SELECTION OF TYPE OF GEARS

The first step in the design of the gear drive is the selection of a proper type of
gear for a given application.

The factors that are considered for deciding the type of gear are general layout
of shafts, speed reduction, power to be transmitted, input speed and cost.

Spur and helical gears are used when the shafts are parallel.

When the shafts intersect at right angles, bevel gears are used. Worm gears are
recommended when the axes of shafts are perpendicular and non-intersecting.

When the axes of two shafts are neither perpendicular not intersecting,
crossed helical gears are employed.

The speed reduction or velocity ratio for a single pair of spur or helical gears is
normally taken as 6 : 1. On rare occasions, this can be raised to 10 : 1.

When the velocity ratio increases, the size of the gear wheel increases. This
results in increase in the size of the gearbox and the material cost increases.
 SELECTION OF TYPE OF GEARS

For high speed reduction, two-stage or three-stage constructions are used.

The normal velocity ratio for a pair of bevel gears is 1 : 1, which can be
increased to 3: 1 under certain circumstances. For high speed reduction, worm
gears offer the best choice. The velocity ratio in their case is 60 : 1, which can be
increased to 100 : 1. They are widely used in material handling equipment due
to this advantage.

Spur gears generate noise in high speed applications, due to sudden contact
over the entire face width between two meshing teeth. In helical gears, the
contact between the two meshing teeth begins with a point and gradually
extends along the tooth, resulting in quiet operations. Helical gears are,
therefore, preferred for high speed power transmission.
STANDARD SYSTEMS OF GEAR TOOTH
Proportions of standard involute teeth
(in terms of module m)
 Effect of Pressure Angle
Increasing pressure angle improves the tooth strength but shortens the
duration of contact.
Decreasing pressure angle requires more number of teeth on the pinion to
avoid undercutting.
The 20° pressure angle is a good compromise for most of the power
transmission as well as precision gearboxes.
The 20° pressure angle system has the following advantages over the 14.5°
pressure angle system:
(a) It reduces the risk of undercutting.
(b) It reduces interference.
(c) Due to the increased pressure angle, the tooth becomes slightly broader at
the root.
This makes the tooth stronger and increases the load carrying capacity.
(d) It has greater length of contact.
The main advantage of the 14.5° pressure angle system is its quietness of
operation.
 Effect of module
The module specifies the size of the gear tooth. Figure shows the actual sizes of
gear teeth with four different modules.
It is observed that as the module increases, the size of gear tooth also increases.
It can be said that module is the ‘index’ of the size of gear tooth.
 Standard Values of Module
The standard values of module are given in Table. The module given under
Choice-1 is always preferred. If that is not possible under certain circumstances,
the module under Choice-2 can be selected.
Recommended series of module (mm)

The standard proportions of the gear tooth in terms of module m, for 20° full
depth system are rewritten here.
addendum (ha) = (m) whole depth (h) = (2.25 m)
dedendum (hf ) = (1.25 m) tooth thickness (s) = (1.5708 m)
clearance (c) = (0.25 m) tooth space = (1.5708 m)
working depth (hk) = (2 m) fi llet radius = (0.4 m)
 Crowning
One of the methods of strengthening the gear tooth is ‘crowning’. During
operation, there is uneven distribution of pressure along the face width of the
tooth due to the following reasons:
(i) Inaccuracies of tooth profile caused by machining errors and distortion
during heat
treatment
(ii) Errors in assembly
(iii) Elastic deflection of shaft due to gear tooth forces and bearing reactions
This results in shifting the maximum pressure to the end of the tooth along the
face width. This load can be shifted towards the middle of the face width by
crowning the tooth as illustrated in Fig.
 Crowning
In the crowning process, the ends of the tooth are made slightly thinner by an
amount c. The crowning is done by shaving cutters. The crown c is very small and
depends upon the elastic deflection of teeth in operation. In practice, the crown c
is usually taken as (0.0003 b) to (0.0005 b).
 INTERFERENCE AND UNDERCUTTING
A gear tooth has involute profile only outside the base circle. In fact, the involute
profile begins at the base circle. In some cases, the dedendum is so large that it
extends below this base circle. In such situations, the portion of the tooth below
the base circle is not involute. The tip of the tooth on the mating gear, which is
involute, interferes with this non-involute portion of the dedendum. This
phenomenon of tooth profiles overlapping and cutting into each other is called
‘interference’.
When the gears are generated by involute rack cutters, this interference is
automatically eliminated because the cutting tool removes the interfering
portion of the flank. This is called ‘undercutting’.
Undercutting solves the problem of interference. However, an undercut tooth is
considerably weaker. Undercutting not only weakens the tooth, but also removes
a small involute portion adjacent to the base circle. This loss of involute profile
may cause a serious reduction in the length of the contact.
 Methods to reduce interference
Interference is the main disadvantage of involute gears. It is maximum when
the smallest pinion is in mesh with the largest gear. The following methods can
eliminate interference:
(i) Increase the Number of Teeth on the Pinion
The minimum number of teeth to avoid interference and undercutting is as
follows:
For 14.5° full depth system 32 teeth
For 20° full depth system 17 teeth
For 20° stub system 14 teeth
In case of generated gears, the number of teeth can be further reduced due to
undercutting.
(ii) Increase Pressure Angle This results in smaller
base circle so that more portion of the tooth profile becomes involute.
(iii) Use Long and Short Addendum Gearing In this
method, the addendum of the pinion is made longer than the standard
addendum. Also, the addendum of the mating gear is made shorter than the
standard addendum. However, this results in non-standard
and non-interchangeable gears.
 BACKLASH
Backlash is defined as the amount by which the width of tooth space exceeds the
thickness of the engaging tooth measured along the pitch circle. It is illustrated in
Fig.

The objectives for providing backlash are as follows:

(i) Backlash prevents the mating teeth from jamming together. The mating teeth
do not make contact on both sides simultaneously. This makes the teeth roll
together freely and smoothly.
(ii) Backlash compensates for machining errors.
(iii) Backlash compensates for thermal expansion of teeth.
 FORCE ANALYSIS
In gears, power is transmitted by means of a force exerted by the tooth of the
driving gear on the meshing tooth of the driven gear. Figure shows the tooth of
the driving pinion exerting a force PN on the tooth of the driven gear. According
to the fundamental law of gearing, this resultant force PN always acts along the
pressure line.
 FORCE ANALYSIS
The resultant force PN can be resolved into two
components— tangential component Pt and radial
component Pr at the pitch point as shown in Fig. The
tangential component Pt is a useful load because it
determines the magnitude of the torque and
consequently the power, which is transmitted. The
radial component Pr is a separating force, which is
always directed towards the centre of the gear.
 FORCE ANALYSIS
The torque transmitted by the gears is given by,
 FORCE ANALYSIS

The above analysis of the gear tooth force is based on the following assumptions:

(i) As the point of contact moves, the magnitude of the resultant force PN
changes. This effect is neglected in the above analysis.

(ii) It is assumed that only one pair of teeth takes the entire load. At times there are
two pairs, which are simultaneously in contact and share the load. This aspect
is neglected in the analysis.

(iii) The analysis is valid under static conditions, i.e., when the gears are running
at very low velocities. In practice, there is dynamic force in addition to force
due to power transmission. The effect of this dynamic force is neglected in the
analysis.
 FORCE ANALYSIS
The directions of two components Pt and Pr are decided
by constructing the free-body diagram as shown in Fig.
Refer to Fig.(a):
(i) It is assumed that the pinion is the driving element
while gear is the driven element.
(ii) It is assumed that the pinion rotates in anticlockwise
direction. Therefore, the gear will rotate in clockwise
direction.
(iii) In running condition, the point 2 on the pinion and
the point 1 on gear are in contact with each other.
Refer to Fig.(b):
(i) The gear G is the driven element. It is made to rotate in
clockwise direction. Therefore, at point 1 on the gear G,
the tangential component Pt will act towards the left.
(ii) There will be equal and opposite reaction at point 2
on the pinion P. It is observed that the direction of
tangential component Pt on the driving element, that is,
pinion is opposite to the direction of rotation.
 FORCE ANALYSIS
Refer to Fig.(c):
(i) The radial component acts towards the centre of the respective gear. For pinion
P, the radial component Pr acts at point 2 towards the centre O2.
(ii) For the gear G, the radial component Pr acts at point 1 towards the centre O1.
 GEAR TOOTH FAILURES
There are two basic modes of gear tooth failure— breakage of the tooth due to
static and dynamic loads and the surface destruction.
The complete breakage of the tooth can be avoided by adjusting the parameters
in the gear design, such as the module and the face width, so that the beam
strength of the gear tooth is more than the sum of static and dynamic loads.

The surface destruction or tooth wear is classified according to the basis of their
primary causes. The principal types of gear tooth wear are as follows:

(i) Abrasive Wear

Foreign particles in the lubricant, such as dirt, rust, weld spatter or metallic
debris can scratch or brinell the tooth surface. Remedies against this type of
wear are provision of oil filters, increasing surface hardness and use of high
viscosity oils. A thick lubricating film developed by these oils allows fine
particles to pass without scratching.
 GEAR TOOTH FAILURES
(ii) Corrosive Wear
The corrosion of the tooth surface is caused by corrosive elements, such as
extreme pressure additives present in lubricating oils and foreign materials due
to external contamination. These elements attack the tooth surface, resulting in
fine wear uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Remedies against this
type of wear are, providing complete enclosure for the gears free from external
contamination, selecting proper additives and replacing the lubricating oil at
regular intervals.

(iii) Initial Pitting

The initial or corrective pitting is a localized phenomenon, characterized by
small pits at high spots. Such high spots are progressively worn out and the
load is redistributed. Initial pitting is caused by the errors in tooth profile,
surface irregularities and misalignment. The remedies against initial pitting
are precise machining of gears, adjusting the correct alignment of gears so
that the load is uniformly distributed across the full face width, and reducing
the dynamic loads.
 GEAR TOOTH FAILURES
(iv) Destructive Pitting
Destructive pitting is a surface fatigue failure, which occurs when the load on
the gear tooth exceeds the surface endurance strength of the material. This type
of failure is characterized by pits, which continue to grow resulting in complete
destruction of the tooth surface and, in some cases, even premature breakage of
the tooth. Destructive pitting depends upon the magnitude of the Hertz’ contact
stress and the number of stress cycles. This type of failure can be avoided by
designing the gears in such a way that the wear strength of the gear tooth is
more than the sum of static and dynamic loads. The surface endurance strength
can be improved by increasing the surface hardness.
(v) Scoring
Excessive surface pressure, high surface speed and inadequate supply of
lubricant result in the breakdown of the oil film. This results in excessive
frictional heat and overheating of the meshing teeth. Scoring is a stick-slip
phenomenon, in which alternate welding and shearing takes place rapidly at the
high spots. Here, the rate of wear is faster. Scoring can be avoided by selecting
the parameters, such as surface speed, surface pressure and the flow of
lubricant in such a way that the resulting temperature at the contacting surfaces
is within permissible limits.
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
The analysis of bending stresses in gear tooth was done by Wilfred Lewis in his paper,
‘The investigation of the strength of gear tooth’ submitted at the Engineer’s Club of
Philadelphia in 1892.
Even today, the Lewis equation is considered as the basic equation in the design of gears.
In the Lewis analysis, the gear tooth is treated as a cantilever beam as shown in Fig.
The tangential component (Pt) causes the bending moment about the base of the tooth.
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
The Lewis equation is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The effect of the radial component (Pr), which induces compressive stresses, is
neglected.

(ii) It is assumed that the tangential component (Pt) is uniformly distributed over the face
width of the gear. This is possible when the gears are rigid and accurately machined.

(iii) The effect of stress concentration is neglected.

(iv) It is assumed that at any time, only one pair of teeth is in contact and takes the total
load.
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
It is observed that the cross-section of the tooth varies from the free end to the fixed end.
Therefore, a parabola is constructed within the tooth profile and shown by a dotted line in
Fig. The advantage of parabolic outline is that it is a beam of uniform strength. For this
beam, the stress at any cross-section is uniform or same. The weakest section of the gear
tooth is at the section XX, where the parabola is tangent to the tooth profile.
BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH

In the above equation, Y is called the Lewis form factor. Equation (a) gives the
relationship between the tangential force (Pt) and the corresponding stress σb.
When the tangential force is increased, the stress also increases. When the stress
reaches the permissible magnitude of bending stresses, the corresponding force
(Pt) is called the beam strength.
Therefore, the beam strength (Sb) is the maximum value of the tangential force
that the tooth can transmit without bending failure. Replacing (Pt) by (Sb), Eq. (a)
is modified in the following way:

Sb = m b σb Y

where,
Sb = beam strength of gear tooth (N)
σb = permissible bending stress (N/mm2)
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
The values of the Lewis form factor Y for 20° full depth involute system, are given in Table.
 BEAM STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
In order to avoid the breakage of gear tooth due to bending, the beam strength should be
more than the effective force between the meshing teeth.

Therefore,
Sb ≥ Peff

The method of calculating of Peff is discussed in next Section. In the design of gears, it is
required to decide the weaker between the pinion and gear.

Rewriting the Lewis equation,

Sb = m b σb Y

It is observed that m and b are same for pinion as well as for gear. When different
materials are used, the product (σb × Y) decides the weaker between pinion and gear. The
Lewis form factor Y is always less for a pinion compared with gear.
When the same material is used for the pinion and gear, the pinion is always weaker than
the gear.
 PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESS
The tooth of the gear is subjected to fluctuating bending stress as it comes in contact
with the meshing tooth. The stress–time diagrams for gear teeth are illustrated in Fig.
The following observations are made from the figure:
(i) The teeth of the driving and driven gears are subjected to stress in one direction
only as shown in Fig. (b). It is called ‘repeated’ stress. For this type of stress
distribution,
 PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESS
(ii) The teeth of the idler gear or planetary pinion are subjected to stress in both
directions as shown in Fig.(c). It is called ‘reversed’ stress. For this type of stress
distribution,
σm = 0 and σa = σmax
Since the teeth are subjected to fluctuating stresses, endurance limit stress (Se) is the
criterion of design. Therefore, the maximum bending stress is equal to the endurance
limit stress of the gear tooth.
 PERMISSIBLE BENDING STRESS
The endurance limit stress of the gear tooth depends upon the following factors:
(i) Surface finish of the gear tooth
(ii) Size of the gear tooth
(iii) Reliability used in design
(iv) Stress concentration in the gear tooth
(v) Gears rotating in one direction or both directions
(vi) Gears tooth subjected to stress in one direction or both directions

In practice, it is difficult to get the above mentioned data for each and every case of gear
design. Buckingham has suggested that the endurance limit stress of gear tooth is
approximately one-third of the ultimate tensile strength of the material. In this chapter,
we will use this approximate value.
Therefore,

In case of bronze gears, the endurance limit stress is taken as 40% of the ultimate tensile
strength.
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
In previous slide, a method to determine the tangential component of the resultant force
between two meshing teeth is discussed. The component is calculated by using the
following two equations:

The value of the tangential component, therefore, depends upon the rated power and
rated speed. In practical applications, the torque developed by the source of power varies
during the work cycle. Similarly, the torque required by the driven machine also varies.
The two sides are balanced by means of a flywheel. In gear design, the maximum force
(due to maximum torque) is the criterion. This is accounted by means of a service factor.
The service factor Cs is defined as

where (Pt) is the tangential

force due to rated torque
(Mt).
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The values of the service factor are given in Tables
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH

In most of the cases, the gears rotate at an appreciable speed and it becomes necessary
to consider the dynamic force resulting from the impact between mating teeth. The
dynamic force is induced due to the following factors:
(i) inaccuracies of the tooth profile;
(ii) errors in tooth spacing;
(iii) misalignment between bearings;
(iv) elasticity of parts; and
(v) inertia of rotating disks.

There are two methods to account for the dynamic load—approximate estimation by the
velocity factor in the preliminary stages of gear design and precise calculation by
Buckingham’s equation in the final stages of gear design.
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
It is difficult to calculate the exact magnitude of dynamic load in the preliminary stages of
gear design. To overcome this difficulty, a velocity factor Cv developed by Barth is used. The
values of the velocity factor are as follows:
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The velocity factor is an empirical relationship developed by past experience. This method
of calculating dynamic load has the following advantages:
(i) It is much easier to calculate the velocity factor and design gears.
(ii) Velocity factors have sanctions of the American Gear Manufacturing Association
(AGMA)
(iii) They were used in the past for many years and given satisfactory results.

The disadvantages of the velocity factor method are as follows:

(i) The dynamic load depends upon a number of factors such as the mass of gears, mass
connected to the gear shaft and properties of the gear material, like modulus of a
elasticity. A gear tooth of a material with low modulus of elasticity will deflect more
than the gear tooth of a material with higher modulus of elasticity, and other things
being equal, will absorb the energy of impact and reduce the dynamic load. Velocity
factor method neglects these factors. It assumes that dynamic load depends only
upon pitch line velocity.
(ii) Use of velocity factor is restricted to a limited range of pitch line velocities. It is not
possible to extrapolate the values.
EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The ready made values of C for various conditions are given in Table
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The incremental dynamic load (Pd) calculated by Buckingham’s equation is far more than
the corresponding load calculated by the velocity factor method. Very often, it is three to
four times the load (Pt) due to power transmission. It has been observed that in most of the
practical cases, the actual dynamic load is less than that of the calculated values by
Buckingham’s equation. This is because the equation is mainly applicable to large gears with
connected masses that rotate at moderate speeds. The actual dynamic load is less in the
following cases:
(i) small gears transmitting low power;
(ii) high-speed light-load gears;
(iii) small gears on small shaft;
(iv) gear shafts up to 50 mm diameter; and
(v) small gears transmitting less than 15 kW of power.
 EFFECTIVE LOAD ON GEAR TOOTH
The error e in Eq. is given by, e = ep + e g
where,
ep = error for pinion
eg = error for gear
The error depends upon the quality of the gear and the method of manufacture. There are
twelve different grades from Gr. 1 to Gr. 12 in decreasing order of precision. The expected
error on the gear tooth is considered to be equal to tolerance.
The tolerances for adjacent pitch error (e) are given in Table
These tolerances are calculated by using the
following basic equation:

The method of manufacture for gears depends upon the grade of the
gear. Gears of Grade 11 and Grade 12 are manufactured by casting.
Gears of Grade 8 and Grade 9 require rough and fine hobbing. Gears
of Grade 6 are obtained by hobbing and rough grinding, while Grade
4 requires shaving and finish grinding.
 ESTIMATION OF MODULE
BASED ON BEAM STRENGTH
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when the contact stresses
between two meshing teeth exceed the surface endurance strength of the
material. Pitting is a surface fatigue failure, characterized by small pits on the
surface of the gear tooth.

In order to avoid this type of failure, the proportions of the gear tooth and
surface properties, such as surface hardness, should be selected in such a way
that the wear strength of the gear tooth is more than the effective load
between the meshing teeth.

The analysis of wear strength was done by Earle Buckingham, in his paper
‘The relation of load to wear of gear teeth’, which was submitted before the
American Gear Manufacturing Association (AGMA) in 1926. Buckingham’s
equation gives the wear strength of the gear tooth.
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
Buckingham’s equation is based on Hertz theory of contact stresses. When two cylinders
are pressed together as shown in Fig.(a), the contact stress is given by,
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
Due to deformation under the action of load P, a rectangular surface of width (2b) and
length (l) is formed between the two cylinders. The elliptical stress distribution across the
width (2b) is shown in Fig. (b) and (c).
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH

The above equation of the contact stress is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The cylinders are made of isotropic materials.
(ii) The elastic limit of the material is not exceeded.
(iii) The dimensions r1, r2 are very large when compared to the width (2b) of the
deformation.
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
Figure shows the contact between two meshing teeth at the pitch point. The radii r1 and r2
WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH
 WEAR STRENGTH OF GEAR TOOTH

The above equation is applicable only when both the gears are made of steel with a 20°
pressure angle.
In other cases, Eq. should be used.

Table gives the material properties for the calculation of K. In order to avoid failure of the
gear tooth due to pitting, the wear strength should be more than the effective force
between the meshing teeth.
ESTIMATION OF MODULE BASED
ON WEAR STRENGTH
It is required to design a pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth based on the
Lewis equation. The velocity factor is to be used to account for dynamic load. The pinion
shaft is connected to a 10 kW, 1440 rpm motor. The starting torque of the motor is 150% of
the rated torque. The speed reduction is 4 : 1. The pinion as well as the gear is made of
plain carbon steel 40C8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2). The factor of safety can be taken as 1.5. Design
the gears, specify their dimensions and suggest suitable surface hardness for the gears.
It is required to design a pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth consisting of a
20-teeth pinion meshing with a 50 teeth gear. The pinion shaft is connected to a 22.5 kW,
1450 rpm electric motor. The starting torque of the motor can be taken as 150% of the
rated torque. The material for the pinion is plain carbon steel Fe 410 (Sut = 410 N/mm2),
while the gear is made of grey cast iron FG 200 (Sut =200 N/mm2). The factor of safety is
1.5. Design the gears based on the Lewis equation and using velocity factor to account for
the dynamic load.
A pair of spur gears with 20° full-depth involute teeth consists of a 19 teeth pinion meshing
with a 40 teeth gear. The pinion is mounted on a crankshaft of 7.5 kW single cylinder diesel
engine running at 1500 rpm. The driven shaft is connected to a two-stage compressor.
Assume the service factor as 1.5. The pinion as well as the gear is made of steel 40C8 (Sut =
600 N/mm2). The module and face width of the gears are 4 and 40 mm respectively.
(i) Using the velocity factor to account for the dynamic load, determine the factor of
safety.
(ii) If the factor of safety is two for pitting failure, recommend surface hardness for the
gears.
(iii) If the gears are machined to meet the specifications of Grade 8, determine the factor
of safety for bending using Buckingham’s equation for dynamic load.
(iv) Is the gear design satisfactory? If not, what is the method to satisfy the design
conditions? How will you modify the design?
It is required to design a spur gear speed reducer for a compressor running at 250 rpm driven
by a 7.5 kW, 1000 rpm electric motor. The centre distance between the axes of the gear shafts
should be exactly 250 mm. The starting torque of the motor can be assumed to be 150% of
the rated torque. The gears are made of carbon steel 50C4 (Sut = 700 N/mm2). The pressure
angle is 20°. The factor of safety is 2 for preliminary design based on the use of velocity
factor.
(i) Design the gears and specify their dimensions.
(ii) Assume that the gears are manufactured to meet the requirements of Grade 6 and
calculate the dynamic load by using Buckingham’s equation.
(iii) Calculate the effective load.
(iv) What is the actual factor of safety against bending failure?
(v) Using the same factor of safety against pitting failure, specify suitable surface hardness
for the gears.