INSTRUCTOR’S ADDITIONAL NOTE:

Example 2.6

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Molecules of glucose (blood sugar) contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms,
and 6 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular and empirical formulas of glucose?
Solution
The molecular formula is C6H12O6 because one molecule actually contains 6 C,
12 H, and 6 O atoms. The simplest whole-number ratio of C to H to O atoms in
glucose is 1:2:1, so the empirical formula is CH2O.

Check Your Learning

A molecule of metaldehyde (a pesticide used for snails and slugs) contains 8
carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms. What are the molecular
and empirical formulas of metaldehyde?
Answer: Molecular formula, C8H16O4; empirical formula, C2H4O

It is important to be aware that it may be possible for the same atoms to be arranged in different
ways: Compounds with the same molecular formula may have different atom-to-atom bonding and
therefore different structures. For example, could there be another compound with the same formula
as acetic acid, C1H4O2? And if so, what would be the structure of its molecules?
If you predict that another compound with the formula C2H4O2 could exist, then you demonstrated
good chemical insight and are correct. Two C atoms, four H atoms, and two O atoms can also be
arranged to form a methyl formate, which is used in manufacturing, as an insecticide, and for quick-
drying finishes. Methyl formate molecules have one of the oxygen atoms between the two carbon
atoms, differing from the arrangement in acetic acid molecules. Acetic acid and methyl formate are
examples of isomers—compounds with the same chemical formula but different molecular structures
(Figure 2.23). Note that this small difference in the arrangement of the atoms has a major effect on
their respective chemical properties. You would certainly not want to use a solution of methyl
formate as a substitute for a solution of acetic acid (vinegar) when you make salad dressing.

1
 Link to Learning

Select this o view an explanation

of isomers, spatial isomers, and why they have different smells (select the video
titled “Mirror Molecule: Carvone”).

Figure 2.23 Molecules of (a) acetic acid and methyl formate (b) are structural isomers; they have
the same formula (C2H4O2) but different structures (and therefore different chemical properties).

Many types of isomers exist (Figure 2.24). Acetic acid and methyl formate are structural isomers,
compounds in which the molecules differ in how the atoms are connected to each other. There are
also various types of spatial isomers, in which the relative orientations of the atoms in space can
be different. For example, the compound carvone (found in caraway seeds, spearmint, and mandarin
orange peels) consists of two isomers that are mirror images of each other. S-(+)-carvone smells like
caraway, and R-(−)-carvone smells like spearmint.

Figure 2.24 Molecules of carvone are spatial isomers; they only differ in the relative orientations of
the atoms in space. (credit bottom left: modification of work by “Miansari66”/Wikimedia Commons;
credit bottom right: modification of work by Forest & Kim Starr)
2.5 The Periodic Table

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• State the periodic law and explain the organization of elements in the periodic table
• Predict the general properties of elements based on their location within the periodic
table
 • Identify metals, nonmetals, and metalloids by their properties and/or location on the
periodic table
As early chemists worked to purify ores and discovered more elements, they realized that various
elements could be grouped together by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping includes
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K): These elements all are shiny, conduct heat and
electricity well, and have similar chemical properties. A second grouping includes calcium (Ca),
strontium (Sr), and barium (Ba), which also are shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, and
have chemical properties in common. However, the specific properties of these two groupings are
notably different from each other. For example: Li, Na, and K are much more reactive than are Ca,
Sr, and Ba; Li, Na, and K form compounds with oxygen in a ratio of two of their atoms to one oxygen
atom, whereas Ca, Sr, and Ba form compounds with one of their atoms to one oxygen atom. Fluorine
(F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I) also exhibit similar properties to each other, but these
properties are drastically different from those of any of the elements above.
Dimitri Mendeleev in Russia (1869) and Lothar Meyer in Germany (1870) independently recognized
that there was a periodic relationship among the properties of the elements known at that time. Both
published tables with the elements arranged according to increasing atomic mass. But Mendeleev
went one step further than Meyer: He used his table to predict the existence of elements that would
have the properties similar to aluminum and silicon, but were yet unknown. The discoveries of
gallium (1875) and germanium (1886) provided great support for Mendeleev’s work. Although
Mendeleev and Meyer had a long dispute over priority, Mendeleev’s contributions to the development
of the periodic table are now more widely recognized (Figure 2.25).

Figure 2.25 (a) Dimitri Mendeleev is widely credited with creating (b) the first periodic table of the
elements. (credit a: modification of work by Serge Lachinov; credit b: modification of work by “Den
fjättrade ankan”/Wikimedia
Commons)

By the twentieth century, it became apparent that the periodic relationship involved atomic numbers
rather than atomic masses. The modern statement of this relationship, the periodic law, is as
follows: the properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers . A modern
periodic table arranges the elements in increasing order of their atomic numbers and groups atoms
with similar properties in the same vertical column (Figure 2.26). Each box represents an element
and contains its atomic number, symbol, average atomic mass, and (sometimes) name. The elements
are arranged in seven horizontal rows, called periods or series, and 18 vertical columns, called
groups. Groups are labeled at the top of each column. In the United States, the labels traditionally
were numerals with capital letters. However, IUPAC recommends that the numbers 1 through 18 be
used, and these labels are more common. For the table to fit on a single page, parts of two of the
rows, a total of 14 columns, are usually written below the main body of the table.

Figure 2.26 Elements in the periodic table are organized according to their properties.

Many elements differ dramatically in their chemical and physical properties, but some elements are
similar in their behaviors. For example, many elements appear shiny, are malleable (able to be
deformed without breaking) and ductile (can be drawn into wires), and conduct heat and electricity
well. Other elements are not shiny, malleable, or ductile, and are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. We can sort the elements into large classes with common properties: metals (elements
that are shiny, malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity—shaded yellow); nonmetals
(elements that appear dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity—shaded green); and metalloids
(elements that conduct heat and electricity moderately well, and possess some properties of metals
and some properties of nonmetals—shaded purple).
The elements can also be classified into the main-group elements (or representative elements)
in the columns labeled 1, 2, and 13–18; the transition metals in the columns labeled 3–12; and
inner transition metals in the two rows at the bottom of the table (the top-row elements are
called lanthanides and the bottom-row elements are actinides; Figure 2.27). The elements can
be subdivided further by more specific properties, such as the composition of the compounds they
form. For example, the elements in group 1 (the first column) form compounds that consist of one
atom of the element and one atom of hydrogen. These elements (except hydrogen) are known as
alkali metals, and they all have similar chemical properties. The elements in group 2 (the second
column) form compounds consisting of one atom of the element and two atoms of hydrogen: These
are called alkaline earth metals, with similar properties among members of that group. Other
groups with specific names are the pnictogens (group 15), chalcogens (group 16), halogens
(group 17), and the noble gases (group 18, also known as inert gases). The groups can also be
referred to by the first element of the group: For example, the chalcogens can be called the oxygen
group or oxygen family. Hydrogen is a unique, nonmetallic element with properties similar to both
group 1A and group 7A elements. For that reason, hydrogen may be shown at the top of both
groups, or by itself.

Figure 2.27 The periodic table organizes elements with similar properties into groups.

Link to Learning

Click on this or an interactive

periodic table, which you can use to explore the properties of the elements
(includes podcasts and videos of each element). You may also want to try thisone
that shows photos of all the elements.

INSTRUCTOR’S NOTE:
In studying the periodic table, you might have noticed something about the atomic
masses of some of the elements. Element 43 (technetium), element 61 (promethium),
and most of the elements with atomic number 84 (polonium) and higher have their
atomic mass given in square brackets. This is done for elements that consist entirely of
unstable, radioactive isotopes (you will learn more about radioactivity in the nuclear
chemistry chapter). An average atomic weight cannot be determined for these elements
because their radioisotopes may vary significantly in relative abundance, depending on
the source, or may not even exist in nature.