What are Acids and Bases?

An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another
substance. A base is a molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid.
Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste. An acid is basically a molecule which can donate an H+
ion and can remain energetically favorable after a loss of H+. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.
Bases, on the other hand, are characterized by a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base that can be dissolved in
water is referred to as an alkali. When these substances chemically react with acids, they yield salts. Bases are
known to turn red litmus blue.
In our everyday lives, we use many compounds which scientists call acids. The orange or grapefruit juice you drink
for breakfast contains citric acid (also known as Vitamin C). When milk turns sour, it contains lactic acid. The
vinegar used in salad dressing contains acetic acid. According to this a chemical bond is considered as being made
up of an acid-base combination. The properties of a molecule, therefore, can be understood by dividing it into acid
and base fragments.

1. Properties of Acids

 Acids are corrosive in nature.

 They are good conductors of electricity.
 Their pH values are always less than 7.
 When reacted with metals, these substances produce hydrogen gas.
 Acids are sour-tasting substances.
 Examples: Sulfuric acid [H2SO4], Hydrochloric acid [HCl], Acetic acid [CH3COOH].

2. Properties of Bases
Some properties, like a bitter taste, are owned by all bases. The bases feel slippery, too. Dream on what slippery
soap looks like. And this is a foundation. Furthermore, when immersed in water, bases conduct electricity because
they consist of charged particles in the solution.

 They are found to have a soapy texture when touched.

 These substances release hydroxide ions (OH – ions) when dissolved in water.
 In their aqueous solutions, bases act as good conductors of electricity.
 The pH values corresponding to bases are always greater than 7.
 Bases are bitter-tasting substances which have the ability to turn red litmus paper blue.
 Examples: Sodium hydroxide [NaOH], milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2], calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2].

3. Neutral Substances
The neutral substance is a substance which has no acid or base properties, has the same amount of hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions, and does not modify the colour of the litmus surface.

 These substances do not display any acidic or basic characteristics.

 Their pH values approximate to 7.
 Neutral substances have no effect on red or blue litmus paper.
 The pH of pure water is exactly 7.
 Examples: Water, Common salt (NaCl)
Theories of Acids and Bases
Three different theories have been put forth in order to define acids and bases. These theories include the
Arrhenius theory, the Bronsted-Lowry theory, and the Lewis theory of acids and bases. A brief description of each
of these theories is provided in this subsection.  Acids and bases can be defined via three different theories.

 The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases states that “an acid generates H + ions in a solution whereas a base
produces an OH– ion in its solution”.
 The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines “an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor”.
 Finally, the Lewis definition of acids and bases describes “acids as electron-pair acceptors and bases as
electron-pair donors”.

The Arrhenius theory 

The Arrhenius theory was first introduced by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in the year 1887. To conduct
electricity, one must have free moving ions. Svante Arrhenius noticed that the solution of acid conducts electricity
by dissolving the substance in the solution, which dissociates into ions. This concept is well-known these days, but
during that time it was controversial. This theory is known as “Electrolytic dissociation.”
Water is a neutral substance, which does not conduct electricity. By dissolving some substance in water, it
conducts electricity. These substances are called electrolytes and the process is known as “Electrolytic dissociation.
Arrhenius Acid: According to Arrhenius theory, acid is a substance that gives H + ion on dissolving in the aqueous
solution. It increases the concentration of H + ions in the solution. The base is a substance that ionizes OH – ion by
dissolving in the aqueous solution. The concentration of OH- ions is high in the solution.
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
An Arrhenius base is a substrate that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions in the aqueous solution. The
example for Arrhenius base is highly soluble sodium hydroxide compound in water, which dissociates to give
sodium ion and hydroxide ion.
In aqueous solution, NaOH completely dissolves to give hydroxide ion and sodium ion, to increase the
concentration of hydroxide ions.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Arrhenius Acids Arrhenius Base
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sodium hydroxide [NaOH]
Nitric acid (HNO3) Potassium hydroxide [KOH]
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]

Limitations of Arrhenius theory

1) The Arrhenius theory is applicable only in aqueous solution; for example, according to the theory, HCl is an
acid in the aqueous solution but not in benzene, even though it donates H+ ion to the benzene.
2) It is applicable only to compounds having formula HA for acids or BOH for bases. Thus the theory is unable
to explain acidic properties of CuSO4, AlC13, CO2, SO2 as they cannot be represented by the formula HA.
Similarly, the theory is unable to explain the basic properties of Na2CO3, amines, pyridine, NH3 as they
cannot be represented by the formula BOH.
3) The theory does not consider the role of solvent in deciding the nature of acid and base. Thus HCL is strong
acid when dissolved in water but it is weak acid when dissolved in benzene.
Bronsted-Lowry Theory

The Bronsted-Lowry theory (Proton theory of acid and base) is an acid-base reaction theory, introduced by
Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted (Danish Chemist) and Thomas Martin Lowry (English Chemist) in 1923.

The Bronsted-Lowry theory is an extended version of an Arrhenius theory of acid-base.

According to the Arrhenius theory, in aqueous solution, acid increases the concentration of H + ions and base
increases the concentration of OH– ions. The limitations of Arrhenius theory was, it identifies the reaction of an
acid and base only in the aqueous medium.

According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, acid is a substance which donates an H + ion or a proton and forms its
conjugate base and the base is a substance which accepts an H + ion or a proton and forms its conjugate acid.

The Bronsted-Lowry acid is a substance which donates a proton or H + ion to the other compound.
Acid ⇌ Proton + Conjugate-base
A conjugate base can accept a proton and acid reforms
HF⇌H++F− ; H2SO4⇌H++HSO4− ; NH4+⇌H++NH3 - ; H2O⇌H++ OH−

The Bronsted-Lowry base is a substance which accepts a proton or H+ ion from other compounds.
Base +Proton ⇌ Conjugated-acid

A conjugated acid can donate a proton and base reforms.

OH−+H+⇌H2O S2−+H+⇌HS− CO32− +H+⇌HCO3−

Acid Conjugated Base Acid Conjugated Base
STRENGTH ACID

BASE

Hydrochloric acid Chloride ion (Cl–)

(HCl)
Sulphuric acid Hydrogen sulphate ion
(H2SO4) (HSO4–)
Hydrogen sulphate HSO42-
STRENGTH

ion (HSO4–)
Nitrous acid (HNO2) Nitrite ion (NO2–)
Hydronium ion Water (H2O) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Acetate ion (CH3COO–)
(H3O+)

Summary:

1. A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a substance which donates a proton or H + ion to the other compound and forms a
conjugated base.
2. A Bronsted-Lowry base is a substance which accepts a proton or H + ion from the other compound and
forms conjugated acid.
3. Strong acids and bases ionize completely in an aqueous solution, whereas weak acids and bases are
partially ionized in aqueous solution.
4. Water molecule is amphoteric in nature, which means it can act as Bronsted-Lowry acid as well as
Bronsted-Lowry base.
Lewis Theory of Acid Base

Lewis acids and bases are described by the Lewis theory of acid-base reactions as electron-pair acceptors and
electron pair donors respectively. Therefore, a Lewis base can donate a pair of electrons to a Lewis acid to form a
product containing a coordinate covalent bond. This product is also referred to as a Lewis adduct.

Lewis Acid
Lewis Acids are the chemical species which have empty orbitals and are able to accept electron pairs from Lewis
bases. This term was classically used to describe chemical species with a trigonal planar structure and an empty p-
orbital. An example of such a Lewis acid would be BR 3 (where R can be a halide or an organic substituent).
Water and some other compounds are considered as both Lewis acids and bases since they can accept and donate
electron pairs based on the reaction.

Examples of Lewis Acids

Some common examples of Lewis acids which can accept electron pairs include:

 H+ ions (or protons) can be considered as Lewis acids along with onium ions like H 3O+.
 The cations of d block elements which display high oxidation states can act as electron pair acceptors. An
example of such a cation is Fe3+.
 Cations of metals such as Mg2+ and Li+ can form coordination compounds with water acting as the ligand.
These aquo complexes can accept electron pairs and behave as Lewis acids.
 Carbocations given by H3C+ and other trigonal planar species tend to accept electron pairs.
 The Pentahalides of the following group 15 elements can act as Lewis acids – Antimony, Arsenic, and
Phosphorus.
Apart from these chemical compounds listed above, any electron-deficient π system can act as an acceptor of
electron pairs – enones, for example.

Lewis Base

Atomic or molecular chemical species having a highly localized HOMO (The Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital)
act as Lewis bases. These chemical species have the ability to donate an electron pair to a given Lewis acid in order
to form an adduct, as discussed earlier.
The most common Lewis bases are ammonia, alkyl amines, and other conventional amines. Commonly, Lewis
bases are anionic in nature and their base strength generally depends on the pK a of the corresponding parent
acid. Since Lewis bases are electron-rich species that have the ability to donate electron-pairs, they can be
classified as nucleophiles. Similarly, Lewis acids can be classified as electrophiles (since they behave as electron-
pair acceptors).

Examples of Lewis Bases

Examples of Lewis bases which have an ability to donate an electron pair are listed below.

 Pyridine and the derivatives of pyridine have the ability to act as electron pair donors. Thus, these
compounds can be classified as Lewis bases.
 The compounds in which Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium, and Tellurium (which belong to group 16 of the
Periodic Table) exhibit an oxidation state of -2 are generally Lewis bases. Examples of such compounds
include water and ketones.
 The simple anions which have an electron pair can also act as Lewis bases by donating these electrons.
Examples of such anions include H– and F–. Even some complex anions, such as the sulfate anion (SO 42-) can
donate pairs of electrons.
  The π-systems which are rich in electrons (such as benzene, ethyne, and ethene) exhibit great electron pair
donating capabilities.
Weak Lewis acids have strong conjugate Lewis bases. Apart from this, many chemical species having a lone pair of
electrons such as CH3– and OH– are identified as Lewis bases due to their electron pair donating capabilities.

Chemical Reactions Between Lewis Acids and Bases

Reactions with the H+ ion

The H+ ion acts as a Lewis acid and H2O acts as a Lewis base. The
reaction between the water molecule and the proton yields a
hydronium ion (H3O+), as illustrated below.

Here, the oxygen atom donates an electron pair to the proton, forming a coordinate covalent bond in the process.
The resulting Lewis acid has a +1 charge associated with it. Another example of a reaction in which the H + ion acts
as a Lewis acid is its reaction with ammonia (NH 3) to form an ammonium ion (NH4+).

In this reaction, the proton receives an electron pair from the nitrogen
atom (belonging to the ammonia molecule). The formation of a coordinate
covalent bond between the two results in the formation of a Lewis adduct
(the ammonium cation).

Reaction Between Ag+ and Ammonia

In this reaction, two Lewis bases form an adduct with one Lewis acid, as
illustrated below.

Here, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and the silver ion acts as a Lewis acid. Each nitrogen atom donates an electron
pair to Ag+, resulting in two separate coordinate covalent bonds. The adduct formed from the Lewis acid and base
has the chemical formula Ag(NH3)2+.

Reaction Between the Fluoride Ion and Boron Trifluoride

This reaction features the formation of a coordinate bond between the
fluoride anion (F–) and boron trifluoride (BF3).

Here, F– acts as an electron pair donor whereas BF 3 accepts the electron

pair. The reaction between the Lewis acid and base results in the formation of an adduct with the chemical
formula BF4–.

Applications of Lewis Acids and Bases

Some important applications of Lewis acids and bases are provided below.
Lewis acids play a vital role as a catalyst in the Friedel-Crafts reaction –  AlCl3 accepts a lone pair of electrons
belonging to the chloride ion leading to the formation of AlCl 4– in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation process.
This also leads to the formation of the highly electrophilic carbonium ion which acts as a strong Lewis Acid. The
chemical reaction can be written as follows.
RCl + AlCl3 ⟶ R+ + AlCl4–
In the field of organic chemistry, Lewis acids are widely used to encourage many cationic or pseudo-cationic
chemical reactions.
Lewis bases have immense applications in the modification of the selectivity and the activity of metallic catalysts.
For the production of pharmaceuticals, asymmetric catalysis is an important part of enantioselective synthesis. In
order to enable asymmetric catalysis, chiral Lewis bases are often used to confer chirality on catalysts.
Several Lewis bases have the ability to form many bonds with Lewis acids. These compounds are also called
‘multidentate Lewis bases’ or ‘chelating agents’ and have a wide range of industrial and agricultural applications.

What are Strong and Weak Acids?

 A strong acid is the one that completely ionizes in a solution whereas, a weak acid only partially ionizes.
 Strong acids are corrosive in nature and cause severe burns when they come in contact with skin.
 But the weak acids are only mildly corrosive and are even present in our food and body.
 Hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid are examples of the strong acid.
 Ethanoic acid, citric acid (present in citric fruits) and acetic acid (present in vinegar) are a few examples of
weak acids.

Factors Determining Acid Strength

As already discussed, different acids have different acid strengths. An acid having a greater degree of dissociation
behaves as a stronger acid. Now let us understand the factors on which strength of an acid depends. The degree of
dissociation of an acid depends on the following two factors.

1. Strength of H-A bond

2. Polarity of H-A bond

In general weaker the strength of H-A bond, stronger is the acid. Similarly, greater the polarity of H-A bond,
stronger is the acid. Both these factors make the dissociation of acid molecules into H+ and A- easier thereby
increasing the acidity.
It may be mentioned here that while comparing elements in the same group of the periodic table the strength of
H-A bond is a more important factor in deciding the acidity than its polarity. As the size of A increase on
descending a group, H-A bond strength decreases and therefore the acid strength increases. For example, the acid
strengths of hydrides of group-17 elements increase in the order.
HF < HCl < HBr < HI

Factors Affecting Acid Strength

 It depends on the strength of the H-A bond. The weaker the bond, the lesser the energy required to break
it. Hence, the acid is strong.
 The polarity of the H-A bond affects its acid strength. If the bond is highly polar, the proton tends to leave
the molecule more easily, making it a strong acid.
 However, bond strength is more important when we consider and compare acid strengths of elements in
the same group of the periodic table, using the above two factors.
 Nevertheless, when we compare the acid strengths of elements in the same row, priority is given to the
polarity of the H-A bond.
 The atomic size of A also affects the acid strength. As the atom becomes larger, the bond gets weaker.
Consequently, acid strength increases.

1. Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen transfer

The terms oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of the adding or removing oxygen to a compound.
while this is not the most robust definition, as discussed below, it is the easiest to remember.

 Oxidation is the gain of oxygen.

 Reduction is the loss of oxygen.

Because both reduction and oxidation are occurring

simultaneously, this is known as a redox reaction.

An oxidizing agent is substance which oxidizes something else. In the above example, the iron(III) oxide is the
oxidizing agent. A reducing agent reduces something else. In the equation, the carbon monoxide is the reducing
agent.

 Oxidizing agents give oxygen to another substance.

 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance.

[Link] and reduction in terms of hydrogen transfer

These are old definitions which are no longer used, except occasionally in organic chemistry.

 Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen.

 Reduction is the gain of hydrogen.

Notice that these are exactly the opposite of the oxygen definitions (#1).

For example, ethanol can be oxidized to ethanal:

More
precise definitions of oxidizing and reducing agents are,

 Oxidizing agents add oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from it.

 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or add hydrogen to it.

[Link] and reduction in terms of electron transfer

 Oxidation is loss of electrons
 Reduction is gain of electrons

The equation below shows an obvious example of oxygen transfer in a simple redox reaction:

CuO+Mg→Cu+MgO
Copper(II) oxide and magnesium oxide are both
ionic compounds. If the above is written as an ionic
equation, it becomes apparent that the oxide ions
are spectator ions. Omitting them gives:

In the above reaction, magnesium reduces the

copper(II) ion by transferring electrons to the ion
and neutralizing its charge. Therefore, magnesium is
a reducing agent. Another way of putting this is that
the copper(II) ion is removing electrons from the magnesium to create a magnesium ion. The copper(II) ion is
acting as an oxidizing agent.

Oxidation numbers

How can we determine if a particular reaction is a redox reaction? In some cases, it is possible to tell by visual

inspection. For example, we could have determined that the rusting of iron is a redox process by simply noting that

it involves the formation of ions (Fe 3+ and O2- ) from free elements (Fe and O2). In other cases, however, it is not as

obvious, particularly when the reaction in question involves only nonmetal substances.

To help identify these less obvious redox reactions, chemists have developed the concept of oxidation numbers,

which provides a way to track electrons before and after a reaction. An atom’s oxidation number (or oxidation

state) is the imaginary charge that the atom would have if all of the bonds to the atom were completely ionic.

Oxidation numbers can be assigned to the atoms in a reaction using the following guidelines:

1. An atom of a free element has an oxidation number of 0. For example, each Cl atom in Cl2 has an oxidation

number of 0. The same is true for each H atom in H2 each S atom in S8 , and so on.

2. A monatomic ion has an oxidation number equal to its charge. For example, the oxidation number of  Cu+2

is +2 and the oxidation number of Br- is -1.

3. When combined with other elements, alkali metals (Group 1A) always have an oxidation number of +1,

while alkaline earth metals (Group 2A) always have an oxidation number of +2.

4. Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 in all compounds.

5. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1, in most compounds. The major exception is when hydrogen is

combined with metals, as in NaH or LiAlH4 . In these cases, the oxidation number of hydrogen is -1.

6. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 in most compounds. The major exception is in peroxides

(compounds containing O22- ), where oxygen has an oxidation number of -1. Examples of common

peroxides include H2O2 and Na2O2.

 7. The other halogens (Cl, Br and I) have an oxidation number of -1 in compounds, unless combined with

oxygen or fluorine. For example, the oxidation number of Cl in the ion CLO4- is +7 (since O has an oxidation

number of -2 and the overall charge on the ion is -1).

8. The sum of the oxidation numbers for all atoms in a neutral compound is equal to zero, while the sum for

all atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion. Consider the polyatomic ion  NO3- .

Each O atom has an oxidation number of -2 (for a total of −2×3=−6) Since the overall charge on the ion is -

1, the oxidation number of the N atom must be +5.

One thing to note is that oxidation numbers are written with the sign (+ or −) before the number. This is in contrast

to the charges on ions, which are written with the sign after the number. Now, let’s see some examples of

assigning oxidation numbers!

Example 2: Oxidation number of a metal ion in a complex.

i) Ni(CO) 4.
The total charge of the complex is zero. CO is a neutral molecule.
Oxidation states → x + (4*0) = 0: x = 0
Atoms in the species → Ni 4 CO
Nickel is also in zero oxidation state.
ii) [CoCl2(NH3)4]Cl.
The complex can be written in the ionic forms as [CoCl 2(NH3)4]+Cl–.
Metal is in a cationic complex with a unitary positive charge. Ammonia is a neutral ligand and chlorine has a unit
negative charge.
Oxidation number of [CoCl2(NH3)4]+ = Oxidation number of (Co + 2Cl + 4×0) = +1.
Oxidation states → x + (2*-1) + 4*0 = +1: x = +3
Atoms in the species → Co 2Cl 4 NH 3
Oxidation number of cobalt in the complex = +3
Define Valency
The combining capacity of an atom is known as its valency. The number of bonds that an atom can form as part of
a compound is expressed by the valency of the element.
We all know how electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals. Valence electrons  are those electrons which
are present in the outermost orbit of the atom. From the Bohr-bury scheme, we can say that the outermost shell
can contain a maximum of 8 electrons. Only a little chemical activity is observed when the outermost shell is
completely filled. We can also say that it’s combining capacity becomes zero.
For example, nitrogen forms a number of compounds with hydrogen such as NH3, N2H4, N3H in which  nitrogen
atoms have valencies of 3, 2 and 1/3 respectively. Thus, this concept of valency as a mere number was not clear.
Therefore, later on valency was defined as the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom in a molecule.

Difference Between Valency and Oxidation State

Oxidation State Valency

Oxidation state can be defined as the number of  Valency can be defined as the number of electrons
electrons that a particular atom can lose, gain or share present in the outermost shell of a particular element.
with another atom.
 Oxidation state indicates the electrical charge of an Valency does not indicate the electrical charge of an
atom in a compound. atom in a compound.
Oxidation state does not indicate the number of bonds Valency determines the maximum number of bonds
that a particular atom can have. that an atom can have.
Oxidation state of a pure element is always zero.  Valency of a pure element depends on the number of
electrons it has in its outermost shell of an atom (an
atom in gaseous phase).