.

Parenthetical citation: The results were supported by a later discovery (Talhelm et al., 2015) that
showed . . .

Narrative citation: Talhelm et al. (2015) discovered . . .

Citations in “References” list:

Talhelm, T., Haidt, J., Oishi, S., Zhang, X., Miao, F. F., & Chen, S. (2015). Liberals think more analytically (more
‘WEIRD’) than conservatives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(2), 250-267. https://
[Link]/10.1177/0146167214563672
Introduction to APA Style 17

4. Same first author and year of publication

Include as many subsequent author’s surnames as necessary to clearly identify the source
followed by a comma, then “et al.” and the year of publication. In this case alphabetise, the
citations based on the second author’s surname.

Parenthetical citation: (Garcia, de Freitas, et al., 2013; Garcia, Hirotsu, et al., 2013)

Narrative citation: Garcia, de Freitas, et al. (2013) and Garcia, Hirotsu, et al. (2013)

Citations in “References” list:

Garcia, V. A., de Freitas, B. S., Busato, S. B., Portal, B. C. D., Piazza, F. C., & Schröder, N. (2013). Differential effects
of modaZinil on memory of naïve and memory-impaired rats. Neuropharmacology, 75, 304-311.
[Link]

Garcia, V. A., Hirotsu, C., Matos, G., Alvarenga, T., Pires, G. N., Kapczinski, F., Schröder, N., TuZik, S., & Andersen,
M. L. (2013). ModaZinal ameliorates cognitive deZicits induced by maternal separation and sleep
deprivation. Behavioural Brain Research, 253, 274-279. [Link]

Exception: if the final author’s surname is the only one that differs between the two sources,
then cite all author’s surnames: “et al.” means “and others” (plural) which doesn’t make
grammatical sense when there is only one additional author (singular).

Parenthetical citation: (Bodenhausen, Kramer, & Süsser, 1994; Bodenhausen, Sheppard, & Kramer,
1994)

Narrative citation: Bodenhausen, Kramer and Süsser (1994) and Bodenhausen, Sheppard, and
Kramer (1994)

Citations in “References” list:

Bodenhausen, G. V., Kramer, G. P., & Süsser, K. (1994). Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 621-632. [Link]
10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.621

Bodenhausen, G. V., Sheppard, L. A., & Kramer, G. P. (1994). Negative affect and social judgment: The
differential impact of anger and sadness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 45-62. https://
[Link]/10.1002/ejsp.2420240104
Introduction to APA Style 18

5. Same surname, different first name, same publication year

In this case, the second initial was used to alphabetise the entries because the first author of
each article share both the same surname and first initial.

Parenthetical citation: (L. D. Smith, Peck, & McGovern, 2002; L. F. Smith & Smith, 2002)

Narrative citation: L. D. Smith, Peck, and McGovern (2002) and L. F. Smith and Smith (2002)

Citations in “References” list:

Smith, L. D., Peck, P. L., & McGovern, R. J. (2002). Comparison of medical students, medical school faculty,
primary care physicians, and the general population on the attitudes toward psychological help-
seeking. Psychological Reports, 91(3, Pt2), 1268-1272. [Link]

Smith, L. F., & Smith, J. K. (2002). Relation of test-speciZic motivation and anxiety to test performance.
Psychological Reports, 91(3, Pt1), 1011-1021. [Link]

6. Same author with multiple publications within a year

To disambiguate sources from the same author who has more than one publication within a
calendar year, assign a letter — starting with “a” — to each source. Letter assignment is based
on the date of publication and will be clarified within the “References” list. Use the volume
number, or issue number, if the work is published in the same journal or look at publication
date (month) to determine chronological order.

Parenthetical citation: (Godwin-Jones, R., 2018a; Godwin-Jones, 2018b)

Narrative citation: Godwin-Jones (2018a) and Godwin-Jones (2018b)

Citations in “References” list:

Godwin-Jones, R. (2018a). Second language writing online: An update. Language Learning & Technology,
22(1), 1-15. [Link]

Godwin-Jones, R. (2018b). Chasing the butterZly effect: Informal language learning online as a complex
system. Language Learning & Technology, 22(2), 8-27. [Link]
Introduction to APA Style 19

References List
The purpose of a “References” list is to enable the reader to retrieve the sources for the
document. As a general rule, references are alphabetised according to the first author’s
surname, with additional rules for the following circumstances:
• 2 or more references with the same first author: alphabetise based on the subsequent
author’s surname.
• 2 or more references from the same author(s), but a different publication year: list the
sources in chronological order.
• 2 or more references with identical author(s) and publication year: insert a lowercase
letter – a, b, c, etc., – at the end of the publication year, but before the parentheses to
uniquely identify each source. NOTE: the lettered publication year will be used when citing
the article in the paper.
• 20 authors or less: list all authors’ surnames.
• 21 or more authors: list the first 19 authors’ surnames, followed by an ellipsis (. . .), then
insert the last author’s surname
• Use DOIs or URLs when available. If the cited work does not include a DOI, do the
following:
• go to [Link]
• select “Research Guides” →“Cite Your Sources” → “DOI Form”.
• Enter the full reference for the item in the “Enter text in the box below:”
• Select “Submit” → a DOI, if available, will appear.

Typing
The word "References" is centred, bolded, typed-in upper and lower case, and appears on a
separate page. Each new entry is flush left, with the subsequent line of the entry indented 5-7
spaces (1.27cm or ½”), referred to as a hanging indent. The titles of books, journals and
volume numbers are italicised. NOTE: the comma after the journal title is not italicised.

Below and on the subsequent pages are examples of how to reference various sources.

Periodicals

Periodicals are journals, magazines and newspapers. The basic elements are: 

• author(s) • source
• date of publication • DOI or URL 

• title of the work

NOTE: format DOIs or URLs as “active” hyperlinks when submitting an e-copy of your paper,
but format the hyperlinks as “inactive” when submitting a hard copy of your paper. Because
this is an e-copy of the student manual, all DOIs and URLs are formatted as “active”.


1. Journal

Krebs, D. L., & Denton, K. (2006). Explanatory limitations of cognitive-developmental approaches to morality.

Psychological Review, 113(3), 672-675. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Krebs & Denton, 2006)

Narrative citation: Krebs and Denton (2006)

Introduction to APA Style 20

2. Journal without volume number, issue number, or page numbers.

Ionita, G., & Fitzpatrick, M. (2020). Barriers and facilitators to the use of progress-monitoring measures in

psychotherapy. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Ionita & Fitzpatrick, 2020)

Narrative citation: Ionita and Fitzpatrick (2020)

3. Journal with 20 authors or less

Include all authors’ surnames when there are 20 or fewer authors. Use an ampersand (&)
between the second-to-last and last author’s surname.

Beyers-Heinlein, K., Bergman, C., Davies, C., Frank, M. C., Hamlin, J. K., Kline, M., Kominsky, J. F., Kosie, J. E.,

Lew-Williams, C., Liu, L., Mastroberardino, M., Singh, L., Waddell, C. P. G., Zettersten, M., & Soderstrom,

M. (2020). Building a collaborative psychological science: Lessons learned from ManyBabies 1.

Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Beyers-Heinlein et al., 2020)

Narrative citation: Beyers-Heinlein et al. (2020)

4. Journal with 21 or more authors

Include the first 19 authors’ surnames followed by an ellipsis (. . .) but no ampersand (&) and
then the final author’s surname.

Nichols, H. B., Schoemaker, M. J., Cai, J., Xu, J., Wright, L. B., Brook, M. N., Jones, M. E., Adami, H.-O., Baglietto, L.,

Bertrand, K. A., Blott, W. J., Boutron-Ruault, M.-C., Dorronsoro, M., Dossus, L., Eliassen, A. H., Giles, G.

G., Gram, I. T., Hankinsen, S. E., Hoffman-Bolton, J., . . . Sandler, D. P. (2019). Breast cancer risk after

recent childbirth: A pooled analysis of 15 prospective studies. Annals of Internal Medicine, 170(1),

22-30. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Nichols et al., 2019)

Narrative citation: Nichols et al. (2019)

Introduction to APA Style 21

5. Article from the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Abraha, I., Rimland, J. M., Lozano-Montoya, I., Dell’Aquilla, G., Véllez-Díaz-Pallarés, M., Trotta, F. M., Cruz-Jentoft,

A. J., & Cherubini, A. (2020). Simulated presence therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database of

Systematic Reviews. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Abraha et al., 2020)

Narrative citation: Abraha et al. (2020)

6. Magazine article

Hamblin, J. (2020, May 22). Is everyone depressed? The Atlantic. [Link]

archive/2020/05/depression-coronavirus/611986/

Parenthetical citation: (Hamblin, 2020)

Narrative citation: Hamblin (2020)

Newspaper
7. Newspaper article

Giaimo, C. (2020, June 26). How bees avoid bumping into nature’s obstacle course. The New York Times.

[Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Giaimo, 2020)

Narrative citation: Giaimo (2020)

Books

A reference for a book requires the following elements:


• author, group author, or editor(s) • Publisher information
• Date • DOI or URL when available

• Title
NOTE: Place of publication is not required.

8. Authored book without DOI

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Doubleday Canada.

Parenthetical citation: (Kahneman, 2011)

Narrative citation: Kahneman (2011)

Introduction to APA Style 22

9. Authored book with DOI

Sternberg, R. (2020). Perspectives on hate: How it originates, develops, manifests, and spreads. American

Psychological Association. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Sternberg, 2020)

Narrative citation: Sternberg (2020)

10. Edited book with DOI

Aber, J. L., Bishop-Josef, S. J., Jones, S. M., Taaffe McLearn, K., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2007). Child development

and social policy: Knowledge for action. American Psychological Association. [Link]

10.1037/11486-000

Parenthetical citation: (Aber et al., 2007)

Narrative citation: Aber et al. (2007)

11. Chapter from an edited book with a DOI.

Krebs, D. L., & Janicki, M. G. (2004). The biological foundations of moral norms. In C. Crandall & M. Schaller

(Eds.) The Psychological Foundations of Culture (pp. 125-148). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://

[Link]/10.4324/9781410608994

Parenthetical citation: (Krebs & Janicki, 2004)

Narrative citation: Krebs and Janicki (2004)

12. Book with government agency or corporate author

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed).
[Link]

NOTE: Because the author and publisher are the same, the publisher’s name is omitted.

Include manual name, edition, and abbreviation when first cited.

Parenthetical citation: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5;
American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Narrative citation: American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (5th ed., DSM-5).
Subsequent citations:

Parenthetical citation: (American Psychiatric Association, 2013)

Narrative citation: American Psychiatric Association (2013)

Introduction to APA Style 23

Dictionary or Encyclopaedia
13. Dictionary

VandenBos, G. R. (Ed.). (2015). APA dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.

[Link]

Parenthetical citation: (VandenBos, 2015)

Narrative citation: VandenBos (2015)

14. Encyclopaedia

Kazdin, A. E. (Ed.). (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology. American Psychological Association. [Link]

10.1037/10517-000

Parenthetical citation: (Kazdin, 2000)

Narrative citation: Kazdin (2000)

Tests, Scales, and Inventories

A reference for tests, scales, and inventories requires the following elements:

• author(s) • Publisher information; or
• Date • Test Database name; or
• Title of the test or Title of the test bank • DOI or URL when available

record [Database record]

15. Database record for a test

Fajkowska, M., Domaradzka, E., & Wytykowska, A. (2018). Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire — Anhedonic

Depression (ADQ-AD) [Database Record]. PsycTESTS. [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Fajkowska et al., 2018)

Narrative citation: Fajkowska et al. (2018)

16. Manual for a test, scale, or inventory

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2010). NEO Inventories for the NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3), NEO

Five Factor Inventory-3 (NEO-FFI-3), NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R): Professional

Manual. PAR.

Parenthetical citation: (McCrae & Costa, 2010)

Narrative citation: McCrae and Costa (2010)

Introduction to APA Style 24

Audiovisual Media
This includes films, TV series, podcasts, streaming videos, and TED Talks. Referencing of
audiovisual media follows the same convention as references for periodicals and books except
substitute either the writer, director or host in place of “author”.

17. Streaming video

Beck, A. T. (Host). (2012). Aaron Beck on cognitive therapy [Video]. [Link]. http://
[Link]/stream/douglascollege

Parenthetical citation: (Beck, 2012)

Narrative citation: Beck (2012)

18. Film or Video

Howard, R. (Director), & Grazer, B. (Producer) (2001). A beautiful mind [Film]. Imagine Entertainment.

Parenthetical citation: (Howard & Grazer, 2001)

Narrative citation: Howard and Grazer (2001)

19. Podcast

Santos, L. (Host). (2019—present). The happiness lab [Audio podcast]. Pushkin Industries.

Parenthetical citation: (Santos, 2019—present)

Narrative citation: Santos (2019—present)

20. Episode from a Podcast

Bragg, M. (Host). (2018, 21 June). Echolocation [Audio podcast episode]. In In our time. BBC Radio 4.

Parenthetical citation: (Bragg, 2018)

Narrative citation: Bragg (2018)

This is an example of an episode from a podcast. Follow the format for a chapter in a book
except list the host of the podcast as the author; the date in which the podcast was aired; the
title of the episode and episode number if available — indicate whether it is audio or video in
square brackets —; the the title of the podcast; the publisher; and the URL. If the URL is
unknown, because the podcast is available via an app, then omit the URL.

NOTE: The URLs were omitted from the above examples because the podcasts were accessed
via an app.

21. TV Series

Anderson, G., Cubitt, A., Irwin, P., Thomson-Glover, J., & Wright, S. (Executive Producers). (2013–2015). The
Fall [TV series]. Fables Limited, Artist Studio, BBC Northern Ireland, & RTÉ; BBC Two.

Parenthetical citation: (Anderson et al., 2013-2015)

Narrative citation: Anderson et al. (2013–2015)

Introduction to APA Style 25

22. Episode from a television series

Rosenberg, M. (Writer), & Lieberman, R. (Director) (2006, October 29). Love American style (Season 1,
Episode 5) [TV series episode]. In J. Manons, Jr., J. Goldwyn, S. Colleton, & C. Phillps (Executive
Producers), Dexter. John Goldwyn Productions; Showtime.

Parenthetical citation: (Rosenberg & Lieberman, 2006)

Narrative citation: Rosenberg and Lieberman (2006)

Follow the format for a chapter in a book, except insert the writer(s) and director(s) name in
place of the author(s) of the chapter; and insert the name of the producer(s) in place of the
editor.

23. TED Talk

Loftus, E. (2013, June). How reliable is your memory? [Video]. TEDGlobal 2013. [Link]
elizabeth_loftus_how_reliable_is_your_memory

Parenthetical citation: (Loftus, 2013)

Narrative citation: Loftus (2013)

Social Media
Cite only original content that has been posted on social media (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter).
If the posted material includes a content link and the material cited is from the link, then cite
the content link as the source fo the material.

24. Facebook page

Canadian Psychological Association|Société canadienne de psychologie (n.d.). Home [Facebook page].

Facebook. Retrieved July 03, 2020, from [Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Canadian Psychological Association|Société canadienne de psychologie, n.d.)

Narrative citation: Canadian Psychological Association|Société canadienne de psychologie (n.d.)

25. Facebook post

Enter the first 20 words of the post in the “title” element.

National Institute for Mental Health. (2020, July 02). Mental disorders are like medical conditions such as heart
disease or diabetes. The earlier the treatment begins, the more effective [Post]. Facebook. https://
[Link]/pg/nimhgov/posts/?ref=page_internal

Parenthetical citation: (National Institute for Mental Health, 2020)

Narrative citation: National Institute for Mental Health (2020)

Introduction to APA Style 26

26. Twitter profile

Health Canada and PHAC [@GovCanHealth]. (n.d.). Tweets [Twitter proZile]. Retrieved July 03, 2020, from
[Link]

Parenthetical citation: (Health Canada and PHAC, n.d.)

Narrative citation: Health Canada and PHAC (n.d.)

27. Tweet

Enter the first 20 words of the tweet in the “title” element.

CMHA National [@CMHA_NTL]. (2020, July 02). Social connection can lower #anxiety and #depression, help us
regulate our emotions, lead to higher self-esteem and #empathy, and actually [Tweet]. Twitter. https://
[Link]/CMHA_NTL

Parenthetical citation: (CMHA National, 2020)

Narrative citation: CMHA National (2020)

Curriculum and Course Material

28. Presentation Slides

Janicki, M. G. (2020, February 24). Social InZluence, Part I: Psychology 3330 Winter 2020 [PowerPoint slides].

Douglas College Blackboard Community. [Link]

execute/tabs/tabAction?tab_tab_group_id=_381_1

Parenthetical citation: (Janicki, 2020)

Narrative citation: Janicki (2020)

NOTE: If the slides are from a class’ website, Learning Management System’s (e.g.,
Blackboard), or intranet, and the reader has access to this material, provide the name of the
site and it’s URL; in the case of an LMS use the URL for the login page.

Introduction to APA Style 27

References

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association (7th ed.).

 !1

See p. 5 of An Introduction to APA style

The Effectiveness of Excuse-Validation in Reducing Negative Affect

Kathy Denton 300123456 Student number

Course number Psychology Department, Douglas College

er
Psyc XXXX(XXX): Full name of the Course

Section number
p Instructor’s Name

dd month yyyy
See p. 5 of An Introduction
to APA Style
Pa
e
pl
m
Sa
 !2
See p. 6 of An Introduction to
APA Style
Abstract

Excuse-making is a common strategy people invoke to feel better following a negative event.

When excuses are advanced in public, their effectiveness may depend on whether they are

validated by others. The present study was conducted to assess the emotional impact on

participants of having their excuses validated by a supportive stranger in a conversation about a

real life negative event, as compared to receiving no support from an attentive audience.

Participants were 31 male and 39 female undergraduate students, who participated for course

er
credit. Participants' affective state was assessed prior to and after talking to a supportive stranger

who either validated or did not validate their excuses. It was hypothesized that participants in the

p
excuse-validation condition would report lower levels of negative affect at the post-conversation
Pa
assessment than participants whose excuses were not validated. The results indicated that excuse-

validation is an effective form of social support and is necessary for publicly made excuses to
e

alleviate negative affect.

pl
m
Sa
 !3

See p. 6 of An
Introduction The Effectiveness of Excuse-Validation in Reducing Negative Affect
to APA style
Social psychology is replete with evidence that people who receive information that

threatens their sense of self, such as a negative evaluation, will distort the information in self-

serving ways (see Miller & Porter, 1988; Snyder & Higgins, 1988; Taylor & Brown, 1988, for

reviews). Snyder et al. (1983) have demonstrated that making excuses (e.g., trivializing negative

feedback, making an external attribution for the cause of an unfavourable outcome) is a common

way in which people attempt to construct a less threatening reality following upsetting

experiences.

er
Investigations of excuses and related processes tend to focus on excuses people make in

private, laboratory contexts after receiving some form of negative feedback (see Snyder &

p
Higgins, 1988, for a review). The results of this research suggest that processes that help people
Pa
evade responsibility for their negative outcomes, such as excuses, are beneficial. Excuses

preserve people's self-concepts and alleviate negative affect associated with unfavourable
e

See pp. 16-18 of An Introduction

outcomes (Snyder & Higgins, 1988; Taylor & Brown, 1988). to APA style.
pl

It is unclear whether excuses provide relief from negative events when they are advanced

outside of the lab, in public contexts. Few researchers have assessed the effectiveness of
m

publicly-made excuses. Three studies (Denton & Zarbatany, 1996; Mehlman & Snyder, 1985;
Sa

Schönbach, 1990), however, suggest the effectiveness of publicly-made excuses may depend on

the audience who receives the excuse and context in which the excuse is invoked.

A study by Schönbach (1990) revealed that audiences in competitive or antagonistic

contexts (e.g., people on an opposing side of a dispute) have a vested interest in challenging

people's excuses, which constrains the excuse-maker's ability to evade responsibility and to

alleviate negative affect. Similarly, a study by Mehlman and Snyder (1985) demonstrated that
 !4

excuses examined by an "all knowing," electronic audience in an experimental context were

constrained by anticipated challenges to their validity, and, therefore, less effective than

privately-made, unexamined excuses in relieving negative affect.

In contrast, in a study of social support strategy effectiveness, Denton and Zarbatany

(1996) observed that when people discussed real life negative experiences with friends during

supportive conversations, their friends not only agreed with their excuses (i.e., provided excuse-

validation) but also made excuses for them. In terms of the effectiveness of excuses and excuse-

validation in reducing negative affect, Denton and Zarbatany (1996) reported that the excuses

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people made for themselves were ineffective in reducing negative affect; but, friends' validation

of these excuses helped alleviate negative affect. Indeed, the validation of excuses by friends was

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found to be a more effective support strategy than any other form of social support or coping
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assessed in this study (i.e., excuse-making, emotional support, advice, discussing a more pleasant

topic). The correlational nature of this study, however, does not permit conclusions to be drawn
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about whether excuse-validation caused reductions in negative affect or was a consequence of

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negative affect reduction.

The present study was a first attempt to test the effectiveness of excuse-validation as a
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social support strategy in a controlled experiment. Participants discussed a real-life negative

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event with a supportive stranger who either validated their excuses or listened attentively without

providing excuse-validation. Prior to and after this discussion, participants completed a

questionnaire to assess their level of negative affect. Based on past correlational research on

excuse-validation (Denton & Zarbatany, 1996) and related research on the effects of implicit

(Mehlman & Snyder, 1985) and explicit (Schönbach, 1990) challenges to people's excuses, it
 !5

was expected that participants whose excuses were validated would benefit more from the

supportive conversation than participants whose excuses were not validated.

See p. 7 of “An Introduction to Method

APA Style”

Participants

Participants were 31 male and 39 female undergraduate students (M age = 25.8) who

attended the University of Western Ontario. Participants were told that the study assessed how

people talk about negative events. Volunteers received course credit for their participation.

Procedure

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Two brief versions of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL; Zuckerman &

Lubin, 1965) were used to assess negative affect (see Appendix). Each checklist contained 42

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words that described various emotional states (e.g., happy, nervous). Participants were instructed
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to read each item and place an “x” beside those items that described how they felt at that

moment. Total negative affect scores were created by adding together the number of negative
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emotional words in each of three subscales (i.e., anxiety, depression, anger) that were marked
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with an “x” and the number of positive emotional words (e.g., relaxed, happy) that were not

marked with an “x,” then dividing by three. The highest possible score on the test was 14, which
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indicated a very high level of negative affect.

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In addition to the MAACL, a short, written questionnaire was created for this study. This

five-item questionnaire assessed participants impressions of the supportive stranger (e.g., “How

supportive was she?”; “How comfortable did you feel talking to her?”). Responses were made on

7-point rating scales and aggregated to produce an impression of supportive stranger score. The

higher the score, the more positively participants viewed the supportive stranger.
 !6

A research assistant contacted potential participants by telephone and provided them with

a brief description of the study. Meeting times were arranged for volunteers, who were tested

individually in a Psychology lab.

When participants arrived at the Psychology lab, the experimenter asked them to (a)

disclose an upsetting incident from their past that still bothered them to think about and (b)

complete a brief version of the MAACL. Next, participants discussed the incident they disclosed

to the experimenter with a "supportive stranger" (who was referred to as a research assistant) for

seven minutes in front of a video camera.

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During the seven-minute conversation, the supportive stranger interacted with

participants according to the social support requirements of the experimental condition to which

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subjects’ were randomly assigned: excuse-validation or attentive listening. In the excuse-
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validation condition, the supportive stranger was instructed to validate every excuse participants

made by nodding or by verbalizing agreement. For example, if a participant minimized the

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seriousness of getting an “F” on a test by saying it was only a quiz, the supportive stranger might
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say, “yeah, quizzes aren’t worth much.” In contrast, in the attentive listening condition, the

supportive stranger would not validate participants’ excuses or invoke any other form of support,
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but merely provide an opportunity for participants to express their feelings and points of view by
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encouraging conversation and asking questions. For example, after learning about a failing

grade, the supportive stranger might ask, “What did you do when you received your grade?”

After seven minutes of conversation with the supportive stranger, the experimenter

entered the room and asked the supportive stranger to leave. Participants then completed the

second version of the MAACL and the set of five questions about the supportive stranger.

Participants were then thanked and debriefed.

 !7

See p.8 of An Introduction to APA style

Results

The effectiveness of the three forms of social support were assessed by comparing the

mean pre- and post-conversation MAACL scores of participants in both experimental conditions.

As expected, participants in the excuse-validation condition reported higher negative affect

scores before (M = 6.4) than after (M = 5.3) talking to the supportive stranger (see Figure 1). In

comparison, participants in the attentive listening conditions experienced an increase in negative

affect from the pre-conversation assessment to the post-conversation assessment (Ms = 6.0 and

7.2, respectively).

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See pp. 8-9 of An Introduction to APA style
Figure 1

Mean Pre- and Post-conversation MAACL Score by Experimental Condition

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Pre-conversa2on Post-conversa2on

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Mean MAACL Scores

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Excuse Valida2on A6en2ve Listening

! Social Support Strategy

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Analyses of participants' impressions of the supportive stranger revealed that she was

viewed as highly supportive in both experimental conditions. As shown in Table 1, participants

in both experimental conditions viewed her very positively. The average impression of

supportive stranger rating by participants in the excuse-validation condition was 5.9 (on a 7-point

scale). The average rating by participants in the attentive listening condition was 6.0.
 !8

Table 1 See p. 8 of An Introduction to APA style

Mean Impression of Supportive Stranger Ratings Across Experimental Conditions

Experimental Condition Mean Rating

Excuse-Validation 5.9

Attentive Listening 6.0

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Discussion See p. 9 of An Introduction to APA Style

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The results of this study demonstrated that excuse-validation was effective in reducing

negative affect. As expected, participants whose excuses were validated by the supportive
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stranger reported lower levels of negative affect at the post-conversation assessment than at the

pre-conversation assessment. Reductions in negative affect from pre- to post-conversation were

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not reported by participants in the attentive listening condition, whose excuses were not
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validated. These results were not moderated by participants’ impressions of the supportive
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stranger. Participants in both experimental conditions rated the supportive stranger very

positively.
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Past research suggests that excuses are commonly invoked following negative events

(Snyder & Higgins, 1988). The results of the present study demonstrate that the validation of

excuses is an effective way to help people feel better. The reason why excuse-validation may

alleviate negative affect is because validation strengthens the credibility of excuses, making them

believable. According to Snyder et al. (1983), when excuses are believed, excuse-makers may

feel less responsible for the event that evoked the excuses (“It wasn’t my fault”) or the event may
 !9

seem less important (“It wasn’t worth getting upset about”). In contrast, when excuses do not

receive validation, as in the attentive listening condition where excuse-validation was prohibited,

the excuse-maker may have difficulty evading responsibility or minimizing the event (Denton &

Zarbatany, 1996; Mehlman & Snyder, 1985; Schönbach, 1990). See pp. 16-18 of An Introduction to
APA Style

Although the hypothesis in this study was supported, the study has a number of

limitations. First, no controls were taken to ensure that excuse-making occurred in both

experimental conditions. It is possible that only participants in the excuse-validation condition

made excuses or that participants in the excuse-validation condition made more excuses than

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participants in the attentive listening condition. Therefore, the results of the experimental

condition may be confounded by excuse-making. To minimize the confounding effects of

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excuse-making, future researchers may consider assessing the amount of excuse-making across
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conditions and, if necessary, invoking statistical controls.

A second limitation of the present study concerns the type of negative event disclosed by
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participants. The only constraint imposed on participants was that the event disclosed continued
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to evoke negative affect. It is possible that factors like the type of negative event (e.g., academic

failure, loss of relationship) may affect the type of social support needed. Accordingly, excuse-
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making and excuse-validation may be more effective for some events than others. Therefore, to
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rule out the confounding effects of event type, future researchers may consider putting additional

constraints on the type of event disclosed or ensuring that similar types of events are disclosed by

subjects across experimental conditions.

In conclusion, the findings of this study are consistent with the claim of researchers such

as Snyder and Higgins (1988) that the ability to make and benefit from excuses may depend on

the receptiveness of one's audience. When audience members behave as though they believe the
 !10

excuses people make for themselves, the audience communicates that the excuses are valid. This

may engender greater confidence in excuse-makers about their perception of a self-serving

reality, which, in turn, may give rise to a more positive affective state.

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See pp. 19-26 of An Introduction to

References APA Style

Denton, K., & Zarbatany, L. (1996). Age differences in support processes in conversations

between friends. Child Development, 67(4), 1360-1373. [Link]

Mehlman, R. C., & Snyder, C. R. (1985). Excuse theory: A test of the self-protective role of

attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(4), 994-1001. https://

[Link]/10.1037/0022-3514.49.4.994

Miller, D. T., & Porter, C. A. (1988). Errors and biases in the attribution process. In L. Y.

Abramson (Ed.) Social cognition and clinical psychology: A synthesis (pp. 3-32).

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Guilford Press.

Schönbach, P. (1990). Account episodes: The management or escalation of conflict. Cambridge

University Press. p
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Snyder, C. R., & Higgins, R. L. (1988). Excuses: Their effective role in the negotiation of reality.

Psychological Bulletin, 104(1), 23-35. [Link]

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Snyder, C. R., Higgins, R. L., & Stucky, R. J. (Eds.). (1983). Excuses: Masquerades in search of
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grace. John Wiley & Sons.

Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective
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on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210. [Link]

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10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193

Zuckerman, M., & Lubin, B. (1965). Manual for the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist.

Educational and Industrial Testing. [Link]

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Appendix See p. 10 of An Introduction to

APA Style

MAACL Form A

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MAACL Form B

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