INTRODUCTION TO FRAME RELAY, ATM, ISDN, PSTN, AND X.

25

X.25:
A packet-switching protocol for wide area network (WAN) connectivity that uses a public data network (PDN)
that parallels the voice network of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The current X.25 standard
supports synchronous, full-duplex communication at speeds up to 2 Mbps over two pairs of wires, but most
implementations are 64-Kbps connections via a standard DS0 link.

X.25 defines a telephone network for data communications. To begin communication, one computer calls another to
request a communication session. The called computer can accept or refuse the connection. If the call is accepted,
the two systems can begin full-duplex information transfer. Either side can terminate the connection at any time.
The X.25 specification defines a point-to-point interaction between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data
communication equipment (DCE). DTEs (terminals and hosts in the user's facilities) connect to DCEs (modems,
packet switches, and other ports into the PDN, generally located in the carrier's facilities), which connect to packet
switching exchanges (PSEs, or simply switches) and other DCEs inside a PSN and, ultimately, to another DTE.
The relationship between the entities in an X.25 network is shown in Figure .

Because X.25 was designed when analog telephone transmission over copper wire was the norm, X.25 packets
have a relatively large overhead of error-correction information, resulting in comparatively low overall bandwidth.
Newer WAN technologies such as frame relay, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), and T- carrier
services are now generally preferred over X.25. However, X.25 networks still have applications in areas such as
credit card verification, automatic teller machine transactions, and other dedicated business and financial uses.
How It Works
The X.25 standard corresponds in functionality to the first three layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model for networking. Specifically, X.25 defines the following:
• The physical layer interface for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE), such as computers and
terminals at the customer premises, with the data communications equipment (DCE), such as X.25 packet
switches at the X.25 carrier’s facilities. The physical layer interface of X.25 is called X.21bis and was
derived from the RS-232 interface for serial transmission.
• The data-link layer protocol called Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB), which defines
encapsulation (framing) and error-correction methods. LAPB also enables the DTE or the DCE to initiate
or terminate a communication session or initiate data transfer. LAPB is derived from the High- level Data
Link Control (HDLC) protocol.
 • The network layer protocol called the Packet Layer Protocol (PLP), which defines how to address and
deliver X.25 packets between end nodes and switches on an X.25 network using permanent virtual circuits
(PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs). This layer is responsible for call setup and termination and
for managing transfer of packets.
An X.25 network consists of a backbone of X.25 switches that are called packet switching exchanges (PSEs).
These switches provide packet-switching services that connect DCEs at the local facilities of X.25 carriers. DTEs
at customer premises connect to DCEs at X.25 carrier facilities by using a device called a packet
assembler/disassembler (PAD). You can connect several DTEs to a single DCE by using the multiplexing methods
inherent in the X.25 protocol. Similarly, a single X.25 end node can establish several virtual circuits simultaneously
with remote nodes.
An end node (DTE) can initiate a communication session with another end node by dialing its X.121 address and
establishing a virtual circuit that can be either permanent or switched, depending on the level of service required.
Packets are routed through the X.25 backbone network by using the ID number of the virtual circuit established
for the particular communication session. This ID number is called the logical channel identifier (LCI) and is a
12-bit address that identifies the virtual circuit. Packets are generally up to 128 bytes in size, although maximum
packet sizes range from 64 to 4096 bytes, depending on the system.
Disadvantages of X.25
Prior to Frame Relay, some organizations were using a virtual-circuit switching network called X.25 that
performed switching at the network layer. For example, the Internet, which needs wide-area networks to carry its
packets from one place to another, used X.25. And X.25 is still being used by the Internet, but it is being replaced
by other WANs. However, X.25 has several drawbacks:
• X.25 has a low 64-kbps data rate. By the 1990s, there was a need for higher- data-rate WANs.

• X.25 has extensive flow and error control at both the data link layer and the network layer. This was so
because X.25 was designed in the 1970s, when the available transmission media were more prone to
errors. Flow and error control at both layers create a large overhead and slow down transmissions. X.25
requires acknowledgments for both data link layer frames and network layer packets that are sent between
nodes and between source and destination.

• Originally X.25 was designed for private use, not for the Internet. X.25 has its own network layer. This
means that the user's data are encapsulated in the network layer packets of X.25. The Internet, however,
has its own network layer, which means if the Internet wants to use X.25, the Internet must deliver its
network layer packet, called a datagram, to X.25 for encapsulation in the X.25 packet. This doubles the
overhead.

Frame Relay:
Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and Data Link layers of the OSI
reference model. X.25 has several disadvantages so Frame Relay was invented. Frame Relay is a wide-area
network with the following features:

1. Frame Relay operates at a higher speed (1.544 Mbps and recently 44.376 Mbps). This means that it can
easily be used instead of a mesh of T-I or T-3 lines.
2. Frame Relay operates in just the physical and data link layers. This means it can easily be used as a
backbone network to provide services to protocols that already have a network layer protocol, such as the
Internet.
3. Frame Relay allows bursty data.
4. Frame Relay allows a frame size of 9000 bytes, which can accommodate all local- area network frame
sizes.
5. Frame Relay is less expensive than other traditional WANs.
6. Frame Relay has error detection at the data link layer only. There is no flow control or error control. There
 is not even a retransmission policy if a frame is damaged; it is silently dropped. Frame Relay was designed
in this way to provide fast transmission capability for more reliable media and for those protocols that
have flow and error control at the higher layers.

Frame Relay Operation:

When carriers use Frame Relay to interconnect LANs, a router on each LAN is the DTE. A serial connection, such
as a T1/E1 leased line, connects the router to the Frame Relay switch of the carrier at the nearest point-of- presence
(POP) for the carrier. The Frame Relay switch is a DCE device. Network switches move frames from one DTE
across the network and deliver frames to other DTEs by way of DCEs.

Fig: Frame Relay Operation

Virtual Circuits:
The connection through a Frame Relay network between two DTEs is called a virtual circuit (VC). The circuits
are virtual because there is no direct electrical connection from end to end. The connection is logical, and data
moves from end to end, without a direct electrical circuit. With VCs, Frame Relay shares the bandwidth among
multiple users and any single site can communicate with any other single site without using multiple dedicated
physical lines.

There are two ways to establish VCs:

Permanent Virtual Circuit(PVC):
A source and a destination may choose to have a permanent virtual circuit (PVC). In this case, the connection
setup is simple. The corresponding table entry is recorded for all switches by the administrator (remotely and
electronically, of course). An outgoing DLCI is given to the source, and an incoming DLCI is given to the
destination. PVC connections have two drawbacks. First, they are costly because two parties pay for the connection
all the time even when it is not in use. Second, a connection is created from one source to one single destination.
If a source needs connections with several destinations, it needs a PVC for each connection PVCs, permanent
virtual circuits, are preconfigured by the carrier, and after they are set up, only operate in DATA TRANSFER
and IDLE modes. Note that some publications refer to PVCs as private Vcs.

Switched Virtual-circuit(SVC):
An alternate approach is the switched virtual circuit (SVC). The SVC creates a temporary, short connection that
exists only when data are being transferred between source and destination. SVCs, switched virtual circuits, are
established dynamically by sending signaling messages to the network (CALL SETUP, DATA TRANSFER,
IDLE, CALL TERMINATION).

DLCI (Data link connection identifier):

Frame Relay is a virtual circuit network. A virtual circuit in Frame Relay is identified by a number called a data
link connection identifier (DLCI). DLCI values typically are assigned by the Frame Relay service provider (for
example, the telephone company). Usually, DLCIs 0 to 15 and 1008 to 1023 are reserved for special purposes.
Therefore, service providers typically assign DLCIs in the range of 16 to 1007. Frame Relay DLCIs have local
significance, which means that the values themselves are not unique in the Frame Relay WAN. A DLCI identifies
a VC to the equipment at an endpoint. A DLCI has no significance beyond the single link. Two devices connected
by a VC may use a different DLCI value to refer to the same connection.

Frame Relay Layers:

Frame Relay operates at the physical layer and the Data link layer.
Physical Layer
No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer in Frame Relay. Instead, it is left to the implementer to use
whatever is available. Frame Relay supports any of the protocols recognized by ANSI.
Data Link Layer
At the data link layer, Frame Relay uses a simple protocol that does not support flow or error control. It only has
an error detection mechanism. Figure blow shows the format of a Frame Relay frame. The address field defines
the DLCI as well as some bits used to control congestion.

8 bits 16 bits Variable 16 bits 8bits

Flag Address Information FCS Flag
 DLCI C/R EA DLCI FECN BECN DE EA

6 bits 1bit 1bit 4 bits 1bit 1bit 1bit 1bit

Fig:Frame Relay Frame Format

C/R: Command/response
EA: Extended address
FECN: Forward explicit congestion notification
BECN: Backward explicit congestion notification
DE: Discard eligibility
DLCI: Data link connection identifier

Address (DLCI) field. The first 6 bits of the first byte makes up the first part of the DLCI. The second part of the
DLCI uses the first 4 bits of the second byte. These bits are part of the 10-bit data link connection identifier defined
by the standard.

Command/response (CIR). The command/response (C/R) bit is provided to allow upper layers to identify a frame
as either a command or a response. It is not used by the Frame Relay protocol.

Extended address (EA). The extended address (EA) bit indicates whether the current byte is the final byte of the
address. An EA of 0 means that another address byte is to follow. An EA of 1 means that the current byte is the
final one.

Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN). The forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) bit can
be set by any switch to indicate that traffic is congested. This bit informs the destination that congestion has
occurred. In this way, the destination knows that it should expect delay or a loss of packets.

Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN). The backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) bit
is set (in frames that travel in the other direction) to indicate a congestion problem in the network. This bit informs
the sender that congestion has occurred. In this way, the source knows it needs to slow down to prevent the loss
of packets .

Discard eligibility (DE). The discard eligibility (DE) bit indicates the priority level of the frame. In emergency
situations, switches may have to discard frames to relieve bottlenecks and keep the network from collapsing due
to overload. When set (DE 1), this bit tells the network to discard this frame if there is congestion. This bit can be
set either by the sender of the frames (user) or by any switch in the network.

FRADs
To handle frames arriving from other protocols, Frame Relay uses a device called a Frame Relay
assembler/disassembler (FRAD). A FRAD assembles and disassembles frames coming from other protocols to
allow them to be carried by Frame Relay frames. A FRAD can be implemented as a separate device or as part of
a switch.
VOFR
Frame Relay networks offer an option called Voice Over Frame Relay (VOFR) that sends voice through the
network. Voice is digitized using PCM and then compressed. The result is sent as data frames over the network.
This feature allows the inexpensive sending of voice over long distances. However, note that the quality of voice
is not as good as voice over a circuit-switched network such as the telephone network. Also, the varying delay
mentioned earlier sometimes corrupts real-time voice .

Local Management Information (LMI )

Frame Relay was originally designed to provide PVC connections. There was not, therefore, a provision for
controlling or managing interfaces. Local Management Information (LMI) is a protocol added recently to the
Frame Relay protocol to provide more management features. In particular, LMI can provide :
• A keep-alive mechanism to check if data are flowing.
• A multicast mechanism to allow a local end system to send frames to more than one remote end system.
• A mechanism to allow an end system to check the status of a switch (e.g., to see if the switch is congested).

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), also known as cell relay, is similar in concept to frame relay. Both frame
relay and ATM take advantage of the reliability and fidelity of modern digital facilities to provide faster packet
switching than X.25. ATM is even more streamlined than frame relay in its functionality, and can support data
rates several orders of magnitude greater than frame relay.

The “asynchronous” in ATM means ATM devices do not send and receive information at fixed speeds or using a
timer, but instead negotiate transmission speeds based on hardware and information flow reliability. The “transfer
mode” in ATM refers to the fixed-size cell structure used for packaging information.

ATM transfers information in fixed-size units called cells. Each cell consists of 53 octets, or bytes as shown in
Fig

Fig:ATM cell Format

• Transmits all information in fixed size blocks called cells.

• Cells are transmitted asynchronously.
 • The network is connection oriented.
• Each cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.
• Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to set up a connection. Subsequently all cells
follow the same path to the destination.
• ATM was envisioned as the technology for providing B-ISDN services.
• It can handle both constant rate traffic and variable-length traffic. Thus, it can carry multiple types of
traffic with end-to-end quality of service.
• ATM is independent of transmission medium. It doesn't prescribe any particular rule.
• They may be sent on a wire or Fiber by themselves or they may be also packaged inside the payload of
the other carrier system.
• Delivery of the system is not guaranteed but the order is.

When the virtual circuit is established, what really happens is that a route is chosen from source to destination. All
the switches along the way make table entries for the virtual circuit and have the opportunity to reserve resources
for the new circuit. The cells are sent from one switch to the next (stored and forwarded) until they reach the
destination. When a cell comes along, the switch inspects its header to find out which virtual circuit it belongs to.

Fig:Cells Traveling from Host#1 to Host#5:-

ATM Network Interfaces :

An ATM network consists of a set of ATM switches interconnected by point-to-point ATM links or interfaces.
ATM switches support two primary types of interfaces: UNI and NNI as shown in Fig. Below. The UNI (User-
Network Interface) connects ATM end systems (such as hosts and routers) to an ATM switch. The NNI
(Network-Network Interface) connects two ATM switches. Depending on whether the switch is owned and
located at the customer's premises or is publicly owned and operated by the telephone company, UNI and NNI can
be further subdivided into public and private UNIs and NNIs. A private UNI connects an ATM endpoint and a
private ATM switch. Its public counterpart connects an ATM endpoint or private switch to a public switch. A
private NNI connects two ATM switches within the same private organization. A public one connects two ATM
switches within the same public organization.
 Fig:UNI and NNI interfaces of the ATM

ATM Virtual Connections

ATM operates as a channel-based transport layer, using Virtual circuits (VCs). This is encompassed in the concept
of the Virtual Paths (VP) and Virtual Channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit Virtual Path Identifier
(VPI) and 16-bit Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. Together, these identify the virtual
circuit used by the connection. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the user-
network interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network-network interface (inside the
network).
As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI/VCI values (label swapping).
Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the
concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route
than the others).
Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing
different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, n* 64 channels, IP).
A virtual path connection (VPC) is a bundle of VCCs that have the same endpoints. Thus, all of the cells flowing
over all of the VCCs in a single VPC are switched together
VC- Virtual Circuit
VP- Virtual Path
TP- Transmission Path

ATM Reference Model:

The protocol reference model makes
reference to three separate planes:

User Plane. Provides for user

information transfer, along with
associated controls (e.g., flow control,
error control).

Control Plane. Performs call control

and connection control functions.

Management Plane. Includes plane

management, which performs
management functions related to a
system as a whole and provides
coordination between all the planes,
and layer management, which performs management functions relating to resources and parameters residing in its
protocol entities.

Physical layer—Analogous to the physical layer of the OSI reference model, the ATM physical layer manages
the medium-dependent transmission.

ATM layer—Combined with the ATM adaptation layer, the ATM layer is roughly analogous to the data link layer
of the OSI reference model. The ATM layer is responsible for the simultaneous sharing of virtual circuits over a
physical link (cell multiplexing) and passing cells through the ATM network (cell relay). To do this, it uses the
VPI and VCI information in the header of each ATM cell.

ATM adaptation layer (AAL)—Combined with the ATM layer, the AAL is roughly analogous to the data link
layer of the OSI model. The AAL is responsible for isolating higher-layer protocols from the details of the ATM
processes. The adaptation layer prepares user data for conversion into cells and segments the data into 48-byte cell
payloads.

ATM Advantages:
ATM supports voice, video and data allowing multimedia and mixed services over a single network.
high evolution potential, works with existing, legacy technologies
provides the best multiple service support
supports delay close to that of dedicated services
supports the broadest range of burstiness, delay tolerance and loss performance through the
implementation of multiple QoS classes
provides the capability to support both connection-oriented and connectionless traffic using AALs
able to use all common physical transmission paths (such as DS1, SONET).
cable can be twisted-pair, coaxial or fiber-optic
ability to connect LAN to WAN
legacy LAN emulation
efficient bandwidth use by statistical multiplexing
 scalability
higher aggregate bandwidth
high speed Mbps and possibly Gbps
ATM disadvantages
flexible to efficiency’s expense, at present, for any one application it is usually possible to find a more
optimized technology
cost, although it will decrease with time
new customer premises hardware and software are required
competition from other technologies -100 Mbps FDDI, 100 Mbps Ethernet and fast ethernet

Integrated Service Digital Network: (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a network that provides end-to-end digital connectivity to support
a wide range of services including voice and data services. ISDN allows multiple digital channels to operate
simultaneously through the same regular phone wiring used for analog lines, but ISDN transmits a digital signal
rather than analog. Latency is much lower on an ISDN line than on an analog line.

fig1: Analog Communication without ISDN

The traditional PSTN was based on an analog connection between the customer premises and the local exchange,
also called the local loop. Fig 1 The analog circuits introduce limitations on the bandwidth that can be obtained on
the local loop. Circuit restrictions do not permit analog bandwidths greater than approximately 3000 Hz. ISDN
technology permits the use of digital data on the local loop, providing better access speeds for the remote users
fig2.
 Fig2: Digital Communication with ISDN

ISDN standards define two main channel types, each with a different transmission rate.

The bearer channel, or B channel, is defined as a clear digital path of 64 kbps for voice or up to 64 Kbps of data.
It is said to be clear because it can be used to transmit any type of digitized data in full-duplex mode. For example,
a digitized voice call can be transmitted on a single B channel.
The second channel type is called a delta channel, or D channel. The D channel carries signaling messages, such
as call setup and teardown, to control calls on B channels. Traffic over the D channel employs the Link Access
Procedure on the D Channel (LAPD) protocol. LAPD is a data link layer protocol based on HDLC. There can
either be 16 kbps for the Basic Rate Interface (BRI) or 64 kbps for the Primary Rate Interface (PRI) The D
channel is used to carry control information for the B channel.

ISDN specifies two standard access methods, BRI and PRI. A single BRI or PRI interface provides a multiplexed
bundle of B and D channels.
Basic Rate Interface (BRI):
The ISDN BRI structure consists of two B-channels at 64Kbps and one D-channel for control at 16Kbps. The B-
channel can carry either voice or data while the D-channel is used for signaling and can be used for packet data.

The capacity of the BRI is therefore:

two voice, two high-speed data or
one voice and one high-speed data plus 16kbps packet data
BRI can carry a wide and flexible range of communications. A single BRI, for example, can carry two
simultaneous voice or data conversations (to the same or different locations).
The D-channel can also be used for packet communications to a third location, also simultaneously.

PRI (Primary Rate Interface):

In North America and Japan, PRI offers twenty-three 64 kbps B channels and one 64 kbps D channel. A PRI offers
the same service as a T1 or DS1 connection. In Europe and much of the rest of the world, PRI offers 30 B channels
and one D channel in order to offer the same level of service as an E1 circuit. PRI uses a Data Service Unit/Channel
Service Unit (DSU/CSU) for T1/E1 connections.

ISDN Reference Points:

  R — References the connection between a non-ISDN compatible device Terminal
Equipment type 2(TE2) and a Terminal Adapter (TA), for example an RS-232 serial
interface.
 S — References the points that connect into the customer switching device Network
Termination type 2(NT2) and enables calls between the various types of customer
premises equipment.
 T — Electrically identical to the S interface, it references the outbound connection
from the NT2 to the ISDN network or Network Termination type 1 (NT1).
 U — References the connection between the NT1 and the ISDN network owned
by the telephone company.

Also read and make brief notes on B-ISDN.

Public Switched Telephone Network(PSTN)

PSTN (Circuit Switch): PSTN is a circuit switched network is one where a dedicated connection
(circuit or channel) must be set up between two nodes before they may communicate. For the duration
of the communication, that connection may only be used by the same two nodes, and when the
communication has ceased, the connection must be explicitly cancelled.

The basic digital circuit in the PSTN is a 64-kilobits-per-second channel, originally designed by Bell
Labs, called a "DS0" or Digital Signal 0. To carry a typical phone call from a calling party to a called
party, the audio sound is digitized at an 8 kHz sample rate using 8-bit pulse code modulation. The call
is then transmitted from one end to another via telephone exchanges. The call is switched using a
signalling protocol (SS7) between the telephone exchanges under an overall routing strategy.

PSTN, the Public Switched Telephone Network, is a circuit-switched network that is used primarily for
voice communications worldwide, with more than 800 million subscribers. Originally a network of
fixed-line analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost entirely digital and also includes mobile
as well as fixed telephones. The basic digital circuit in the PSTN is a 64-kilobit-per-second channel,
known as "DS0" or Digital Signal 0. DS0's are also known as timeslots because they are multiplexed
together in a time-division fashion. To carry a typical phone call from a calling party to a called party,
 the audio sound is digitized at an 8 kHz sample rate using 8-bit pulse code modulation.
Multiple DS0's can be multiplexed together on higher capacity circuits, such that 24 DS0's make a DS1
signal or T1 (the European equivalent is an E1, containing 32 64 kbit/s channels).
For more than a hundred years, the PSTN was the only bearer network available for telephony. Today,
the mobile telephone over wireless access network, which is carried through the PSTN trunking
network, is becoming increasingly popular. Other bearer networks for voice transmission include
integrated service digital network (ISDN), Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), frame relay and the Internet VOIP.

T-1 & E-1 Circuit:

T-1 is a digital circuit that uses the DS-1 (Digital Signalling level 1) signaling format to transmit
voice/data over the PSTN network at 1.544 Mbps. T-1 can carry up to 24 uncompressed digital channels
of 64 Kbps (DS0) for voice or data.
E-1 is the European equivalent of the T-1, except E-1 carries information at the rate of 2.048 Mbps. E-1 is
used to transmit 30 64Kbps digital channels (DS0) for voice or data calls, plus a 64Kbps channel for
signaling, and a 64Kbps channel for framing and maintenance.
A T1/E1 circuit is a dedicated circuit and is always composed of two parts: the local loop and the carrier
circuit. A T1/E1 circuit is the first multiplexed level of the digital signalling multiplexing scheme. T1s
use what is called a Stratum 3 clock to maintain what is called clocking on the line.