SECTION K.
Chapter 59
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▪ Experiment
▪ The process followed in order to obtain an
experimental value or outcome.
▪ Experimental unit is the object on which the
observations are made.
▪ Results of experiment are called outcomes.
Example:
Experiment - the process of tossing a coin
Experimental unit – the coin that is tossed
Outcome – Heads or Tails from a tossed coin
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▪ Sample space
▪ Collection of all possible outcomes of an
experiment.
▪ It is denoted by S.
▪ List all possible outcomes inside braces.
▪S={ }
S
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▪ Multi-step experiments
▪ The number of outcomes for ‘k’ trails each with the
same ‘n’ possible outcomes.
▪ The number of outcomes in S = nk.
▪ Example
▪ How many ways can 10 multiple choice question
with 4 possible answers be answered:
▪ 410 = 1 048 576 ways
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▪ Multi-step experiments
▪ The number of outcomes for ‘j’ trails each with a
different number of ‘n’ outcomes.
▪ The number of outcomes in S = n1 x n2 … X nj
▪ Example
▪ Need to order a meal where you can pick ‘1’
burger from ‘8’, ’1’ cool drink from ’10’, ‘1’ ice
cream from ‘5’.
▪ Number of possible orders: 8×10×5 = 400
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COUNTING RULES
Multi-step Experiments
Example:
• How many elements are in a sample space if a coin is tossed 3 times?
S = n k = 23 = 8
S = {HHH; HHT; HTH; THH; TTH; THT; HTT; TTT}
• How many elements are in a sample space if a coin is tossed 6 times?
S = n = 2 = 64
k 6
26 = 64
Number of elements in a sample space is 64
• 3 coins are tossed and a die is rolled to make an observation.
(2) (2) (2) (6) = ( 2 ) ( 6 ) = 48
1 1 1 3
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COUNTING RULES
Multi-step Experiments
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▪ The factorial
▪ The number of ways in which ‘r’ objects can be
arranged in a row, without replacement.
▪ r! = r×(r – 1)×(r – 2)× …×3×2×1
▪ Note r! = 0! = 1
▪ Example
▪ Six athletes compete in a race. The number of
order arrangements for completing the race.
▪ 6! = 720 different ways
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COUNTING RULES
The Factorial
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SECTION K. Chapter 59
▪ Permutation
▪ Select r objects without replacement from a larger
set of n objects, order of selection is important.
▪ n!
n Pr =
(n − r )!
▪ Example
▪ Six athletes in a race, how many ways to
compete for the gold, silver and bronze medals.
▪ 6!
Pr = 6 P3 = = 120
(6 − 3)!
n
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COUNTING RULES
Permutations
n! 8! 40320
n Pr = = = = 336
( n − r )! (8 − 3)! 120
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▪ Combination
▪ Select r objects without replacement from a larger
set of n objects, order of selection not important.
▪ n!
n Cr =
r !(n − r )!
▪ Example
▪ Six lotto numbers should be selected form a
possible 49 – order of selection not important.
▪
49!
n Cr = 49 C6 = = 13 983 816
6!(49 − 6)!
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COUNTING RULES
Combination
Examples:
1. How many different ways can you select 2 letters
from the set of letters: X, Y, and Z? (Order is NOT
important; i.e., XY is considered the same
selection as YX.)
( n
r ) = r !( n − r )! = 2!( 3 − 2 )! = 2 (1)! = 3
n! 3! 6
There are 3 possible arrangements. {XY, XZ, YZ}
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Lombard C, van der Merwe L, Kele T and
Mouton S. 2012. Elementary Statistics for
Business and Economics
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