Journal of Sports Science 6 (2018) 94-102

doi: 10.17265/2332-7839/2018.02.004
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for

Differently Abled Students, Athletes, and Patients with
Disabilities

Aubrey Shaw and Sharon Kay Stoll

Center for ETHICS*, Department of Movement Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83843, USA

Abstract: The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life.
Agencies work diligently to meet the law’s demands with inclusionary practices, including public accommodations, engaging students
in regular classes, offering regular activities through state and local government services. However, the practices though well-meaning
often actually exclude impaired people from play. Thus, the purpose of this philosophical research paper is to educate physical activity
professionals on the importance of play for people with impairments and provide skills and strategies for inclusive behavior. These
skills and strategies will help professionals foster an inclusive environment that the laws expect them to uphold. The skills include but
are not limited to: perspective change, assessing students’ physical capabilities, modifying activities to include all participants’
capabilities, engaging all students in inclusivity and fostering play enjoyment with participants of varying abilities, teaching confidence
building skills, and educating students who do not want to be inclusive on the importance of play for everyone. Every professional
should be successful at implementing an inclusive environment.

Key words: Play, disability, participation, physical education, recreation, adaptive sports.

1. Introduction reservoir of over 90,000 data sets in moral reasoning.

Our curriculums have been used in various sporting
I am the director of the center for ETHICS* at the
venues globally, nationally, and regionally [3-8].
University of Idaho, located on the Moscow Campus. I
In order to accomplish the above research, our
have mentored approximately 40 students in their quest
doctoral students study a broad range of psychological
for a terminal degree. In all of these students’ programs,
and philosophical literature in moral reasoning and
the underlying research of their dissertations has been
ethics, but also delve into philosophical and ethical
directed toward sport and the importance of ethics. In
nature of play, games, and sport.
general, our work at the center is about assessment of
Two years ago, one of our current doctoral students,
moral reasoning and moral development in competitive
after reading a series of articles on play [9-11] and
environments (sport, athletics and business). However,
ethics [12] wrote a reflective paper on the possibility of
a more important part of our work is how education can
play for the child with disabilities; she made an
affect moral reasoning and hopefully moral education
argument that I found to be implausible. She stated that
and then moral conduct. Some of our assessment
children with disabilities seldom get the chance to play
instruments have become gold standards of
in their school experience. I challenged her that this
measurement, including the Hahm-Beller Values
could not be possible since US law about disability is
Choice Inventory [1] and the Rudd Hahm-Beller
quite clear, accommodations must exist. She argued
Values Choice Inventory [2]. At present, we have a
that the existence of a law does not equal application of
Corresponding author: Aubrey Shaw, M.S., Ph.D. student, ethical practice. That is, just because a law exists, does
research field: moral reasoning in sport. not mean that the right thing is done. I had to pause and
 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students, 95
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

reflect on this comment since we often use this large school district where children with physical
argument in relation to historical law and ethics. A case disabilities were in the gymnasium but “just standing
in point is the classical Plessey versus Ferguson [13] around”. She wanted to know how to include
(1896), where law was decidedly unethical. Also, them–obviously she was seeking advice on how to
Aubrey has great validity of experience both as a manage inclusion.
participant and researcher. She has an acquired Interestingly in a national level webinar that we
physical disability and spent 12 years in public presented for Society of Health and Physical Education
education in which the Americans with Disabilities Act [19], the majority of our questions from the 60 people
[14] was in effect. She also participated in adaptive in the webinar were, “how can we include children with
sport programs for six years with Minnesota Adaptive disabilities into the inclusive play environment?” “how
Athletics [15]. In the past two years, she completed do we motivate children with disabilities” and “please
seventeen graduate level credits in special education give us ideas and examples of how to do this and create
through the College of Education, University of Idaho, a positive inclusive environment?”
studying with professors who direct the State of In early November of the present year, we were
Idaho’s center on Disabilities and Human contacted by the editor of this journal to write a paper
Development [16]. Considering these parameters, on the present topic. Apparently, our presentation in
experiences and education, perhaps she knew 2016 [20], sparked an interest. We decided to take the
something that on the surface did not seem possible. initiative and submit a paper in an area in which the law
Obviously, sport and play opportunities for children does exist, but the ethics of practice appears not to
with physical disabilities exist, she played in them. exist.
However, she argued that children with disabilities do Considering the above, the purpose of this article is
not have a positive inclusive play experience. Yes, laws to inform professionals in sport and physical education
are in place to include differently abled students and on the importance of actual play for people with
athletes but the experience is highly limited and far disabilities and provide strategies and instructional
from being positive and inclusive. Instead, she argued, methods for the teaching of inclusive physical
children with disabilities are usually excluded, or given education and sport opportunities for children with
mundane activities during play for the abled bodied physical disabilities.
children. The able-bodied play, and the child with a Even though, laws exist that protect the play
physical disability serves as a line judge, keeps score, experience for students with physical disabilities
retrieves balls, manages equipment, takes attendance, sometimes those laws are not interpreted equally or
or acts as a helper to the coach or instructor. The child equitably. In this article, we will review the different
with the disability may be included but not in a positive laws that exist, discuss the current theories of
inclusive way. We argued over this topic for some time, disabilities, the importance of play for the child with
in which I continued to cite the law–the programs must disabilities, and offer tools and teaching strategies that
exist. can be integrated into a physical education classroom.
I doubted her until after giving two presentations at
2. Laws
state and local professional meetings in which we
interacted with clinicians who wanted information on Three specific federal laws supposedly ensure
how one actually positively includes the child with a children of all capabilities inclusion in the educational
physical disability [17, 18]. For example, a young experience, including physical education and sport:
teacher described a not so inclusive experience in a The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 [14], The
96 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students,
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

Individuals with Disabilities Act 2004 [21] and the may not exclude a sector of the population [21].
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 [21]. The original goal of Section 504 explains that students should not be
the US congress was not only to ensure children of all excluded from their physical education classes–they
capabilities be included in education, and the laws also must be included if the classes exist.
set the precedence for inclusion in our society. However, data exist that even though the laws are
The Americans with Disabilities Act, a civil rights clear, interpretation is not clear and dependent on
law, states no discrimination in public life including interpretation. Perhaps the logic behind these diverse
schools, jobs, private places that are open to the public, interpretations has to do with how educators review the
and transportation of an individual with disabilities. law in relation to what they and the medical field
The main purpose of the law is to allow equal decide what is “disabled”.
opportunity [14]. All of which is good, however, each
3. Models and Theories of Disability
state has the option to interpret the law by its own
parameters to suit what state’s population needs. At Two types of theories exist concerning the definition
this point, the existence of a law does not mean ethical and application of disability: medical and social. The
practice. For example, one state might provide many medical model of disability stems from the power
different fulfilling opportunities such as adaptive sports medical professionals have in labeling an individual as
to the population whereas another state does not disabled. “The medical model of disability measures
provide the same opportunities or perhaps any outcome in terms of mortality rates as well as the extent
opportunities. Thus, the federal law may as well not and severity of pathology of a disease” [22]. Therefore,
exist in some interpretations. an individual has no voice in describing the self as
Because of loop holes in the original law, the disabled, because the medical field makes that decision.
Individual with Disabilities Act was passed in 2004, The model makes sense because it is the medical field
which states, that students with disabilities have a right that does diagnose the disability. However, the medical
to a good education. The services that the students model has great power in affecting how an individual
receive in school will be held accountable and have perceives his or her condition and that perception can
standards that the services must meet [21]. This act is jeopardize his or her ability from participating in
specifically for schools to insure students with physical education, sport, or play.
disabilities must attend and receive services to receive However, the medical model is not the only model
an equal education. Unfortunately, this law is also and is probably not the most powerful model of
interpreted differently from state to state since state disability theory as applied to physical education, sport,
administrators can interpret the laws as they see fit for and play.
their state population. A second theory, the social model of disability, gives
A third law that applies to this discussion is section the individual the power to say and choose if she or he
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which is much is disabled. Tate and Pledger [23] have a unique
like the Americans with Disabilities Act in that it perspective on the social model of disability. The
protects individuals from discrimination because of person’s health behaviors and outcomes may be
their disability. The individual cannot be excluded just directly affected by the person’s coping ability and
because they have a disability. This law affects adaptation to the disability through the environment
federally funded organizations because they are That is, the environment and people in the environment
supported with federal assistance and it clearly states have great power in affecting the person and the
that those institutions who are getting federally funded experience. Educators and teachers have to be willing
 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students, 97
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

to help the person with a disability to cope with the to play affects the persons’ self-esteem, identity,
environment and the experience. The social model in motivation, peer relations, self-efficacy, self-concept,
practice permits great latitude, choice, and opportunity and overall the quality of life [26]. Allowing them the
because the individual decides if she or he is disabled. opportunity to play permits them to be immersed in the
The power of the self to decide cannot be stressed activity. They experience what others who do not have
greatly enough. According to Nordenfelt’s theory of disabilities get to experience.
disability, “... persons are disabled by virtue of their Identity is imperative when examining opportunities
inability to do things that are important to them” [24]. that are granted through play. The individual gets to
Therefore, if a person can do activities he or she deems shape his or her identity. In contrast to being labeled
important then according to the theory he or she is not disabled by societal norms or medical models the
disabled. They only become disabled when they cannot person is permitted the opportunity to play and or they
accomplish what is important to them. The theory begin to form their identity around that activity [27]
allows one to see disability in a different light because Children who are given the opportunity to be an
even if the medical field has diagnosed the person with athlete, i.e., through adaptive sport experience, see
a disability but she or he can still accomplish the task, themselves as athletes not as a socially decided labeled:
she or he becomes abled-bodied, and not disabled. If disabled.
the person is meeting his or her goal for that day, week,
5. Adaptive Sports
month, and year then should we not see him or her as a
functional human being and not someone who is Adaptive sports offer opportunities through play that
impaired? may not be understood by adults who are abled bodied.
Thomas Jefferson once said that the law is socialized Their sport experience probably mimics what Meier
ethics [25] meaning that the decision of rightness and describes in his seminal 1988 work, there is a
wrongness is accepted by the greater norm of the public. “...[t]readmill image of sport, centering on the
Hence what is considered to be “ethical” practice attainment and development of the physical strength of
becomes legalized. In the present discussion the law motor skills and technical efficiency” [27]. In regular
was passed, however, the application appears to be less sport the athlete progresses from a young kid to a
than ethical. How we view the individual under the law, teenager attainting and developing his or her physical
is highly affected by what we “see” when we work with strength, endurance, and motor ability. The goal is
the individual. If we place labels on the individual, intentional and directive–and the athlete knows what is
whether by a medical model or our own social norms, being sought. However, in adaptive sports the treadmill
we limit that individual’s ability to be successful. image of sport may exist, but the purpose was hidden
because of play. No one on the team realizes that they
4. Opportunities
are attainting and developing their skills. They are just
What happens if students, athletes, or children with playing and because they are just playing the sport is
disabilities are permitted to play? What we mean is to more enjoyable for them. Through playing adaptive
actually play not being a ball getter, line judge, or a sports the athlete is given the opportunity to develop
referee. What happens when we allow them to feel motor skills. Whereas if the adaptive sports were not
what it is like to swing the bat, hit the ball off of a tee, available, the athlete would have to find another way to
run and kick the soccer ball, or hear the swoosh of the develop the skills.
basketball going through the hoop? What happens to In Aubrey’s experience, the image was so deeply
them when they are allowed to do this? Allowing one imbedded in play few realized that motor skills were
98 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students,
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

developing. No one on the team was saying, “Today I Students, athletes with disabilities live in a harsh world.
am going to go and develop my skills.” Instead, we In their world, many barriers exist that they have to
would yell, “Okay, let’s go play!” The way we reacted overcome and it often becomes overwhelming. Playing
was important to our image of ourselves, which then takes them out of that harsh overwhelming world and
affected how we viewed our capacity. We were allows them to be in a safe environment where they do
developing the motor skills naturally through play; it not have to face reality for a brief moment. They get to
was not forced. be who they want to be and with no impairments if they
Aubrey played softball for several years. She later choose.
said that on reflection when reading Eugene Fink [10] Yes, we were on the adaptive sports team, which was
that adaptive sport provides for any child, and through the school. Yes, we were expected to win but
especially these children, an undisturbed center of those pressures were not felt on the team because as
existence where these teenagers were not teenagers team members we were just playing. Playing gave us
with disabilities, but were teenagers being kids who not only the experience of movement but also the
were enjoying the act of play. Playing softball was their experience of enjoyment, for some playing were the
“center of existence” because without softball they escape that they needed from the world of medical
would not have the opportunity to participate. It was appointments and physical therapy. Play truly gives the
everything to them. For they had a chance to students with disabilities rhythm and harmony just like
experience what athletes without disabilities a normal population [27, 28]. Play has meaning and
experience: to be on a team. importance, how can we help to include these students
into our physical education classrooms or develop
6. Play
adaptive teams?
Why is it such a big deal to give these athletes and
7. Steps towards Change
students an opportunity to play and be inclusive about
it? Play is magical. Through adaptive sports children Numerous steps exist that we as a society and
with disabilities feel what it is like to experience the community can take that will include this population.
tingle and power when they hit the ball or hear the Only a few will be offered here and many sources are
swoosh as the ball went through the hoop. They have available to help accomplish this task [29].
an opportunity to experience what athletes with no
7.1 Awareness
disability get to experience daily and who many take
for granted. Playing promotes love for self because the The first step is being aware of the language we use.
child with a disability learns self-acceptance through We need to remember that language and words are
the experience of play. Playing also promotes love for powerful. Throughout the years some changes have
others because their teammates have also had a rough already occurred to be less offensive and more
go at life just like them. Playing promotes transcending inclusive. For example, the word “Children” was
to a different world because in that world they are not replaced in the Americans Disabilities Act with the
students with disabilities they are whomever they want term “individuals” and “handicapped” became
to be [27, 28]. “disabilities” [14]. Interpretation is application of
Huizinga speaks of the play world as “... play casts a language. What one-person finds acceptable another
spell over us; it is ‘enchanting’, ‘captivating’. It is will not.
investing with the noblest qualities we are capable of We have to remember to use first person language in
perceiving in things: rhythm and harmony” [12]. application. That is, we should always put the
 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students, 99
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

individual first and the word disability second. An 8.1 Question of How to Include
example of first person language is: veterans with
The next question is how we really and truly get this
disabilities. The veteran, the person, always comes first
population playing. What are some tools that can be
and the disability second. Interestingly, some
used for inclusion? First, we have to remember that
advocates argue against the word “disability”. In a
students and athletes with physical disabilities are just
TED talk by Aimee Mullins [30], a double amputee
like regular students in that they want to have the same
former collegiate athlete, and Olympian, she argues
experiences. We know this is hard as teachers and
that the term disabled is limiting, discriminatory,
educators are worried that the student is going to get
brutish, and just flat wrong. The synonyms for disabled
hurt if they actually play. We cannot be worried about
are: weak, limited, crippled, lame, paralyzed,
this because if we do then the student loses the
immobilized. We personally prefer–if we have to do a
opportunity to play. The goal is to get them involved.
label at all is–differently abled. As differently abled,
We mean truly involved; do not have them be a ball
one is acknowledging that they are in fact able however
girl/boy, line judge, or referee. Remember if you
they play and move differently.
choose to include the differently abled through being a
The point here is that language has power–and our
ball girl/boy, then all the students should experience
first step is to realize that words have meaning and how
what it is like to be a ball girl/boy, line judge, or referee.
we use them affects how we appreciate and see the
Why not rotate all the students throughout the position?
differently abled–perhaps it would also be wise to talk
Make all the different playing experiences possible for
with the individual and ask them what language they
everyone.
prefer.
8.2 Modifying the Activity
7.2 Communication
The next tool that you can use is modifying the
Along with language comes communication with the
activity. Modifying the activity for students with
student who is differently abled and the class in general.
impairments should not have an effect on the intensity
The teacher should communicate with the student who
of the game. For example, consider baseball.
has a disability before class and discuss what the class
Modifications include but are not limited to a whiffle
will be doing. This allows the student to choose that
ball instead of a hard ball, a plastic bat instead of a hard
which they will or will not participate. The student now
mental or wood bat, using a tee instead of a pitcher.
has power. Ultimately, these tools are showing
Those tools for baseball should be readily available
compassion towards the students with disabilities.
with the other equipment so the game does not slow
When the teacher communicates and treats the student
down when the student with the disability takes his or
with respect it is teaching others how to be
her turn at bat. Another example is to modify the
compassionate and how to be around the student with
experience for everyone when the student who is
impairments. If the teacher excludes them other
differently abled is at bat. Change up the rules that all
students are taught that it is acceptable to exclude them
abled bodied students must catch with their
as well. At the same time, communication is a powerful
non-dominant hand, or they must run–on one leg alone
tool to educate the students with no disabilities–that as
(hopping) and throw with the non-dominant arm. The
a community we will work together to have the best
possibilities are limitless as long as the goal is to mix
experience.
the game up so that all players are stressed to play with
8. Tools for Inclusion limitations.
100 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students,
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

8.3 Change of Surfaces the students who do as it will be challenging for them to
have to do something new.
Another modification to all games could be playing
Picture what your gym should look like with so
inside instead of outside so the students who have
many different opportunities.
wheelchairs could be involved. If the students really
want to play outside then the teacher should consider 9. Kids Who Do Not Want to Play
surface changes for the students in wheelchairs or who
We have discussed the importance of play and
have walkers. The students get to still play outside but
inclusion assuming all children want to participate, but
now the students who are usually excluded get to be
what happens if the student with the impairment says
included because they get to participate. The goal for
no? There will always be that one student who is going
the teacher and students should be to treat the
to say, “No I do not want to play” as much as you try to
individuals with disabilities like they have no
include them. In Aubrey’s experience, there have been
limitations. Another possibility is that every student
more students saying no than they say yes. In adaptive
who has a limitation is paired with a student with no
sports she said, we had a two-week try out period but it
limitations. Called the model student experience where
was not for the coaches it was for the students. Most of
the student with no disability is paired with a student
the time the students who were trying out did not come
with a disability. Make this consistent and use it often.
back after one practice. The question is how do you get
8.4 Unit on Disability Sport them involved if they do not want to do it? As a teacher
if the student has an Individual Education Plan the
The physical education teacher could also create a
physical educators should be a part of that person’s
unit on play for disability sport. Bring in wheelchairs,
team and should know the limits. Aubrey heard in her
blindfolds, and strings then have four different
assistive technology class which is a special education
rotations for the students. One rotation and gymnasium
course that physical educators are sometimes not
section would be designated for wheelchair basketball.
included in a student’s Individual Education Plan
Every student, no matter the ability, plays wheelchair
planning and their meeting or Individual Education
basketball. Students who are not impaired now get to
Plan team [31] which should be created by all of the
know what it feels like to be impaired. Another rotation
student’s teachers. If the physical educators were
and gymnasium section would be designated for goal
involved in the planning, meeting, and educative team
ball, which is a game that is played for people who
then they would know their student’s limitations... So if
have lost their vision. The sighted students wear
a student says no to play in PE then the teacher actually
blindfolds. The third rotation and gymnasium section
and truly knows that the student can or cannot do the
could be designated for one-handed floor hockey. All
activity. If the teacher knows that the student can do the
students play with their non-dominate arm, abled
activity then he or she can foster the can-do attitude or
bodied students tie their dominate arm to their body so
push the child to participate. If the activity is beyond
they cannot use it while engaging in a floor hockey
that person’s limits then assign a movement activity,
match. The forth rotation and gymnasium section could
such as walking around the gymnasium, running
be set up for sitting volleyball. Now the students can
around the gymnasium... moving in some way.
enhance their senses while engaging in the physical
Do not give the child the option to say no. Do not ask
activity that is truly challenging to everyone. The
him or her if he or she wants to do the activity if you
benefit of the physical activity unit on disability sport is
know it is within their limits. If he or she still says no
that everyone gets to be involved. The students who do
then you need to explain that it is a physical education
not have disabilities will now have more empathy for
 Making Play a Positive Inclusive Experience for Differently Abled Students, 101
Athletes, and Patients with Disabilities

class and everyone must and will be moving the whole Resources are plentiful and the only limitation to not
time. He or she must do some type of activity and not offering positive inclusion is our own bias and
moving is not an option. If the student is in a skepticism.
wheelchair and says no, then tell him or her that he or
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