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 MODULE 18

Radiographic
) Inspection
)

)
7250 West Credit Avenue, Mississauga, ON L5N 5N1
) Tel: 1-800-844-6790 Fax: 905-542-1318
) [Link]
)
)

) ® Copyright 2010 The CWB Group Industry Services

Revised April 2010 I All rights reserved

) The works of authorship contained in this document, including but not limited to all design, text and images, are the property,
) except as otherwise expressly stated, of the CWB Group-Industry Services or one of its affiliates, the CWB (Canadian Welding
Bureau) and QUASAR This document, whether in current form or electronic, may not be copied, reproduced, transmitted,

) displayed, performed, distributed, rented, sublicensed, altered, stored for subsequent use, or otherwise used in whole or in
part in any manner without the prior written consent of the CWB Group industry Services, except to the extent that such use
)
constitutes "fair use" under the Copyright Act of 1976 as amended, and except for a temporary copy in a single computer's
)
memory and one unaltered permanent copy to be used by the viewer or student for personal and non-commercial use only.

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) Table of Contents

)
~ Radiographic Inspection

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Objectives 1

) 2. Basics of Radiography 1
'! 2.1 Principles 1
2.2 Merits of Radiography 2
1
2.3 X-Ray Equipment 3
2.4 Gamma Ray Sources 5
2.5 Image Formation 7
. ·1
2.6 Contrast 8
2.7 Definition 9
2.8 Scattered Radiation 11
·, 2.9 Image Intensifiers 12
2.10 Verifying Image Quality 12
2.11 Film Processing 16
2.12 Handling of Film 16
2.13 Improperly Processed Film 16
2.14 Viewing 18
2.15 Density 19
\ 2.16 Vision Requirements 20
2.17 Interpretation of Discontinuities 20
2.18 Internal Discontinuities 23

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3. Techniques 26
3.1 Effect of Geometry 26
3.2 Planar Flaws 28
3.3 Depth and Shape of Flaws 29
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3.4 Estimating Depth of Flaws 30
) 3.5 Backing Bars 31
) 3.6 Splices in Rolled Section 31
3.7 Hollow Sections 32

4. Application of Radiography 33
) 4.1 Scheduling 34
) 4.2 Delay After Welding 34
4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment 34
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/ 4.4 Spot Radiography 35
) 4.5 Field Radiography 35
4.6 Qualifications 35
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4.7 Procedures 36
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4.8 Acceptance Criteria 37
) 4.9 Inspection Records and Reports 37
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5. Radiation Safety 39
5.1 Safety 39
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5.2 Warning Signs 39
5.3 Controlling Exposure 40 l I
5.4 Detecting and Measuring Radiation 41 ''
5.5 Thermo-luminescent Dosimeter 42 -)
5.6 Direct Reading Dosimeter (DRD) 43

6. Summary 43 )
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Guides and Exercises 45
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

1. Introduction
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.1 Previous modules pointed out that a good visual inspection can be the most effective way of inspecting
) a welded product However, a visual inspection cannot, of course, detect defects below the surface of a
·, weld. For many applications, therefore, volumetric non-destructive testing is required and one of the main
-,'\ methods of doing this is radiography.
·) Although the actual radiograph must be taken by a qualified technician, the welding inspector plays an
1 important role in the application of radiography: verifying when and where it is to be done; checking reports
and qualifications; discussing interpretation, and so forth. The inspector requires a sound knowledge of
the practical aspects of applying radiography to welds and it is the intent of this module to discuss these
aspects.

1.1 Objectives
After successful completion of this module you should be able to:
describe how radiography works
explain how images are formed and what controls their quality
discuss advantages and disadvantages of the method
) recognize radiographic images of various defects
describe suitable techniques for different applications
discuss acceptance criteria, reports, and qualification requirements
describe basic safety practices
!
2. Basics of Radiography
2.1 Principles
Since the discovery of X-rays by W Roentgen in 1893 and gamma rays by Madame Curie and H.
Becquerel in 1897, Radiographic Inspection (also called radiographic testing or "RT") has been an
invaluable aid in "seeing inside" materials such as welds and castings. To accomplish this, a source
. )
of ionizing radiation is placed on one side of the component and a radiographic film, enclosed within a
) lightproof container, is placed on the opposite side of the component in relation to the radiation source
I as shown in Figure 2.1. After a calculated period of time, the radiation source is removed and the film
is chemically processed, revealing the status of the casting or welded structure.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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Radiation beam
directed down )
on weldment
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----Void
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Film
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Film will be darkened most under the void, and
least through the thickest part of the weld. )

Figure 2.1: The radiographic principle. )

Radiographic inspection can be performed with either X-rays or gamma rays. Both are
electromagnetic waves (Figure 2.2), the many forms of which include light, radio waves and
microwaves. The difference between the various forms is the wavelength, with X- and gamma rays )
having among the shortest. This property of short wavelength enables the rays to penetrate and travel
through various materials such as steel and other metals. l
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Logarithm of wavelength in µm
.)
10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 )
Radio )
Short radio waves - microwaves )
)
Infra Ultra
'1
Red Violet
X-rays
Visible
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GammaY
11 J
Electric arc

Figure 2.2: The electromagnetic spectrum.

2.2 Merits of Radiography )

Compared with the other inspection methods, radiography has a number of advantages and J
disadvantages. The reasons for these will become apparent in the remaining sections of the module )
._j

but the main ones are summarized in Table 2.1. It is clear that there will be situations where it is the )
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

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preferred method of inspection but also cases where it would be a poor choice. An appreciation of the
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limitations, discussed in subsequent sections, is important in using the method effectively.
Table 2.1: Main advantages and disadvantages of radiography.

Advantages Disadvantages
A volumetric method Specialized. bulky equipment needed
Relatively quick Area surrounding radiographic procedure requires cessation of work
Provides permanent record Some defects not reliably detected

2.3 X-Ray Equipment

X-rays are produced by the impact of high velocity electrons on a tungsten target. The electrons
are accelerated towards the target (anode) by a high voltage and their impact on the tungsten target
generates X-rays (Figure 2.3). The electron gun and target are sealed in a vacuum surrounded by a
metallic shield with a window for the X-rays to exit. There is a control panel with adjustable controls
to vary both the quantity and the quality of the X-rays and a timer to control the exposure time. A
typical x-ray unit showing a tube head is shown in Figure 2.4. Heavy duty cables connect the panel
to the X-ray tube head and the panel operates from a standard electrical supply, or in the case of site
inspections, from a portable generator. The X-ray tube is supported by an adjustable stand. The main
components of an X-ray machine are shown in Figure 2.5.

Glass shell

Complete X-ray tube I

Low voltage X-rays

transformer A
for filament
current Meterfor/
tube current
kilovolts

~
Fl
p )
High voltage
transformer for
accelerating voltage

Figure 2.3: Principle of X-ray generation.

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Figure 2.4: X-ray unit showing tube head.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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Power in :')
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Filament X-ray tube
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Transformer-rectifier )
Anode

Filament
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w Cathode
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Object~

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Film~

Figure 2.5: Diagram of an X-ray machine showing the main components.

When X-rays are generated, a substantial amount of heat is produced, which must be removed. The
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tungsten target is embedded in a copper block to conduct heat away. The overall size and weight of
the equipment is controlled by the cooling mechanism, which can use air, oil, gas or water. For thin )
materials small, easily portable tubes employ air or gas inside the tube head. As the heat builds up )
with continuous use, the oil or gas in the tubes expands and triggers contacts, which automatically
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stop the equipment functioning until the temperature drops. With increasing thickness of materials the
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electrical generating requirements increase and more heat is generated, thus increasing the cooling
requirements. This, in turn, increases the weight of the equipment, ultimately reducing the portability. )

The wavelengths produced from an X-ray tube depend largely on the voltage applied, as shown in )
Figure 2.6. Increasing the voltage decreases the wavelength, which, in turn, increases the penetrating
power. Since shorter wavelengths have greater penetrating power, higher voltages are required for_
inspecting thicker materials. The thickness of material that can be inspected is generally related to the
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kilovoltage (kV) of the equipment (Table 2.2).
)
Shorter (more penetrating)
Full current wavelengths added by )
/ intensity doubled for increased voltage
each wavelength
High voltage
J
Intensity also increased . )
Half current Low voltage
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Wavelength Wavelength
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Figure 2.6: Effect of filament current and voltage on X-rays. l
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Table 2.2: Capacity of X-ray machines for steel.

Potential Maximum thickness of steel

80kV 4.0mm 0.15 in
100 kV 7.5mm 0.30 in
! 150 kV 19mm 0.75in
200kV 25mm 1.0 in
250kV 50mm 2.0 in
400kV 75mm 3.0 in
1,000 kV 125mm 5.0 in
2,000 kV 250mm 10.0 in
15,000 to 24,000 kV 500mm 20.0in

2.4 Gamma Ray Sources

Gamma rays are produced by the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive material. The most
common industrial sources of gamma-rays are radioactive isotopes of iridium (lr-192) and cobalt (Co-
60). The size of the radioactive material used is very small and consists of pellets that are encased
in a stainless steel capsule. Since gamma rays cannot be switched off, the capsule is connected to a
"pigtail" (Figure 2.7), which is contained in a radiographic exposure device (Figure 2.8). The pigtail
has a mechanical adaptor at the end to connect to control cables .

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Figure 2.7: Typical gamma ray source with control cable.

Source

Source stop
Driver cable I
Stored position
Guide tubes
~ a n t r a l cable

Source

) Source at Radiographic Site

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Figure 2.8: Example of exposure device (isotope camera) for shielding and exposing gamma-ray
sources.
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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The exposure device provides sufficient shielding through the use of very dense materials, such as
lead or depleted uranium, to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays to an acceptable level. When the \• l
pigtail is positioned and locked within the exposure device, the device may be used as a transportation )
container if it is labeled in accordance with applicable provincial and federal transportation regulations. J
The radiographic exposure device is a simple mechanical arrangement. The rear of the exposure i
device is unlocked and a projection cable can be attached to the rear of the pigtail. The length of the )
projection cable can vary but is generally 7.5 m (25 feet). This places the operating mechanism and )
the operating technician in a zone of reduced radiation intensity.
-·)
Both X-ray and gamma ray inspection can be carried out in specially designed facilities that
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incorporate thick shielding walls and electrical door interlocks where the operating technician has
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greater control over restricting access of non-authorized personnel, see Figure 2.9. However, one of
the great advantages of gamma radiographic inspection is portability, and the same level of inspection )
can be carried out in fabrication shops, construction sites or on pipelines. Gamma rays have greater )
penetrating capability but their sensitivity is less than for X-ray. Table 2.3 provides a comparison )
between X- and gamma ray radiography. ·1

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Figure 2.9: Shielded radiographic exposure room. )

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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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Table 2.3: Comparison of X-rays and gamma rays .
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Advantages
Gamma Sources X-rays Units
Small and portable Radiation can be shut off
) No electric power required Penetrating power (Kv) is adjustable

) No electric power hazard Can be used on all materials

Rugged Provides radiographs with best contrast and sensitivtty
Small inttial cost
High penetrating power
Access into small areas with source
Low maintenance costs
Disadvantages
Gamma Sources X-rays Units
Radiation emitted continuously High inttial cost
Radiation hazard Requires source of electrical power
Penetration power cannot be adjusted Equipment comparatively fragile
Radioisotope decays in activity requiring Less portable
replacement
Radiographic contrast generally less than Tube head usually large in size
X-rays
Cannot be used on all materials e.g. Electrical hazard from high voltage
aluminum

Note: It is often desirable to have both methods available. In deciding which method is to be used. it
is necessary to consider all the above features to decide which process best suits the application at
hand.

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2.5 Image Formation
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The value of radiography as an inspection tool depends critically on the quality of the image that is
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produced. It is important, therefore, to understand how the image is formed and what factors influence
the quality. The image is formed by the variation in intensity of the radiation falling on different parts
of the photographic film. As Figure 2.10 illustrates, differences in intensity can arise because of
differences in:
the thickness of material the beam must penetrate

) the type of material through which the beam must penetrate

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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! ! ! ! ! ! 1 l

X-rays X-rays !
Lead Copper I Steel !Aluminum I . )
Film
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Figure 2.10: Variation in intensity of the beam reaching the film can result from differences in thickness

or type of material. /YLfY'-J.-, ~ . tp ~ .

2.6 Contrast ~ r1" ~{)cG ~,}Jf;,~ i

Differences in thickness or material give rise to contrast on the film. However, if the energy of the
radiation is too high there is little variation in the energy transmitted through different thicknesses and '
poor contrast results. Contrast is improved by using low energy levels, but low energy increases the
exposure time required for the film, so in practice there is a compromise between the energy and the
exposure time.
Note that the penetrating ability of the ray depends on its wavelength, with shorter wavelengths having
greater penetration. In an X-ray machine the wavelength is decreased by raising the voltage (kV) of
the tube, burthis also raises the energy. Thus there is an optimum kV for each thickness to ensure
penetration and achieve adequate contrast. Gamma rays have shorter wavelengths than X-rays and
can be used on thicker material. However, the contrast is generally poorer. Note also that the final
resulting contrast also depends on the type of film used. Film contrast is the ability of the film to show
a density difference for a given change in exposure. Film speed is the rate at which the film responds
to radiation. A slow film speed generally results in a better quality radiograph but requires longer
exposure times. The film type and speed should be specified in the radiographic procedure and film )

types are shown in Table 2.4. )

Table 2.4: Characteristics of different film types. )

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Film types Speed Graininess Contrast
1 very slow extra fine high
2 slow fine high )
3 medium medium medium
)
4 fast medium medium
)

As the type of material through which the ray penetrates also affects contrast, the image may be able
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to identify certain materials in the weld. For example, a tungsten inclusion is more absorbing to X-rays )
than steel and so appears as a light disk on the film. On the other hand, normal slag absorbs fewer )
X-rays than steel and therefore shows as a darker area on the film. )
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2.7 Definition
The second important aspect of image quality is definition. This is the sharpness of the edge of the
image. A fuzzy image has poor definition and may not reveal the defect clearly even though the
contrast is adequate. Poor definition can be caused in a number of ways. First, there is inherent
unsharpness due to the ray passing through the photographic film itself. As the ray strikes the film,
free electrons are released that affect the film in the surrounding regions. This type of unsharpness
cannot be avoided.
Second, there is geometric unsharpness. This occurs because the source of radiation is not a true
point source but has a finite size. Figure 2.11 illustrates how this causes fuzziness at the edge of the
image. The amount of geometric unsharpness, U9 , depends on the size of the source, F, the object-to-
source distance, d, and the object-to-film distance, t, and is given by the following formula:

U9 = Ft!d
F
Source

Object

Film plane

Figure 2.11: Geometric construction for determining geometric unsharpness (U,).

If the film is placed directly against the weld the maximum distance from the film to a defect (t) is equal
to the plate thickness. Note that in thick plate a defect in the bottom of a weld close to the film will
appear sharper than one at the top.
Figure 2.12 illustrates how geometry can affect the quality of image produced. In A, the source is
a point source and a sharp image is formed. In B, the source has a finite size resulting in geometric
unsharpness, (the fuzzy area is sometimes called "penumbra"). In C, the source is moved further
away causing a decrease in the unsharpness. In D, the object is closer to the film, which also
decreases the unsharpness. Sketches E and F illustrate the effect of an inclined beam or an inclined
film on the shape of the image.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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--~ )
Source -)
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Object )
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Film

A B C
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D E F
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Figure 2.12: Illustration of the general geometric principles of shadow formation. .)
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Since the source size is determined by the equipment and the plate thickness is given, the only means )
of controlling the degree of geometric unsharpness is by changing the source-to-weld distance (Table )
2.5). Increasing this reduces U9 and produces a sharper image. But it also reduces the intensity of the
'!
rays reaching the film (Figure 2.13) and increases the exposure time required. The intensity follows
the "inverse square law". Thus doubling the distance reduces the intensity four times. In practice,
)
therefore, it is usual to calculate the minimum source distance required to give the specified degree )
of unsharpness since this gives the minimum exposure time. For example, CSA W59 specifies a
maximum unsharpness of 0.127 mm (0.005 in) for a thickness of 25.5 mm (1 in). For a source size of 4 )
mm (0.157 in) the minimum source distance would be:

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D =Ft/U9 =4 x 25.5/0.127 =803 mm (32 in) )
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

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Table 2.5: Control of geometric unsharpness.

Condition Control
1) Physical size of the radiation source Should be as small as possible
2) Distance from the radiation source to the side of the Should be as great as possible-within reasonable
specimen facing the source exposure time
3) Distance from the side of the specimen facing the Should be as small as possible-dependant upon
source to the radiographic film geometry of the specimen

Source

d, = 2d,
Area at d2 = 4 x area at d 1
Intensity at d, = 1/4 x intensity at d 1

Figure 2.13: The effect of distance on intensity.

2.8 Scattered Radiation

A further contribution to poor image quality can come from scattered radiation. Any material in the
path of the beam can cause scattered rays, which can affect the film and image quality (Figure 2.14).
Rays may be scattered from behind the weld (back scatter) or from the weld itself (forward scatter).
Back scattered radiation is reduced by a thin lead sheet on the back side of the film and forward
scattered radiation is reduced by a thin lead sheet on the front side of the film. The thin sheet of lead
is not so thick as to absorb the main beam but will absorb the scattered radiation, since it has a longer
wavelength and lower energy.

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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

Forward scatter Back scatter

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Film Thin (0.05 in) Film Thin (0.05 in) )
lead foil to stop lead foil to stop
forward scattered back scattered
radiation radiation
)

Figure 2.14: Scattered radiation can reduce image quality. The effects can be minimized by using thin
lead sheets as shown. )

2.9 Image Intensifiers

Contrast in an image may be increased by using image intensifiers. The thin lead screens used to
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reduce forward scattered radiation also intensify the image by emitting electrons when struck by the '
radiation. Thus they serve a dual purpose. In addition, fluorescent screens intensify the image by
emitting light when struck by radiation. Fluorescent image intensifiers, however, reduce the definition '
in the image because the light emitted is diffused through the screen.
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2.10 Verifying Image Quality )
To verify that adequate sensitivity (i.e., contrast and definition) has been achieved in the image an )
image quality indicator (IQI) or penetrameter is used. This device is placed over/or alongside the
)
weld being inspected and its radiographic image is obtained simultaneously with the weld image.
The image quality indicator is made from material radiographically similar to the weld specimen. The
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dimensions are such that the size of the IOI is related to the thickness of the weld specimen and is
generally expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness.
The use of the IOI fulfills the definition of radiographic sensitivity: the smallest change in specimen )
thickness that can be seen on a radiograph, usually expressed as a percentage of the material
thickness being inspected. For example, a 2% sensitivity on 25 mm thickness means a thickness
change of 0.5 mm is detectable.
The most commonly used IQls are the ASTM plaque type and the wire type, (Figure 2.15). Selection
and use is governed by the applicable code or standard determined by the end use of the component.
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Identification 4Tdiam.
number Tdiam.
2Tdiam.

Design for penetrameter thickness

from 0.005 in and including 0.050 in
---+-k---c~++--{B--ttf----i±~
11/4 inl 1/4 in 1 -'I rl
r-1 7/16in I
3/4in---;
11,2in I

Design for penetrameter thickness

from 0.060 in to and including 0.160 in 4Tdiam. Tdiam.
Made in 0.010 increments. 2Tdiam .

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Identification --+-+-•V
number

3/8 in
13/8 in I --3/4in-
> - - - - - 1 3/8 i n - - - - 1
1~-------21/4 in-------•I

Set identification letters

Wires equally
spaced
encapsulated
between two
) sheets of clear
plastic
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') For details of wire

diameter see, for
) example, ASTM E747

) 1 A~---1e- Lead
identification

Material
grade number Set identification letters
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Figure 2.15: Image quality indicators (IQ/) or penetrameters (ASTM).

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The thickness and type of the image quality indicator is selected from the tables listed in the governing
code and is designated by the number on the IOI, which will be projected onto the film. CSA W59
requirements are shown in Table 2.6 (a) and (b).

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Table 2.6 (a): Hole-type image quality indicator (IQ/) requirements (CSA W59).
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Nominal material Nominal material Source side Film side2 J
thickness1 range, thickness' range,
Designation Essential Designation Essential
mm (in) )
hole hole
Upto 6 incl. Up to 0.25 incl. 10 4T 7 4T ")
Over 6 through 10 Over 0.25 to 0.375 12 4T 10 4T )
Over 10 through 12 Over 0.375 to 0.50 15 4T 12 4T
)
Over 12 through 16 Over 0.50 to 0.625 15 4T 12 4T
)
Over 16 through 20 Over 0.625 to 0.75 17 4T 15 4T
Over 20 through 22 Over 0.75 to 0.875 20 4T 17 4T )

Over 22 through 25 Over 0.875 to 1.00 20 4T 17 4T

Over 25 through 32 Over 1.00to 1.25 25 4T 20 4T
)
Over 32 through 38 Over 1.25to 1.50 30 2T 25 2T
)
Over 38 through 50 Over 1.50 to 2.00 35 2T 30 2T
Over 50 through 65 Over 2.00 to 2.50 40 2T 35 2T
Over 65 through 75 Over 2.50 to 3.00 45 2T 40 2T )
Over 75 through 100 Over 3.00 to 4.00 50 2T 45 2T
Over 100 through 150 Over 4.00 to 6.00 60 2T 50 2T
Over 150 through 200 Over 6.00 to 8.00 80 2T 60 2T

Notes:
1) Single-wall radiographic thickness (for tubulars).
2) Applicable to tubular structures only. )

Table 2.6 (b): Wire image quality indicator {/QI) requirements (CSA W59). )
2
Nominal material Nominal material Source side maximum Film side maximum wire
)
thickness1 range, thickness1 range, wire diameter diameter
mm (in) mm in mm in

Upto 6 incl. Up to 0.25 incl. 0.25 0.01 0.20 0.008 )

Over6to 10 Over 0.25 to 0.375 0.33 0.013 0.25 0.01 l
Over 10 to 16 Over 0.375 to 0.675 0.41 0.016 0.33 0.013 )
Over 16 to 20 Over 0.625 to 0.75 0.51 0.02 0.41 0.016
l
Over20 to 38 Over 0. 75 to 1.50 0.63 0.025 0.51 0.02
Over 38to 50 Over 1.50 to 2.00 0.81 0.032 0.63 0.025
Over50to 65 Over 2.00 to 2.50 1.02 0.04 0.81 0.032 )
Over 65 to 100 Over 2.50 to 4.00 1.27 0.05 1.02 0.04 )
Over 100 to 150 Over 4.00 to 6.00 1.6 0.063 1.27 0.05
)
Over 150 to 200 Over 6.00 to 8.00 2.54 0.1 1.6 0.063
)
Notes: )
1) Single-wall radiographic thickness (for tubulars). )
2) Applicable to tubular structures only. )

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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

It should be noted that the purpose of the !QI is to verify that the correct procedure and technique

' ) have been followed. It is not intended to judge discontinuity size. As most radiographic inspections
are not performed during regular hours, thus rarely witnessed, the radiographic image of the !QI is the
only verification that the inspection was carried out as intended.
General rules that apply to the use of IQ ls are:
The location of the !QI should be in the worst geometrical position; at the outer edge of the
radiation beam. Figure 2.16 shows the location as required by CSA W59.
'
. \, The !QI should be made from material that is similar to the specimen material with respect to
physical properties affecting beam attenuation.
The !QI should be placed on the surface of the specimen facing the source of the radiation. If this
is not physically possible, as in the case of a contact exposure on a four inch diameter pipe weld
(discussed in a later section), then the !QI may be placed on the film side of the specimen and,
consequently the !QI must be reduced by one size.

Alternate wire
IOI placement

Contractor number, weld and

fabricator identification (location
optional)

.._____ 3/4 in min. (19 mm) (typ.)

Hole type IOI

on source sid·
)
Hole-type IOI or wire IOI
on source side

Lead film identification number shall be

placed directly over the numbers -=---'"'-...
) marked on the steel for the purpose of
processing

) Contractor number, weld and fabricator Note: Alternate source side IOI
identification (location optional), placement shall be permitted for
) tubular applications and other
applications when approved by the
) engineer

Figure 2.16: Location of penetrameters (CSA W59) for plates of equal thickness.

When seam welds are examined by radiography, the individual shots must overlap each other as
shown in Figure 2.17. This avoids any omissions of weld areas. Each section must be identified on the
weld and, therefore, on the radiograph.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
)
)

)
l
)
Radiograph )
No. 1/2
' )
I
Lead ~b.:..1~=cc~-::-~_-2: 3 I )
markers -
)
--------------- ---, --------------- -----
)
)
Radiograph
No. 2/3
)

)
)
followed by 3/4, 4/5 etc. )
I
)
Figure 2.17: Method of identification of overlapping radiographs on a seam weld.
)

2.11 Film Processing )

After exposure, the film is chemically processed to develop the image on the film. Great care must
be taken to follow the approved procedure as artifacts caused in the development may lead to
misinterpretatfon. Radiographic film is sensitive to light and must be handled and processed under
filtered light in a darkroom.
Processing takes place in three stages: first, the film is immersed in a developer-typically for five
minutes at 20°C-until the image appears. Next, the developer action is halted by immersion in a stop
bath. Third, the film is immersed in the fixer solution, which prevents any further change in the film.
After processing, all traces of chemicals are removed by immersing the film in a tank of clean flowing )
water. The film is finally immersed in a wetting agent and water solution (to prevent watermarks) then )
dried.
)
2.12 Handling of Film .)
Radiographic film must be handled carefully. Avoid moist or dirty fingers. Do not draw the film rapidly )
from cartons or film cassettes. Quick movements can cause static from friction, which will mark
the film with circular tree-like markings. Dirty hands can transfer dirt or grease to the film. All film
should be handled by the corners. Film must not be crimped before or after exposure; this will leacf"
)
to pressure marks. All film should be handled and kept on the dry side of the darkroom until ready for
processing as splashes from the developer can lead to dark spots on the film. ·i
)
2.13 Improperly Processed Film
)
Failure to agitate during each state of processing can lead to streaks and uneven density. Water
spots and streaks will result if a wetting agent is not used. Yellow stains can result from processing in )
old developer, failure to use a stop bath or using an old bath. The most common yellow stain is from )
exhausted fixer. )
. \
Too high a temperature of the developer can lead to an overall fog and a low temperature can cause ) )
poor contrast. Table 2.7 summarizes some processing and handling problems.

Page 16 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )

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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

Table 2.7: Film processing and handling marks.

.!
\
(a) Dark Shadows
Appearance of Defect Probable Cause Suggestive Preventative
Finely mottled fog Stale film Use fresh film; keep stock to minimum
Fog on edge or corner offilm Exposure to white light: faulty Handle film in proper safe lighting conditions.
closure of good cassette or use of Fasten cassettes properly, repair or replace
defective cassette faulty cassettes
General fog with or without reflection Exposure too near (or too long) to Use recommended safelight under the
from surface below it safelight or to over-bright safelight; conditions indicated by the film manufacturer.
general fog may also be due to Use fresh film free from fog. Develop using
over-development or to using old time and temperature recommended by
film that may have been badly manufacturer
stored
Dark circular or pear shaped marks Developer splashes before Practice correct film handling habits
immersing whole film in developer
Dark spots or areas sometimes Insufficient fixation Fix for correct time. If this fails, use fresh fixing
marble like solutions
Dark branched lines, dark spots Marks due to static electrical Avoid rubbing or sliding one film on another
discharge or drawing film quickly from protective paper
sleeve.
Dark lines or cracks Scratches or cracks in lead Replace screens
intensifying screens
Dark finger prints Film touched before development Handle film by the edges with clean hands and
with fingers contaminated with use the protective folder as long as possible
chemicals, for example, certain
metal salts

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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)
Table 2.7 Can't: Film processing and handling marks.
-)
)
.)
(b) Light Shadows
Appearance of Defect Probable Cause Suggestive Preventative )
Light areas, usually crescent shaped Pressure marks due to faulty handling Handle film with care. Crescent shaped
or film such as buckling or localized pressure marks are avoided by handling
l
pressure on the film. Possibly due to from one corner and keeping film flat during )
residue of fixer on the hanger from handling. Rinse and dry hangers before re- --)
previous use. use.
Light circular patches Air bubbles on film during development Agitate film immediately on immersion in )
solutions )
Light finger prints Film touched with oily or greasy finger Handle film by the edges with clean hands
)
before development and use the protective folder as long as
possible .)
Circular or "tear drop" shaped light Splashes of water or fixer on film prior
patches to development )
Light spots or areas Dust or paper between the film and the )
intensifying screens
)
Light spots or lines Spots on, or cracks in the fluorescent Use new screens if marks cannot be removed
screen by washing with a good soda-free soap
Light spots or streaks Contamination of film surface w~h Handle film only with clean hands. Keep )
oil before development or oil in the developer free from contaminants.
developer
(c) Miscellaneous
Appearance of Defect Probable Cause Suggestive Preventative
Sharply outlined light or dark areas Non-uniform flow of developer over Maintain the uniform flow of developer over
film when immersing it in the developer the film when immersing it, and agitate the film
during development
Small depressions with black edges Bacterial action in processing, which is
typical in tropical climates
Avoid washing in water that is too warm
and avoid drying in excessively damp
'
)
atmospheres
)
Wavy marble-like marks, increased Insufficient agitation during
density below light areas, reduced development of film )
dens~y below dark areas
)
Solarization (tone reversal) Lengthy exposure to unsafe light after Avoid light fogging. Check safe light.
exposure )
Reticulation (leather-like appearance) Differences in temperature between Keep solution temperature uniform )
successive baths
Images of wood-grain, wall bricks etc. Previous exposure of film to X- or Store films away from X-ray and gamma ray
gamma rays. sources
)
)
2.14 Viewing )
Radiographs must be viewed with a proper viewer (Figure 2.18), preferably with a means of )
controlling the light intensity. You cannot view a radiograph properly by holding it up to a light or )
a window! The viewer should be located in a special viewing room with subdued lighting, good
ventilation and a convenient writing area.
)

)
Page 18 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Figure 2.18: Typical radiograph viewer.

There are some simple rules for viewing which should be followed by the observer:
Before removing a radiograph from the illuminator, slip another one beneath it or shut off the light
source by means of a foot control. This prevents the eye from being subjected to extremely bright
light.
Cut off the glare from lighter areas and around the edges of the film by masking.
The viewing room should be illuminated by a low intensity light source, giving no front reflection·
from the film.

Allow five to ten minutes for the eyes to become accustomed to the subdued lighting after coming
in from full daylight (dark adaptation).

2.15 Density
The degree of blackness on the film is known as the density. It can be measured with an instrument
known as a densitometer (Figure 2.19) and is expressed as a number (on a logarithmic scale). The
range of acceptable density on a radiograph is usually specified in the applicable code or standard
and most codes require the density to be in the range of 1.5 to 3.5. The International Institute of
Welding has given recommendations for the viewer brightness according to the film density. The
recommendations state that the luminance of the illuminated radiograph should not be less than 30
candela/metre' (cd/m') and whenever possible 100 cd/m 2 minimum. To achieve this, the illuminator
brightness must be:

1;
Filin Density Brightness
1.0 300 cd/m 2
)
2.0 3,000 cd/m2
3.0 30,000 cd/m 2

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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection
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)
) )
)
-)
-)
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l
-, ·)

'
'
.·.·)
Figure 2.19: Densitometry for determining film density
. ")
)
2.16 Vision Requirements
Anyone interpreting a radiograph must have adequate eyesight, wearing glasses if necessary.
)
Minimum requirements are normally detailed in the applicable standard. An inspector, even though
not formally interpreting radiographs, must meet minimum vision requirements to be certified under l
CSAW178.2.
For the interpretation of fine detail a low power (i.e., x4 to xB) magnifying glass can be used.

2.17 Interpretation of Discontinuities

Interpretation of the radiograph is usually done by a certified radiographer, but the welding inspector
is often involved in reviewing radiographs and should be able to recognize the images of weld defects.
)
During interpretation it must be remembered that a radiograph illustrates a three-dimensional object
in two dimensions, and all defects occurring throughout the complete depth of the weld appear in )
one plane. This can exaggerate the apparent density or spacing of flaws (Figure 2.20). Experience )
and knowledge of the welding procedures employed assists in assessing the vertical distribution of
)
defects.
')
)
)
)
)
)
)
)

J
.\
)

Figure 2.20: All discontinuities in a volume are projected onto a single plane thereby exaggerating the
J
)
apparent density of flaws.
. )
Page 20 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

The objective of radiography is volumetric inspection but the interpretation of radiographs can be
hampered by the images of surface features. Surface condition prior to radiography is therefore very
important as shown in Figure 2.21 which has an unacceptable weld surface.

The weld surface should

have an acceptable profile
without ridges and valleys
that could obscure internal
defects.

Ends of welds should

be smooth without
gouges or notches.
Such discontinuities
may appear as internal
defects on the film.

Figure 2.21: Surface condition prior to radiography is very important.

A thorough visual inspection of the weld surface will detect discontinuities and will allow them to be
.) rectified before radiography is performed so that there is less difficulty interpreting the radiograph .
The following discontinuities should be rectified: undercutting, incompletely filled groove, chipping or
grinding marks, spatter, overlap, crater cracks and misalignment.
Surface defects produce the following film indications:
Undercut produces a dark line usually broad and diffuse along one or both edges at the junction of
I the weld bead and the parent metal (Figure 2.22).

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·--,)
MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection
")

)
--~ )
)
)
)
i
)
)
Figure 2.22: Radiograph showing undercut.
)
)
Weld spatter produces round light indications on the weld image and adjacent metal (Figure
2.23). )
)
)

I
Figure 2.23: Radiograph showing weld spatter (light circles). The black circular images are porosity. )
)
Underfill at the root surface (suck-back) shows a broad darker area along the centre of the weld )
(Figure 2.24). )
)
)

Figure 2.24: Radiograph showing underfi/1 at the root surface (suck-back).

)
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MODULE 18 J Radiographic Inspection

)
Chipping marks produce round or elongated dark spots, which are easily confused with internal
defects. However, chipping hammer marks usually occur on both the weld and parent plate, while
internal weld defects, of course, do not.

2.18 Internal Discontinuities

Cracks appear as fine dark lines, either straight or irregular. Cracks are classified as longitudinal,
transverse, root or crater cracks depending upon the direction and location (Figures 2.25 to 2.28).

Figure 2.25: Radiograph showing a transverse crack in both weld and parent material.

Figure 2.26: Radiograph showing longitudinal cracks located on the surface.

Figure 2.27: Radiograph showing a root crack.

)
Figure 2.28: Radiograph of cracks in parent metal and transverse to a weld.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

Porosity or gas pockets in a weld show on the radiograph as round or slightly elongated dark
areas. These may be fine or coarse and may be widely scattered, in line or grouped in a cluster. l
'
1

Elongated pores called piping or worm holes may also occur (Figures 2.29 to 2.31).
'
i
i

'
i

Figure 2.29: Radiograph showing scattered porosity. i

)

.1

Figure 2.30: Radiograph showing elongated porosity (wormholes or piping).

)
)
)

Figure 2.31: Radiograph showing aligned porosity at the root of a weld.

Slag inclusions may occur in a variety of shapes ranging from a small single inclusion to a
continuous slag line. Depending upon their form, they appear on the radiograph as irregular )
shaped dark areas or continuous dark lines of irregular width, parallel to the weld bead (Figure \
./

2.32). )
)
)

J
)
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

--, )
)
')

)
)

Figure 2.32: Radiograph showing slag lines.

Incomplete fusion is difficult to reveal by radiography. When detected it appears as a diffuse and
wavy dark line, parallel to the weld (Figure 2.33).

Figure 2.33: Radiograph showing incomplete fusion.

Incomplete joint penetration appears on the radiograph as a straight dark line, continuous or
intermittent. It will run down the middle of a groove weld (Figure 2.34).

Figure 2.34: Radiograph showing incomplete joint penetration.

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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

')
Excessive joint penetration appears on the radiograph as a lighter image as shown in Figure
2.35. \I
'
-,
)
i
-,
~l
-,

'1
1
Figure 2.35: Radiograph showing excessive joint penetration (light zone along the centreline) and
incomplete joint penetration at re-starts during the fusing of the root (dark spots on the centreline).
1
Tungsten inclusions can occur when the tip of a tungsten electrode drops into the weld pool.
They show as small white rounded areas on the radiograph. They are lighter as tungsten is a very -,
dense material.

3. Techniques
3.1 Effect of Geometry
The image in a radiograph depends on detecting differences in the intensity of radiation reaching
the film. Differences can be created not only by the presence of discontinuities but also by the shape
of the component itself. For example, radiation passing through the round bar shown in Figure 3.1
penetrates a far greater thickness of material in the centre than at the edge. If the film is correctly
exposed for the middle portion it will be overexposed for the edge with no usable image and two or
)
more exposures may be necessary to give complete coverage. Using different film speeds and one
exposure will also overcome this problem.
1
Where edge losses of this type occur in tube, additional shots are required from another angle to 1
inspect all the material. Figure 3.2 shows how two shots at 90° to each other are required for a thin- !
walled, small-diameter tube.

)
l
-,

l
)
)

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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

X-rays

Film

Figure 3.1: The shape of a component affects the image. In this example edge loss occurs because of
the differences in thickness penetrated.

1!

Film 2
D Film 1
+!-
Film

Figure 3.2: Using two shots to radiograph a small diameter tube producing an elliptical image.

In general, the location of the source and film should be chosen to minimize the ratio of the thickest
to thinnest metal penetrated. At the same time the total distance penetrated should be minimized to
increase sensitivity to internal flaws and reduce exposure times. In addition, where two or m_ore welds
are close, the position of the source and film should be selected to avoid overlap of the images from
the welds. With these considerations in mind, a suitable angle for shooting the fillet weld illustrated in
Figure 3.3 would be about 15°-20°. In general, however, radiography is not suitable for fillet welds and
is not recommended.

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 )
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
-1
i
Optimum angle
)
/ in this range
) )
J
--)
This beam penetrates too )
much base metal thus - + - - - 1
obscuring the root of
~ This beam at a large
)
angle interferes with
the weld. the second weld and
penetrates too )
much base metal.
i
i
)
i
Film side
i

Figure 3.3: Optimum angle for shooting this fillet weld determined by geometrical constraints.
)
)
3.2 Planar Flaws
Many flaws, such as cracks and incomplete fusion, are thin in one direction but may be long in the
other direction, i.e., they are planar discontinuities. If the beam traverses the thin direction there
may not be enough difference in intensity to produce an image and the flaw will not be detected.
Figure 3.4 shows incomplete fusion that may not be detected unless the beam is parallel to the
long dimension. Knowledge of the welding procedure is helpful in selecting the best radiographic )

technique. For example, for a double V groove weld with 60° included angles, two shots at 30° either
side of the normal to the plate would maximize the chance of finding incomplete fusion on the side
i
wall. Unfortunately, this effect means serious planar defects such as cracks can easily be missed with
)
radiography and is a limitation of the method. Radiography is more effective for volumetric flaws such
as porosity than for planar flaws. )
)
At this angle the planar At this angle the defect
defect presents a large offers a small dimension to i
dimension to the path the beam and there is little
of the beam. difference in intensity
striking the film.

)
)
.)
)
Figure 3.4: Planar flaws such as incomplete side wall fusion may not be detected unless the beam is at a )
favourable angle. )
)

·)
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

3.3 Depth and Shape of Flaws

) In special cases, taking shots from several angles may assist in defining the type, shape and depth of
flaws, which is important in assessing their significance. Figure 3.5 shows an example where a weld
was radiographed from two angles to define the shape, size and position of the flaw.

\
L I
------
I
I
) I
I
I
I
I
t
\
\
1 \
\ F d
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\

Figure 3.5: Determination of defect position in thickness of specimen.

One exposure is made with the radiation beam in the normal position pointing perpendicularly to the
centre of the weld. The source of radiation is then moved at right angles to the axis of the flaw, through
a distance L (equal to about 20% of the source to film distance). A second exposure is then made on
the same film.
Assuming that the distance between the two images of the flaw is I, and that the flaw is a distance of
x from the side of the weld closest to the film, that:
\
. !
F-x = L
L I

from which

X = _EL
L +l
)
It should be noted that x includes the distance between the back surface to the film which may be as
much as 2 mm taking into account to front thickness of the cassette and the intensifying screens.
J This is a time consuming method and used where necessary.

I
_.,/

)
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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)
3.4 Estimating Depth of Flaws )
Multiple shots are not always necessary to estimate the depth of a defect and much can be learned j
)
from single radiographs. Estimating depth from a single shot is not, however, a perfect science and
other methods, such as ultrasonic inspection, are preferable if the geometry allows. Estimating the )
depth of a defect is important both in determining the type and cause of a defect and also in planning )
the repair. Knowing the location through the thickness allows gouging or grinding to be done from )
the closest side, which minimizes the cost, of particular importance in thick material. It is sometimes
)
advantageous to make a tracing of the weld to superimpose on the radiograph to help locate defects.
)
Depth may be estimated from the location of the image of the defect in relation to the joint geometry.
)
Figure 3.6 shows how knowledge of the joint geometry prior to welding assists in defining a defect
depth. It was also mentioned earlier that the images of defects closer to the film are sharper than
those of shallow defects further from the film (Figure 3.7). However, while image definition may help '
)

~I
in estimating depth it is not a reliable method. )
)

~ Ji
To be in this position on )
the radiograph, the defect
must be near the surface
)
I )

'
Film

)
Defects showing one or
both edges to be very )
straight can be assumed
to be associated with the )
original preparation
)
")
)

)
Figure 3.6: Knowledge of the joint geometry helps in estimating defect depth.
)
)
)
)
)
)
-)
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 MODULE 18 J Radiographic Inspection ~
Source side

,,,------',-- Defects near the film side

will appear sharper on
thick material

) Film side

Figure 3. 7: Defects closer to the film side of the weld appear sharper.

3.5 Backing Bars .

Certain fabrication codes do not require that backing bars be removed prior to radiography. They
can, however, obscure defects in the weld and make interpretation difficult if the fit-up is poor (Figure
3.8). Special attention should be paid to carefully fitting backing bars when radiography is required.
Similarly, it is not usually necessary to remove the weld reinforcement as long as it has an acceptable
profile, is smooth, and is without ridges that could obscure internal defects.

Pay special attention to

backing bars when
radiography is required.

Poor backing bar fit-up

makes interpretation
more difficult.

Figure 3.8: A poorly fitting backing bar may cause difficulty in interpreting a radiograph.

) 3.6 Splices in Rolled Section

In some cases parts of a weld may be inaccessible for radiography because of the geometry and
alternate 'inspection methods may be preferred. An example is shown in Figure 3.9, where the part of
)
a flange splice weld over the web is not easily accessible for radiography. In such a case, where 100%
inspection of the splice weld is required, ultrasonic examination is the preferred technique.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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1
)

) l
Radiography by itself is not )
Film an appropiate technique for
a splice in a rolled section
)
since the portion of the weld )
at the web area cannot be

I \ )
radiographed. Radiography
combined with ultrasonics
or ultrasonics alone are )
better methods.
.)
)

Figure 3.9: Flange splice weld where part of weld is inaccessible for radiography.
)
)
3.7 Hollow Sections )
For hollow sections, pipes, cylinders or vessels the technique employed depends on the size of the
)
component and whether there is access to the inside. If the source can be placed inside, the beam
)
only has to penetrate one wall thickness which is an advantage, but it may be difficult to achieve
an adequate source-to-film distance. Figure 3.10 shows two alternate locations for a source on the )
inside of a cylinder or large diameter pipe. If the diameter is too small to place the source inside but
there is still access for the film, single wall welds may still be examined. Several shots will be required
to examine the complete circumference.

Film around complete

circumference ~
l
)
)
)
)
)
)

One shot required. Source-to-film Three shots required but

distance limited to radius of pipe. source-to-film distance is greater.
)
Figure 3.10: Possible locations for source inside large diameter pipes or cylinders for single wall )
radiography.

)
If there is no access to the inside, both film and source are external and the beam must pass through
two wall thicknesses. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 3.11. Because of the relative source- )
object/film-object distances the first weld that the beam passes through does not produce an image )
unless the diameter is small. The weld can also be shot at a slight angle to avoid any possible overlap
or interference from the top portion of the weld. This technique requires three shots to be taken for
circular sections. For rectangular hollow sections, four shots are required.

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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

!
Source •
Slightly inclined beam

'
Film3
position //
,,
,','
Shot 1

.
Films
___ /overlap
,,. ,:.:.---'-- .. ,,
,,..,.,
"'~,
'' Film 2
\ \ position
\
'
" "
"" "'
''
'
Film 1

Three shots required.

Figure 3.11: Possible arrangement of film and source for double wall radiography of hollow sections.

4. Application of Radiography
The foregoing sections have shown that, although a valuable non-destructive evaluation method,
radiography does have some limitations. To apply the method most effectively it should be used in
conjunction with other methods, particularly visual inspection. Visual inspection and radiography should
form part of an integrated inspection plan. Figure 4.1 shows a typical sequence of events. Visual inspection
plays an important role in determining surface defects requiring repair and ensuring that repairs have been
completed prior to any radiography.

Visual
inspection

Repair
required
No

Make
repair

Perform
radiography

Acceptable
No
Yes
Fabrication
complete

Figure 4.1: Visual inspection should be used as an integral part of the application ofradiography.

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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4.1 Scheduling )
As a general rule radiography (or any other NDT method) should not be applied until welding and \
)
related operations are as complete as possible. For example, if two plates spliced together are to be
subsequently cut, radiograph the splice welds after the cutting operations. Similarly, flange splices
should be radiographed after completion of all welding, with run-off tabs removed. In Figure 4.2, two
plates are spliced together then cut into strips. Radiograph the welds after completing all welding, )
cutting and removal of run-off tabs.

'.
1. Splice weld
'
Avoid X-ray of
a joint that still
requires further
operations.

2. Cut strips

Figure 4.2: In general, as many operations as possible should be complete before radiography.

Exceptions to this might be where subsequent operations make access to the weld more difficult or
prevent an effective repair being undertaken. In addition, some welds may need to be radiographed
after partial completion of the joint; usually thick welds in high quality components to save on possible )
later repair costs. )
)
4.2 Delay After Welding
)
Radiography should not be performed until several hours after the weld has cooled to ambient
temperature. For example, in the case of high restraint joints CSA W59 recommends a minimum of )
48 hours before doing any radiography. The reason for this is that some types of defects, such as
hydrogen-induced cold cracks (HICC), may not form until several hours after the weld has cooled. At
normal shop temperatures cracking is not likely to be delayed more than 48 hours, but research has
)
shown that when welding at low temperatures cracking may be delayed many days.
)
The governing fabrication specification will detail the delay required before radiography can begin.
)
4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment )
Many products, such as pressure vessels and piping, often require a post-weld heat treatment. )
For some materials the ASME code allows radiography to be performed before the post-weld heat
)
treatment. This is often done to avoid repeating an expensive heat treatment in the event that repairs
)
are necessary. But client specifications may require radiography on the final product after post-weld
heat treatment, implying that radiography is done before and after. In such cases it is very important )
that the exact same procedure and set-up is used in both cases if difficulties in interpretation are )
.)

Page 34 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

to be avoided. Small differences in procedure and radiographic sensitivity could mean a borderline
indication deemed acceptable before heat treatment becomes rejectable after, simply because the
)
inspection sensitivity has changed.

4.4 Spot Radiography

It is quite common for specifications to call for spot radiography, i.e., examination of a percentage
of the total weld length (typically 10%) selected by the client. Spot radiography may be specified to
include intersections of horizontal and vertical welds, thus providing a sample of two welds on one
radiograph.
For example, CSA W59 requires each spot radiograph to show at least 100 mm (4 in) of weld length. If
the radiograph shows a defect, the defect must be traced for repair. Two additional spots on the same
unit length of weld must be selected and if these show a defect the entire unit length of weld must be
radiographed or totally removed (Figure 4.3).

Unit length of weld represented by spot

Min. length 100 mm

2 1 3
1 is original spot. If this shows a defect
then other spots, 2 and 3 must be taken.
If either of these shows a defect then the
entire unit length must be radiographed.

Figure 4.3: Spot radiography. If the spot shows a defect, two additional spots must be radiographed
(CSA W59).

4.5 Field Radiography

In field practice, radiography must be coordinated with production welding. For safety reasons the
immediate area must be clear of all personnel so it is common practice to schedule radiography
between shifts or during breaks. To assist with speedy set-up prior to and between exposures, the
radiographer uses canvas and cardboard cassettes and flexible envelopes into which the unexposed
film is loaded under darkroom conditions. The cassettes are placed on the weld and held there with
masking tape or magnetic clamps. Accurate location of defects is often done by making a tracing of
the defect on the radiograph and transferring ii to the weld.

4.6 Qualifications
. _)
Radiography must only be carried out by certified technicians and the qualifications of personnel
should be checked by the inspector. Certification is to the Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB)
CAN/CGSB-48.9712, Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
Personnel may be certified at three levels. An example of a wallet size certificate is shown in Figure
4.4 .

.)
© Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services Page 35
 i
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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Natura! Resources Ressources naturelle:s \
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Figure 4.4: Example of radiographic certificate.

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4.7 Procedures )
Many factors influence the quality of a radiograph and it is essential that they are all controlled in )
practice. There should be written procedures for radiography that include such details as equipment,
I
type of source, geometric arrangement, source-to-film distance, type of film and processing. The
inspector should carefully review radiographic procedures to ensure such details are documented. Of
particular value in a procedure is a sketch showing the relative location of the film and source together I
with details of penetrameter and identification locations. Part of a typical example is illustrated in
Figure 4.5.

SUBJECT. . PROCEDVRB NO.

Rad:olf'a~luc Pnu:,ed11rejor the S-RF.-W W$9- Pa e 3 tJf fl
E.\'.a11t1t1ufloritJfUdd~to WS9 g

~ope
)
This procedure dCscribes. the [Link],.i.phic1esting: of groove bun weld'> in accordance with
CSA Standard W59.
The geomccriCS (;OV(.-red by.!his proc«ture are Bun, COrncr Weld and Tee Joints. Any
sp(:(:fal oonl'igunufons will b¢,CO\;cted by a suppk·mtnt to this procedure. )
Source 9f Radin1ioD · )
Tech/Ops Cmmm·a:Ray IR192. )
Geometric Arrn·ngemcrit
J
Tbc-gcom(:tri~'a'nangcmcnt Of the :routtc weld and film' [Link] sllO\\n in Figures I, 2. and 3.
.)
Film Jdentiflcatlo'il
lden1ific~uio11.' offiim shall be made by a film Id<:ntificarion Prinlcr, and location mark"-rs
which will appear-On tbc film, will be by lead iocalion markers.

Saft'n·
All mdiographie-work cani¢-0ut under this pnx:Wllre shall be 'done µruler protected
conditions whercb}• the [Link], Md non-radiation-Workers in tbC':arC3, will not
receive a rndiatirnl does 1haf cxw:-ds [Link] pcmiittcd by the Radiation 'Pi'oteciion 8rancll or
lhc DcpartmcnfofHc-alth and [Link].

Film Processing
)
Films will be DlaC'hine processed 1hrougb a Kodak x..omatic Film Ptocessor Model B.
)
Film

Fine-grain ln~al Film witl be used for alt rndiogrophs. )

1111ens:ifvlng Serttns

Lead scp;cns of;01 Othickness s~IJ W us-:d front and 00<::k.

Figure 4.5: Part of a typical procedure for radiography.

)
Page 36 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

,! 4.8 Acceptance Criteria

The criteria for acceptance or rejection of welds based on radiographs are given in the particular
standard governing fabrication. For example, CSA W59 provides separate acceptance criteria for
statically loaded and cyclically loaded structures. As an example, Figure 4.6 shows the requirements
for tension members in a cyclically loaded structure. The diagram gives the maximum size and
minimum spacing of porosity and fusion defects (cracks are not permitted). For example, the
maximum size of a single pore in a 25 mm thick groove weld is 8 mm. There can be no other pores 2
mm or greater within a distance 75 mm of either side of the pore.

E
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iii l. To determine the maximum size discontinuity permitted in
~~
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any joint or weld throat project A horizontally to B.

11. To determine the minimum clearance allowed between

edges of discontinuities of any size project B vertically to C.
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
e
C)
C • Minimum clearance measured along the longitudinal axis of the weld between edges of porosity
or fusion-type discontinuities, mm (larger of adjacent discontinuities governs)
<
*The maximum size of the defect located within this distance from an edge of plate shall be less than 2 mm. The sum of defects
located within this distance from the edge shall not exceed 5 mm.

Adjacent discontinuities, spaced less than the minimum spacing required by the above figure, shall be measured as one length,
equal to the sum of the total length of the discontinuities plus the length of the space between them, and evaluated as a single
discontinuity by the above figure.

Figure 4.6: Radiographic acceptance criteria for welds in tension in cyclically loaded structures (CSA
W59). Refer to the original for use.

4.9 Inspection Records and Reports

The results of radiography and the interpretation should be documented in a report. A typical format is
illustrated in Figure 4.7, which includes a sketch, details of technique and results of interpretation. This
report together with the radiographs would usually be submitted to the client.

© Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services Page 37

 )
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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\ )
I

.·
..
l
Report of Radiographic .Examination of Welds
Project ...................... . -)
Qua:lity,R~quireniant$ S8ction No,· ;, ..... .-... ,.,.••. ;••, .................. ,. ................. ,.. ·.·· .......... .-................... :................ ''"'"' .. ;;.; ..._. .,,...... ,-. ")
Rel)Ortets 10 ................................. ·.... ·......... · ...... ·-········ · ....... ·........... .- ............·. --....... :........·..................,........ .-................. ·.
. . . ... )
•• . . .
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Weld Lociltion:.8ild ldentiflcatioi'{Sketch

Tec_hniqu.....• ...· <·:·

Source-·· · ·:· '. · --
..

.
-,
Film to·so,urce ~-~~- . )
•·•
l:xp6sUre·0tirrie ·· ' ·, .

Screen$·· · > ·
Film type:·~~~~-~
)
... (Describe-Length,' Wid_th, and Thickness of AJl:JOims··RadiOQ'raphed)
·. . .· .. :_

·: .Date·
.· Weld
lndentffication
Area
lntemretation
Accent Reisct
·. · Hen irs,
Ac·ce Reiect . RelTlaikS
..
... )
.
)
.r---+------+---+-,--1---+--.--+----t--------1
.. .. . .
. .
. . . )
. . .. .
·..
. . ·. .

.· .. .
. .
. . ... ·.,··.· . .
··;.,. . . .
. ••
.·
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. . .. .
.

... .
.
..
.
..
. .
.. .. .
..=.,r. . ...-..:i•••.
.· . .· .. ·.
. .
·. <
··/

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.·..
.. · . ·.
.
. . ·.·
·. . .. ' . . ·, .. ·<.<.oo .. :-·
r-,-..-+-----+-=..-.-1,,-,--,---+~----t-~--.-t-..-:-.--:-..--t------.-,,-,
... )
We, ·the undersigned, certify that the· sta1emen![Link] th~ record are rorrect·anrl'that 1he welds were prepered-.a_nd.~e5:ted.it1_
accoroance. with the requirements of CSA_ Standard)V59_- VVelded:Steel·_Constrµ[Link] (Metal Arc Welding):;'"- · · , ..., )

·-.-::: :-·,::::i·:-c,::-·-'; )
AuthO~iie-d·,b"y ................................. -.. -.... - -,.:::::·--:_:c::--;·?:: ,:--·;:··:- -
)

Radiographer(.s) ..............:..................................................... :pro. ,. . . .•. .·. ·. ·. . . .·. ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . jt•. •:: '. )

.. . . . ·_:, . ,_ . '
Figure 4.7: Typical format for a radiographic inspection report.
)
)
Once the interpretation and the required documentation has been completed, many industries,
especially the nuclear industry, require completed radiographs to be kept for periods up to 40 years. )
This is referred to as Archival Quality. Commercial Quality refers to the storage of radiographs for
a period of between 3 and 10 years. Therefore, close attention must be paid to all aspects of the
processing procedure. The image on poorly processed film will begin to fade within a relatively short
period of time. Radiographs should be in storage packets made from acid-free paper and kept in a
clean, dry environment Stacking should be on the film edge rather than flat

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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

5. Radiation Safety
5.1 Safety
Both X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing electromagnetic radiations that pose a potential hazard to
\
··.· ! both the radiographic technician, fellow workers and the public. Ionizing radiation can damage human
blood cells and tissues resulting in acute or long-term health effects. Strict safety precautions are
therefore required when radiography is performed. Radiographic inspection must only be performed
by trained and qualified personnel, and the radiographic technician is not only responsible for his or
her own safety but also the safety of all ancillary personnel in the surrounding area.
Licensing and use of ionizing radiation equipment is governed by strict regulations. In Canada the use
of gamma ray inspection is controlled by the federal government through the Canadian Nuclear Safety
Commission (CNSC) and its regulations are applicable in all provinces. The use of industrial X-ray
machines is a provincial government concern and is controlled by the provincial ministry responsible
for the province's industrial and occupational health and safety legislation. All regulations state
maximum permissible doses of radiation, which must not be exceeded by either qualified personnel or
non-qualified personnel (see Table 5.1).

Table 5.1: Maximum permissible dose.*

Column I Column II Column Ill

Atomic Radiation Worker Any Other Person
Organ or Tissue rems/quarter of a year rems/year rems/year
Whole body, gonads, bone 3• 5• 0.5
marrow
Bone, skin, thyroid 15 30 3•
Any tissue of hands, forearms, 38 75 7.5
feet and ankles
Lungs and other single organs or 8 15 1.5
tissues
• Refer to original document-Atomic Energy Control Regulations, Schedule II, "Maximum permissible
doses and exposure" Table 1, for details (currently under revision).
)

5.2 Warning Signs

To limit the risk of exposure to radiation a restricted area is designated around the site where
radiography is being undertaken. This restricted area is marked by physical barriers, warning· lights
and signs bearing the international radiation hazard sign (Figure 5.1 ). It is imperative that non-
radiographic personnel do not enter the restricted area at any time.

\
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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-, :1
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•
A ;;; radius of disc ......-,--Magenta
)
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----+--Yellow
tA12 )
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Figure 5.1: Trefoil- radiation hazard sign.

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)
)
The sign in Figure 5.1 is used for radiation in general including both X-ray and gamma rays. Another
sign used in Canada specifically for X-rays in shown in Figure 5.2. An important feature of X-ray
equipment is that X-rays can only be emitted when the machine is turned on. This is in contrast to )
gamma rays that are continuously emitted from a radioactive isotope. )

)
I
I )
I Figure 5.2: The warning sign used in Canada to indicate the presence of a hazard from X-rays. )
fl- - ~ A' 0,
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5.3 Controlling Exposure
There are several steps that can be taken to reduce radiation levels and these follow a few basic
principles:
Time. Reduce exposure times by using the fastest film speed that gives the required sensitivity )
and the shortest source-to-film distance (SFD) that meets unsharpness requirements.
)
Distance. Radiation follows the inverse square law (Figure 2.13). Thus doubling the distance from
a source reduces the radiation intensity four times.
)
Shielding. Heavy materials, such as lead or depleted uranium, absorb radiation. For a given
thickness of the material the intensity is reduced by a given fraction. Thus the half value layer J
(HVL) is the thickness of material that reduces the intensity of a beam to half its original intensity. )
Similarly, the tenth value layer (TVL) reduces it to one tenth (Figure 5.3). )
Collimator. This is a device surrounding a radiation source that helps to minimize scattered
radiation and direct the primary beam onto a localized area. )

Page 40 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services

 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

-1 Safety interlock switches. For X-ray equipment interrupt switches may be attached to the door
) into an X-ray cell so that the machine is automatically turned off if the door is opened during
radiography.

100 50 100 rays 10

-x-Y X-Y - X-Y X-Y
rays rays enter emerge
enter emerge

i - - - - - - 1 TVL------<
i--1 HVL-1

Figure 5.3: Illustration of HVL and TVL terms, which describe the shielding ability of materials.

5.4 Detecting and Measuring Radiation

X-rays and gamma rays cannot be detected by any of the human senses, so various instrumentation
must be used to measure the doses received by radiographic personnel. Table 5.2 gives units of
radiation.

Table 5.2: Units of Radiation

Customary Units SI Units Conversion

Radiation Intensity Roentgen (R) Coulomb per 1 R = 2.58 x 10·4 c/kg
The intensity of X- and y rays is measured by the kilogram (c/
ability to create ions. kg)

One Roentgen is the amount of radiation that will

create 2.08 x 109 ion pairs in one cc of air at STP.

Radiation Activity Curie Becquerel 1 curie= 37 giga-becquerels

The strength of a radioactive source is (Bq) (one (GBq)
determined by the rate of disintegration. disintegration
)
per second)
) One curie is 37 x 109 disintegrations per second.
As the source decays the activity decreases.
) The time for the activity to decrease to one half
the original is the half life.

Half life of lr192 = 74 days

Half life of Co60 = 5.3 years

Radiation Absorbed Dose (RAD) rad Gray (Gy) 1 rad= 10 mGy

Measure of radiation energy absorbed by living (Joules per 1 Gray = 100 rads
tissue. kilogram, Ji
kg)
Roentgen Equivalent Man (REM) rem Sievert (Sv) 1 Sv= 100rem
I
X-and y rays do the same amount of damage (= 1 X rad) 1 rem= 10 mSv
. ) for the same energy absorbed. The amount of millirem
potential damage-causing radiation absorbed is = rem/1000
thus the same as the RAD. For other types of
radiation there is a different factor.

)
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
)
)
For measuring the level of radiation around a radiography site a radiation survey meter (Figure
5.4) may be used. The intensity of the field is indicated on a meter dial but no permanent record is 1
/
provided. An audible alarming dosimeter can also be used to detect radiation fields (Figure 5.5). This
)
small electronic device is battery powered and usually worn on a belt. In a radiation field the device )
emits a loud beeping noise and as the intensity of radiation increases the time between beeps gets )
shorter until, in a high radiation field the device emits a continuous high pitched noise. )
)
)

. )

)
\
'

Figure 5.4: Typical radiation survey meter.

l
)
)
)
)

Figure 5.5: Typical audible alarm.

. )
5.5 Thermo-luminescent Dosimeter )
Personal dose records are obtained by using a thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD). This device )
traps radiation energy, which can later be released by gentle heating. The released energy is
measured and a permanent record obtained of the total exposure to radiation. It is a small, personal
device (Figure 5.6) and has replaced the use of the film badge in Canada. The film badge was simply
a holder containing a small piece of film which could be developed and the degree of blackening on
the film used as a measure of exposure. )
)

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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l
l

Figure 5.6: A thermo-luminescent dosimeter.

In Canada the monitoring of radiation exposure is controlled by the federal government through the
Department of Health and Welfare. The TLDs are issued and read and a lifelong history of radiation
doses received is maintained by the Bureau of Radiation and Medical Devices.

5.6 Direct Reading Dosimeter (DRD)

For an immediate indication of personal radiation doses a device known as a direct reading dosimeter
(DRD) is used (Figure 5.7). The DRD is about the size of a fountain pen and contains a charged
quartz fibre that moves when struck by radiation. The movement can be read directly against a scale,
providing an immediate indication of personal radiation dose, although it is not highly accurate.

View through eyepiece

Figure 5.7: Direct reading dosimeter (DRD).

6. Summary
Radiography is a powerful tool for the volumetric inspection of welds but it has its limitations. It is best used
in conjunction with good visual inspection and may be supplemented with other methods such as ultrasonic
examination. Although radiography is carried out by certified technicians, inspectors, supervisors and
others require a good knowledge of the method.

In this module we have discussed the basics of radiography and shown how an image is formed and
what controls the quality. Location of the source and the distance from the film to the source is important.
Because radiography depends on density differences in the path of the beam it may not reveal defects
such as cracks that are narrow in one dimension. Techniques for improving the ability to detect flaws and
methods for locating their position in the weld are discussed. The appearance of typical defects on a
radiograph is covered.
, .)
© Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services Page 43
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

Finally we have discussed some aspects of the important subject of safety in radiography. The correct
safety procedures must be known, understood and applied by all personnel involved in radiography or near
an inspection site whether or not they are actually carrying out the radiography. With communication and
cooperation among inspection personnel, technicians and the client, radiographic inspections will continue
to be a safe and valuable non-destructive testing method for welded structures.

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 MODULE 18 J Radiographic Inspection

)
Guides and Exercises
To obtain maximum benefit from this module we suggest that you follow this guide and complete the
exercises as indicated. It is important that you work through the text methodically, studying each section
thoroughly before moving on. The exercises are designed to give you an indication of whether you have
learned the material and can move on or whether you need to go back and study the section again.

Do the exercises honestly. They will not help you unless you take them seriously. If you get a question
wrong, go back through the text until you understand where you have gone wrong and know the correct
answer.

The length of time required to complete the module will vary from student to student. Find you own pace.
Do not rush. Remember you are trying to teach yourself something, not win a race.

Some people like to underline sections when they read a text. We suggest that you use caution if you
do this. What you think is important first time you read it may be different after reading it three times. We
suggest you read a section three times thoroughly before highlighting anything.

The exam exercise is designed to give you an indication of whether you are ready to take the closed-book
exams. The exercise questions are of a similar standard to the official exams. Do not take the exam until
you feel you are ready. You may wish to study several modules before taking the exams on each. If you
have any difficulties with this module do not hesitate to ask for help.

You may contact us at 1-800-844-6790, fax us at 905-542-1318 or email us at info@[Link].

)
)

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 .)

MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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)
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Guide 1
)
Carefully read Sections 1 to 2.5 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy. If
'\
J
)
any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it.
l
)

1. True or False? -,
-)
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic wave but gamma rays are beams of tiny charged particles.
)
)
2. List three disadvantages of radiography over other inspection methods. )
)
)
)
)
)
3. Sketch the main components of an X-ray machine then compare your sketch with that shown in )
Figure 2.5.

l
)
4. The effect of increasing the voltage (kV) in an X-ray machine is to: )

(a) increase the X-ray beam intensity without changing its wavelength. )
)
(b) decrease the intensity and shorten the wavelength.
)
(c) increase the intensity and shorten the wavelength.
)

5. Do gamma rays generally have a greater or lesser ability to penetrate thick steel than X-rays? )

)
)
6. List three disadvantages of gamma rays over X-ray radiography?

)
)
-)
Page 46 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Guide2

Carefully read Sections 2.6 to 2.9 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy. If
any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it

1. For a given intensity of X-rays striking a specimen, what are the two main factors that affect the
intensity that emerges from the specimen to strike the film?

2. Which of the following conditions gives the better image contrast?

(a) A low energy level with an adequately long exposure time

(b) A high energy level with a shorter exposure time

3. Place the following in order of increasing absorption of X-rays:

(a) steel

(b) tungsten

(c) welding slag

4. True of False?

The only thing that causes fuzziness at the edge of an image is geometric unsharpness .

.)
)
) 5. List the three dimensions that affect geometric unsharpness and the relationship among them
(equation).

6. What is the simplest way of reducing the geometrical unsharpness for a given plate and X-ray
) machine?

© Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services Page47

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 !
MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
l
!
)
Guide 3
)
Carefully read Sections 2.10 to 2.18 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy.
~
)
If any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it.
)
~
1. True or False? l
The purpose of the IQI is to verify that all defects greater than 2% of the plate thickness have ·.---i
been detected. :)
I
)
2. Whal features of the IQI image must be clearly distinguished on the radiograph when using
. )
X-ray?
·)
)
I )
3. If it is not possible to place the IQI on the source side of the specimen, what can be done? )
)
a) place the IQI on the film side but reduce the IQI by one size

b) place the IQI on the film side and use the same IQI size as you would on the source
side

c) nothing, you cannot take a radiograph unless the IQI is on the source side l
)

4. Some dark crack-like indications appear on a radiograph. If they are not due to cracks in the )
actual specimen what else could they result from? i
)
)
5. What is the specified range of density of a radiograph according to most codes?
' )
)

6. True or False?
)
Since radiography is a volumetric method the condition of the surface is not an important factor.

l
7. How would you distinguish spatter from porosity on a radiograph?

)
Page 48 © Copyright CWB Group - Industry Services )
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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Guide4

Carefully read Sections 3.1 to 3.7 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy. If
any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it.

1. True or False?

Radiography is not recommended by CSA W59 for fillet welds.

2. Which of the following defects could most likely be missed by radiography?

(a) a crack

(b) porosity

(c) slag inclusions

3. True or False?

According to most structural codes all backing bars must be removed prior to radiography.

4. Give two reasons why the source is not always placed inside cylinders or pipes when
radiographing welds.

5. How many shots would be required to radiograph a splice weld in a rectangular hollow
structural section where there is no access to the inside?

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 )
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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
)

)
Guide 5
)
Carefully read Sections 4.1 to 4.9 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy. If
)
any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it.
)
-1
1. True of False? .)
)
Good visual inspection should always be used in conjunction with radiography.
)
)
2. What is the recommended delay after welding before doing radiography on high restraint joints )
(according to CSA W59)?
)
)
)
)
3. If a product is to be stress relieved, why is it important to use exactly the same procedure for
radiography after stress relief as is used before? )
)

4. According to CSA W59, when doing spot radiography what minimum length of weld must each
spot show? )

(a) 50 mm

(b) 100mm )
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(c) 200mm

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5. What do the letters CGSB stand for? )
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6. List some of the items you would look for when checking a procedure for radiography.
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

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Guide 6

Carefully read Sections 5.1 to 6.0 and answer the following questions. Check your answers for accuracy. If
any of your answers are wrong, re-study the guide subject matter in the text until you understand it.

1. Which organization in Canada controls the use of gamma ray devices?

2. Sketch from memory the international radiation hazard sign (trefoil) then compare your sketch
with that in Figure 5.1.

3. True of False?

The emission of gamma rays from a radioactive isotope cannot be switched off; the source can
only be retracted into a shielding container.

4. If 1000 rays strike a shielding plate that is twice the TVL thick, how many rays emerge on the
other side?

: )

5. If point B is 4 times as far from a radiation source as point A, how much lower will the Tntensity
of radiation be at point B than point A?

) 6. What is the SI equivalent unit to rem?

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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection
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Guide Answers
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Guide 1
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1. False
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2. Bulky equipment, special safety precautions, some defects not reliably detected
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3. See Figure 2.5 i
4. (c) -!
5. Greater
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6. See Table 2.3
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Guide 2 )

1. Thickness and type of material )

2. (a)

3. Welding slag, steel, tungsten

4. False, fuzziness is also caused by inherent unsharpness and scattering

5. Source size, F; object-to-source distance, d; thickness, t

Ug = Ftld
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6. Increase the object (plate)-to-source distance
. )

Guide 3
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1. False
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2. Outline of the IOI and the 2T hole )
3. (a) )

4. Scratches or cracks in the lead intensifying screens. Possible other causes are listed in Table 2.7.

5. 1.5 to 3.5
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6. False )
7. Spatter appears white or light and may cover the base metal as well as the weld. Porosity is normally )
confined to the weld metal and appears dark. )
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 MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Guide 4

1. True

2. (a)

3. False

4. There may not be access to the inside; it may not be possible to get adequate source-to-film distance
inside.

5. Four

Guide 5

1. True

2. 48 hours

3. To prevent borderline indications that could be interpreted differently before and after stress relief

4. 100 mm

5. Canadian General Standards Board

6. Some would be a sketch, governing standards, equipment, type of source, geometric arrangement,
source-to-film distance, type of film and processing

Guide 6

1. Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC)

2. See Figure 5.1

3. True

4. 10

5. 16 times lower

6. Sievert (Sv)

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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Exam Exercise - ,
This test is designed to determine whether you are ready to attempt the formal examination. ) /

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Complete the ANSWER SHEET and compare the results with the ANSWER KEY. If you score less than
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70%, we suggest you restudy the material.

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1. Radiographic Inspection can be performed with the following types of radiation: )
(a) ultrasonic and magnetic particle. )
)
{b) infrared and ultraviolet.

(c) photons and electrons. '

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(d) gamma and X-rays. )

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2. Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible light are:
)
(a) infra red, ultraviolet and x-rays.
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{b) gamma rays, microwave and radiowaves.

(c) . radio, microwaves, and infrared rays.

{d) X-rays, gamma rays and ultra violet.

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3. Increasing the voltage of the X-ray tube has which affect on the penetrating capabilities?

(a) increases the penetration of the rays )

(b) decreases the penetration of the rays )
(c) no effect on the penetrating capabilities )
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{d) not applicable to operating parameters of X-ray tubes
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4. Given a source size of 4 mm, a weld thickness of 25.4 mm and a plate-to-source distance of
900 mm, what is the geometric unsharpness?
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(a) 0.113 mm

(b) 141.7 mm )
(c) 0.007 mm )
(d) 0.0044 mm
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(e) 0.0282 mm
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 MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection

5. Gamma rays are emitted by which of the following sources?

(a) electromagnets

(b) low voltage x-ray tubes

(c) radioisotopes

{d) gamma machines

6. What range of density should a radiograph have according to CSA W59?

(a) 7.3 to 8.2

{b) it should be calculated from the source size, thickness and object-to-source distance

(c) 2T to 4T {Tis the plate thickness)

(d) 1.5 to 3.5

(e) 300 to 3000 cd/m2

7. A disadvantage of using the X-ray tube is that it:

(a) is very portable.

{b) requires an electrical source.

(c) has lower sensitivity.

(d) None of the above.

8. Which of the following statement is correct?

(a) all codes require all backing bars to be machined off before radiography

(b) backing bars need not be removed since they have no effect at all on the quality of the
radiographic image

(c) CSA W59 does not require backing bars to be removed but a badly fitted backing bar
could interfere with interpretation of the radiograph

(d) backing bars must always be removed to make room for the IOI

(e) backing bars must never be removed since they are an integral part of the weld and
must therefore be radiographed

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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9. Source size, source-to-object distance and object-to-film distance are factors that control:
)
(a) contrast. )
)
(b) sensitivity. )
(c) film development time. )
{d) definition.
)
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10. What device is now commonly used for measuring the personal radiation dose of radiographic )
workers?
)
(a) radiation survey meter )
(b) thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD) )
(c) there is no method for measuring personal dose
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(d) personal audible alarm
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(e) a collimator
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MODULE 181 Radiographic Inspection

Answer Sheet - Module 18

Complete the "Answer Sheet" and compare the results with the "Answer Key". If you have a pass mark less
)
than 70%, you are advised to re-study the material.

Please circle only ONE letter corresponding to the answer you think is most correct.

QUESTION ANSWERS
1 a b C d e
2 a b C d e
3 a b C d e
4 a b C d e
5 a b C d e
6 a b C d e
7 a b C d e
8 a b C d e
9 a b C d e
10 a b C d e

The answer sheet below is provided for your use in the event that you wish to retest yourself.

QUESTION ANSWERS
1 a b C d e
2 a b C d e
3 a b C d e
4 a b C d e
5 a b C d e
6 a b C d e
7 a b C d e
8 a b C d e
9 a b C d e
10 a b C d e

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MODULE 18 I Radiographic Inspection
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Answer Key - Module 18 .)
Compare your answer sheet to this key. ! )
QUESTION ANSWERS
)
1 a b C I .d. •· ·.•·•. e
1--:-' :·, ._, .·. "
-)
2 a b • d e
<} 1'./\'. )
,... e
3 b C d
4 :. ,..._.;. b C d e )
.. ...
5 a b d e )
L:::<-:C . ..t'-"_:.-,.,
6 a b C e
,. "
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7 a C d e
'"""" "'""""" ·.'\i~-- ·.·. ~- !
8 a b d e
9 a b C i0 2 .OciO .• e )
10 a ; ib)•., C d e !
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