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JSMA
1,2 Sustainable competitive
advantage or temporary
competitive advantage
168
Improving understanding of an important
strategy construct
Tim O’Shannassy
Faculty of Business, Graduate School of Business, RMIT University,
Melbourne, Australia

Abstract
Purpose – Competitive advantage is an important construct in the strategy discipline. The purpose
of this paper is to explore an appropriate definition of competitive advantage, seek to identify sources
of competitive advantage for firms and improve understanding of why in many industries for many
firms competitive advantage is only a temporary outcome due to the influence of environmental
uncertainty.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper undertakes a synthesis of classic and contemporary
insights into competitive advantage in the literature to assist the development of several research
propositions.
Findings – By introducing the perceived environmental uncertainty construct to discussion on the
relationship between firm resources, competitive advantage and organization performance,
understanding of sustained competitive advantage and temporary competitive advantage is enhanced.
Research limitations/implications – Through the development of the research propositions the
paper helps to clarify terminology and provide several suggestions for future research.
Practical implications – The findings contribute to the evolution of strategic management practice
by giving some insight to practitioners as to when and where firm resources may be useful by
explaining these links between environmental uncertainty, firm resources, competitive advantage, and
organization performance. A brief illustration of these connections in the context of BHP Billiton
Limited is provided to link theory to practice.
Originality/value – Competitive advantage remains a poorly understood construct in the strategy
literature and the subject of much discussion. This paper sets out to clarify understanding and
stimulate debate in an area that is not well understood.
Keywords Competitive advantage, Organizational performance, Resource management,
Strategic management
Paper type Conceptual paper

1. Introduction
The strategy discipline for many years has been lacking a clear definition of
competitive advantage (Rumelt, 2003) and a deep understanding of the influence of this
construct on firm performance. There has been increasing discussion of and empirical
Journal of Strategy and Management research into competitive advantage in recent years (Ray et al., 2004; Newbert, 2008),
Vol. 1 No. 2, 2008
pp. 168-180 however understanding of what is competitive advantage and distinguishing this
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1755-425X
concept from organization performance remains a challenge for the discipline (Powell,
DOI 10.1108/17554250810926357 2001). In recent years there has also been some discussion of the fleeting nature of
competitive advantage for firms in a challenging, competitive marketplace but little Sustainable
connection of this discussion to the perceived environmental uncertainty construct. competitive
The purpose of this paper is to develop a definition of competitive advantage,
distinguish competitive advantage from organization performance and identify why advantage
competitive advantages are becoming more temporary or fleeting for firms introducing
the perceived environmental uncertainty construct into an evolving debate in the
strategy literature. Fulfilling the purpose of this paper leads to the development of five 169
useful research propositions which help explain the relationship between perceived
environmental uncertainty, firm resources, competitive advantage and organization
performance. The example of BHP Billiton Limited’s (BHPB) recent history helps
illustrate the importance of the research propositions. Several suggestions for future
research are also made.

2. What is competitive advantage?

Michael Porter was the first writer to introduce the term competitive advantage to the
vocabulary of the strategy discipline. The term competitive advantage is another of the
strategy “buzzwords” words that cause confusion for academics, business executives
and consultants (ABCs) (Markides, 2000). ABCs have a tendency to use the term
competitive advantage, like other popularly used terms in the strategy vocabulary
such as strategic thinking or strategic innovation with different meaning in different
contexts, this includes different use of these terms in different countries. This challenge
for the strategy discipline is exacerbated by ABCs all endeavouring to have their
message accepted and embraced by the ABC community.
Barney (2002 p. 9) makes a useful connection when he says: “a firm experiences
competitive advantages when its actions in an industry or market create economic
value and when competing firms are engaging in similar actions.” Barney (1991)
argues competitive advantage is achieved when a firm is implementing a value
creating strategy that is not being simultaneously implemented by any current or
potential competitors. A sustained competitive advantage occurs where the firm is
implementing a value creating strategy not being implemented simultaneously by
rivals and other firms are unable to duplicate the benefits of this strategy. It is of
interest that Barney (1991) does not comment on the possibility of competitive
advantage being eroded by the innovation efforts of rival firms changing the market
space (Tushman and O’Reilly, 2004; Kim and Mauborgne, 2005).
Similar to views expressed by Newbert (2008), in this paper competitive advantage
is not organization performance. This position is a matter of some contention in the
literature with writers such as Porter (1985) using the terms interchangeably but
Powell (2001) making a distinction between the two constructs. The concept of
competitive advantage relates to a firm maintaining a sustainable edge over rivals in a
particular industry setting that cannot be eroded over time. The firm with competitive
advantage pursues a strategy that is not being executed by a rival firm or firms.
The strategy implemented by the firm with competitive advantage provides the
opportunity for a reduction in costs (i.e. low cost) in the provision of a product and/or
service with some proximity on product and/or service attributes to providers of the
alternative differentiation strategy in a broad market segment. Alternately, the firm
may have the ability to exploit market opportunities with a product and/or service with
superior attributes (i.e. differentiation) with some proximity to low cost providers on
JSMA cost of production or provision of service in a broad market segment. Both the low cost
1,2 and the differentiation strategies can be pursued in a narrow market segment and this
is termed cost focus and differentiation focus, respectively. Porter (1985 p. 17) notes
that a firm may be able to span low cost and differentiation for a period of time but that
this is difficult to sustain with firms at risk of being “stuck in the middle”, not
executing either generic strategy well and subsequently not achieving sustained
170 competitive advantage. Many industries have a number of firms that are “stuck in the
middle”. A firm seeking to span low cost and differentiation will only earn healthy
profits if it has favourable industry structure or it has rivals also seeking to span low
cost and differentiation. Clearly in Porter’s (1985) world this scenario is not a recipe for
optimal industry performance with firms competing with each other seeking to execute
compromised choices on generic position. Porter (1985) notes that evidence of
performance weakness for “stuck in the middle” firms compared with firms with a
clear generic position tends to occur in a mature industry with a slow industry growth
rate. Here, “stuck in the middle” firms tend to be exposed for their poorly conceived
positioning strategies which in the past may have been carried by a healthy industry
growth rate. The achievement of competitive advantage by a firm in an industry is also
aided by the firm being able to neutralize threats from rival firms in the marketplace
(Barney, 1991; Newbert, 2008), and establishing and maintaining a clear generic
position plays an important role in this desirable set of circumstances (Porter, 1985).
In the strategy literature the organization performance construct is usually
associated with the achievement of strategic (e.g. sales growth, market share,
percentage of sales from new products, customer satisfaction, quality) and financial
objectives (e.g. return on assets, return on equity, return on sales) (Powell and
Dent-Micallef, 1997). Kaplan and Norton (1992, 1996) blending insight from the
academic, business and management consulting community, in particular building on
the Analog Devices case study and their “Corporate Scorecard”, go further indicating
that there are leading and lagging effects that need to be understood in predicting
strong financial returns for individual firms (Kaplan and Norton, 1996, p. vii). Kaplan
and Norton (1992, 1996) pointed out there are several dimensions to firm performance
beyond only the financial perspective including the internal perspective, the customer
perspective and the innovation and learning perspective. They see a need to balance
understanding of firm performance across these dimensions and also the leading
effects of the internal perspective, the customer perspective and innovation and
learning perspectives predicting the financial perspective outcome. Thus, synthesis of
the received literature in this area indicates that competitive advantage and
organization performance are different research constructs, that informs the following
simple proposition around which there is so much debate in the strategy discipline:
P 1. Competitive advantage and organization performance are different research
constructs.
Powell (2001) has called for more research into the distinction between competitive
advantage and organization performance. Porter (1985) linked generic market
strategies to the achievement of competitive advantage and used the term competitive
advantage interchangeably with organization performance. Newbert (2008) examined
the importance of the characteristics of rare and valuable resources and capabilities on
the attainment of competitive advantage and organization performance. Newbert (2008)
found a positive correlation between the attainment of competitive advantage by a firm Sustainable
and better organization performance. This insight from Newbert (2008) was assisted competitive
by his clarification of the definition of the constructs competitive advantage and
organization performance which we have seen is a matter of some contention in the advantage
strategy literature. Hart and Banbury (1994) suggested but did not prove highly
developed strategy-making resources can have a positive longitudinal effect on
organization performance. O’Shannassy (2005) demonstrated the favourable 171
longitudinal effect of highly developed strategy-making resources on organization
performance suggested by Hart and Banbury (1994). Newbert (2008) argued that the
effects of rare and valuable resources on organization performance are not direct or
inevitable, however the attainment of competitive advantage does act as a significant
predictor of organization performance. So Newbert (2008), similar to Kaplan and
Norton (1992, 1996) in their discussion of leading and lagging effects in relation to the
organization performance perspectives that they identified, argues that there is a
leading and lagging effect present between the attainment of competitive advantage
and the facilitation of a strong organization performance outcome. An extension of this
synthesis of literature and research is that competitive disadvantage for a firm in an
industry will be a leading predictor of weak organization performance and a prompt
for quick managerial action to address any point or points of competitive disadvantage
(Powell, 2001). In this scenario the firm is unable to execute with sufficient
effectiveness and efficiency a value adding strategy. In terms of an efficiency outcome,
economic returns are not generated to a level that justifies a firm’s investment in
tangible and intangible resources (Ray et al., 2004). Understanding of the presence of
competitive disadvantage for a firm can be a helpful prompt to reassess the strategic
situation and commence a revision of the firm’s market offering to mitigate
performance concerns and utilize more effectively and efficiently firm resources.
Blending learning from the insights from Kaplan and Norton (1992, 1996) and Newbert
(2008) yields the following propositions:
P2a. The attainment of competitive advantage by a firm is a leading predictor of
the achievement of strong organization performance.
P2b. Competitive disadvantage for a firm is a leading predictor of a deterioration
in organization performance and a prompt for quick, effective managerial
action to address the competitive disadvantage and mitigate weakness in
organization performance.

3. Where does competitive advantage come from?

Porter’s (1980, 1985) research legacy has provided analytical tools to help us identify
attractive industries, how to position in attractive industries, and how to identify
nations with attractive industries. Porter (1980, p. 3) argues “Competitive advantage
grows fundamentally out of value a firm is able to create for its buyers that exceeds the
firm’s cost of creating it.” So a firm makes a choice in relation to entering an industry in
a particular country or countries, and then as we have seen positions itself in relation to
the Porter (1985) generic strategies – low cost, differentiation in the broader market or
cost focus or differentiation focus in particular segments. Porter (1985) notes firm scale
in an industry can also be a source of competitive advantage and increase the
probability of a firm achieving and sustaining strong performance. These insights flow
JSMA from Michael Porter’s deep understanding of industrial economics and the analytical
1,2 tools he devised to help strategists understand the external business environment and
make better positioning choices in their strategy work. Porter’s contribution has been
criticized by some academics (Mintzberg, 1990; Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1991) for
narrowing the focus of strategic management. Further, the strategy discipline’s
understanding of the internal processes of organizations failed to develop at a similar
172 pace (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1991). Porter’s work was assigned to the positioning school
by Mintzberg (1990) on the basis of its focus on a firm’s strategic positioning in its
market or industry and this approach dominated the 1980s.
By contrast Wernerfelt’s (1995) prize-winning article in Strategic Management
Journal, that gave the resource-based view (RBV) its name, argued that viewing firms
in terms of resources as distinct from products provides a different strategic
perspective, especially for diversified firms. Specific resources can be identified in
organizations that generate strong financial returns. In the RBV firm resources include
the assets, knowledge, information, capabilities, processes and firm attributes that
enable the organization to formulate and implement their strategies effectively and
efficiently. Wernerfelt (1995) observed that strategy in large organizations involves
achieving balance between exploitation of current resources and developing new
resources. Acquisition of another business is effectively the purchase of a bundle of
resources in an imperfect market. Basing the purchase decision on a rare resource
provides the greatest probability of maximizing market imperfection, buying at a low
price and obtaining a strong financial return.
Barney (1991) went on to further develop insight on the RBV and link the RBV more
closely to the concept of competitive advantage. Barney (1991) in his writing notes that
Porter (1980, 1985) has spent much time identifying the environmental conditions
which support organization performance but little emphasis has been given in research
to the idiosyncratic firm resources that influence competitive position. This is the focus
of the RBV. Barney’s (1991) RBV framework is not always fully explained in empirical
research publications. Barney’s (1991) RBV highlights the importance of leveraging
internal strengths to take advantage of opportunities in the external environment or
respond to threats. The theoretical model of the RBV starts with two alternative
assumptions. First, firms within an industry may be heterogeneous in terms of
resources. For example, firms may enjoy first-mover advantage in terms of information
or opportunity or enjoy superior reputation or goodwill. Second, these resources may
not be perfectly mobile across firms (e.g. due to strong entry or mobility barriers) and
therefore heterogeneity can be long lasting. However, not all resources have the
potential to create and sustain competitive advantages; for a resource to have this
potential four additional attributes must be satisfied. Resources have value to the firm
when they allow the organization to exploit opportunities or neutralize threats.
Resources (e.g. physical capital, human capital and organizational capital resources)
must be rare among a firm’s current and potential competition. Firm resources that are
possessed by a large number of competitors cannot be the source of competitive
advantage because they each have the same capability. It is also advantageous if
the resources that generate competitive advantage are imperfectly imitable. This may
be due to:
.
Unique historical conditions in relation to the history and social background of
the firm and its place in space and time.
 .
The link between firm resources and sustained competitive advantage is Sustainable
ambiguous in causality in the sense that it is not understood or is understood competitive
imperfectly by competitors and is therefore difficult to imitate.
.
Competitive advantage flows from a complex social process (e.g. interpersonal
advantage
relations between managers, culture (Barney, 1986)) which is beyond the scope of
firms to manage and influence systematically.
173
Finally, there must not be a strategically equivalent valuable firm resource that is
either not rare, not imitable or can be exploited separately which would erode the firm’s
competitive advantage. Where these conditions are achieved sustainable competitive
advantage is possible. More recently Newbert (2008) extended the link from the RBV,
to the development of competitive advantage, to firms achieving strong organization
performance. This background in the received literature, in particular synthesis of the
Newbert (2008) contribution, underpins the following proposition:
P 3. Resource value and resource rareness are necessary conditions for the
attainment of competitive advantage and better organization performance.
So the development of understanding of the RBV has helped the strategy discipline
understand better the complex internal processes of firms, there uniqueness and
the importance of rare, difficult to imitate resources that can take many years to nurture
and develop and are often quite unique to particular firms. Such an example is the
mineral and hydrocarbon resource exploration resources nurtured within BHPB for
many years (BHPB, 2007). Changes in economic or industry conditions can change the
source of sustained competitive advantage for a firm. For instance, in the 1990s and
2000s there has been significant challenges to business in understanding the
environment. Most recently there has been considerable uncertainty in relation to the
supply of finance with the 2008 sub-prime crisis. There has also been advances
in technology in the 1990 and 2000s with the availability of increasing capability in
information technology, multimedia, information availability and transaction
capability on the internet with implications for customer behaviour, regulators of
financial systems and industries, and also competition in international markets
(O’Shannassy, 2001). Miles and Snow (1978) identified the influence of the business
environment on firm market positioning and strategic capabilities of the uncertainty
elements suppliers, competitors, finance, customers, trade unions and regulators. In
their research they aggregated the influence of perceived environmental uncertainty
elements in relation to market positioning and strategic capabilities. More recent
research with the perceived environmental uncertainty construct seeks to obtain a more
fine grained understanding of the influence of elements of this construct on strategy
variables (Miller, 1993; Lewis and Harvey, 2001). Insight from this research indicates
that the individual elements of environmental uncertainty do not always act in the
same way on strategy variables. Certain elements of the business environment such as
robust competition, changes in regulation and enhancement in technology can act as a
catalyst to stimulate the development of strategy resources in firms, helping firms
achieve and sustain competitive advantage with implications for future organization
performance (O’Shannassy, 2005). This argument is consistent with Mintzberg (1994a,
1994b) in that greater environmental uncertainty, gives greater emphasis to
strategy-making capability with implications for organization performance.
JSMA However, empirical research (O’Shannassy, 2005) indicates greater perceived certainty
1,2 in relation to the elements supply of finance and customers, respectively, is more
suited to helping the development of strategic resources and building better
organization performance over time than uncertainty in these elements. Certainty in
the supply of finance provides the munificent resource environment that helps firms
invest in and nurture the blend of “hard” (e.g. information technology, capital
174 equipment) and “soft” resources (e.g. employees, intellectual property) required to
develop and sustain competitive advantage and deliver strong performance.
A munificent resource environment allows the firm the accumulation of slack
resources, time and the opportunity required to patiently nurture these “hard” and
“soft” resources (Hart and Banbury, 1994). More certainty in relation to customer
behaviour assists the firm in thinking through with some precision the price and
product and/or service quality needs of the target market to nurture and sustain
revenue streams. Firms evidence a capacity to focus better on value adding activities
and perform more effectively and efficiently in this more stable environment. Here,
firms can be more analytical, careful and measured in there approach to price, product
and/or service quality needs, giving greater predictability for the firm in meeting
customer needs and controlling expenses (Hart and Banbury, 1994). Hence, the
following propositions are proposed:
P4a. Greater perceived environmental uncertainty in the elements competitors,
regulation, and technology can act as a catalyst to enhance resource value and
resource rareness and help a firm achieve competitive advantage and better
organization performance.
P4b. Less perceived environmental uncertainty in the elements supply of finance
and customers helps firms build resource value and resource rareness and
assists the firm in achieving competitive advantage and better organization
performance.

4. Where does competitive advantage go to when you lose it?

The preceding discussion has established sources of competitive advantage including
the most appropriate conditions in relation to the business environment in which to
develop valuable, rare strategic resources that help build sustainable competitive
advantage and deliver robust organization performance. Keeping this learning in mind
it is timely to reflect again on Mintzberg’s (1994a, 1994b) core message and the general
insight he provides into the environmental uncertainty, strategy-making capability
and organization performance relationship. O’Shannassy (2005) has demonstrated that
firms confronted by uncertainty in relation to supply of finance or customer behaviour
can experience an erosion of strategy resources and the understanding of the
marketplace required to build and sustain competitive advantage and deliver robust
organization performance. Remarks here will be limited only to supporting the
empirical relationships evidenced in O’Shannassy (2005) and this paper does not
exclude the possibility there can be moments where competitors, technology or
regulation can overwhelm the information sensing capabilities of the board of directors
(BOD) and management of a firm, however, this is less probable. Uncertainty in supply
of finance can be the catalyst for firms to shed employees, sell assets that contribute to
the value chain that delivers competitive advantage, taking a more short-term focus in
the nurturing and sustaining of strategic resources, consequently undermining Sustainable
competitive advantage and medium (i.e. two to four years) to long-term (i.e. more than competitive
five years) organization performance. Uncertainty in relation to customer behaviour
has a direct effect on the precision of the firm’s positioning choices on price and advantage
product attributes with management confused as to future trends (Milliken, 1987).
Firms as a consequence are unable to invest time in nurturing resource rareness,
resource value, and achieve competitive advantage with implications for organization 175
performance. Thus, a firm’s ability to pursue certain activities, routines or business
processes may be constrained by the resources and capabilities they control or may no
longer control (Ray et al., 2004). The connection of these insights from the literature and
recent empirical research helps take our insight into understanding of the influence of
particular business environment elements to strategy resources, competitive
advantage and organization performance a step further and help explain the
phenomena of temporary competitive advantage for firms. Hence:
P 5. Greater perceived environmental uncertainty in the elements supply of
finance and customers can erode resource value, resource rareness and
competitive advantage resulting in weaker future organization performance.

5. Discussion
Rumelt (2003) has noted the somewhat confused “state-of-play” in the strategy
discipline in relation to the competitive advantage construct, in particular a clear
definition. Powell (2001) has questioned an appropriate measure of competitive
advantage for empirical research. We have seen ABCs have a tendency to use the term
competitive advantage, like other popularly used terms in the strategy vocabulary,
with different meaning in different contexts. Related to this issue the strategy
discipline has developed a dialogue in recent years around not just the concept of
sustained competitive advantage, but also temporary competitive advantage and
competitive disadvantage. Powell (2001, p. 877) also notes that a clarification of
competitive disadvantage beyond “the dark side of competitive advantage” has been
slow to emerge.
This paper makes a contribution in several useful ways. Several research
propositions have been developed that build on accepted insight in the received
literature from experts such as Barney (2001), Kaplan and Norton (1992, 1996),
Mintzberg (1994a, b), Hart and Banbury (1994) and Powell (2001), as well as recent
empirical research from Newbert (2008). A number of the challenges for the strategy
discipline in relation to understanding competitive advantage identified by Rumelt
(2003) and Powell (2001) have been addressed. First, insight from Barney (1991), Powell
(2001) and Newbert (2008) is leveraged to advance and clarify terminology in an area of
some debate in the strategy discipline. Competitive advantage is not organization
performance. The synthesis of the literature here evidences that competitive advantage
and organization performance are different constructs with the attainment of
competitive advantage predicting strong organization performance. This point of
clarification on terminology makes possible the development of the further research
propositions presented (i.e. P2-P5). Second, we have seen competitive advantage can
come from a firm making a sound decision or sound decisions overtime in relation to its
generic position. Firm scale in an industry can be the source of competitive advantage
helping the firm to be the lowest cost producer or have proximity to the lowest cost
JSMA producer while giving greater benefits to customers in the provision of goods and/or
1,2 services (Porter, 1985). Either of these outcomes increases the probability of a firm
achieving and sustaining competitive advantage and the promise of strong
performance. Firms making sound strategic decisions introduces a third argument
in this paper, that firms with rare and valuable strategy resources give themselves
the best probability of making sound positioning choices, achieving competitive
176 advantage and in time strong organization performance (Newbert, 2008). Fourth, the
dynamic nature of the business environment, especially in relation to the influence of
competitors, customers, regulation, technology and supply of finance is such that
the achievement of competitive advantage is a dynamic bargain – dynamic in terms of
some firms in some circumstances being able to achieve sustained competitive
advantage and some firms in some industries achieving only temporary
competitive advantage. An argument has been presented that not all of the elements
of environmental uncertainty act in the same direction on strategic resources,
competitive advantage and organization performance (O’Shannassy, 2005, 2008).
Sustaining a permanent competitive advantage is very difficult, particularly in the age
of the some uncertainty on supply of finance from the sub-prime crisis and the impact
of the internet on customer behaviour and transaction capability.
In terms of linking theory to practice the example set by a firm such as BHBP in the
mining industry provides some evidence of each of these five points. BHPB’s recent
history indicates BHP Limited maintained competitive advantage and strong
organization performance in its time as “The Big Australian” with its evolution in
the 20th century into a corporation with a rich and robust mix of mineral, steel, oil and
gas, and transport resources. Then BHP had its competitive advantage and
organization performance edge eroded in the mid to late 1990s due to some challenges
which arose in understanding of the business environment (i.e. supply of equity finance
and performance pressure from share market analysts, commodity prices, technology
applications), strategy execution and simply bad luck (Spencer, 1998). The Magma
Copper acquisition, Harley Platinum Mine Project, OK Tedi copper mine
environmental damage litigation and delays with the construction and
commissioning of a hot briquetted iron plant at Port Hedland in Western Australia
all presented significant strategic and operational challenges to BHP at this time. The
BHP BOD and management acknowledged this and made a series of accounting
provisions and write offs in relation to these matters. There was change of personnel
both at BOD and executive level, including the new appointment of Mr Paul Andersen
as CEO. The BHP BOD and management team then worked assiduously to regain its
competitive advantage and strong organization performance in the later portion of
1998, 1999 and then into the 2000s with sustained strong strategy-making including a
robust review of its people, the business portfolio, and business process capabilities.
This process ultimately led to the successful merger with Billiton plc and a further
rationalization and then integration of the asset portfolio (BHPB, 2007). This brief
BHPB illustration evidences much of what has been discussed in relation to the
interaction of the business environment, resource value, resource rareness, competitive
advantage and organization performance.
Competitive disadvantage for a firm is a term of some interest that has also emerged
in the development of the research propositions and is worthy of discussion. Powell
(2001, p. 877) notes that many writers refer to competitive disadvantage as simply
“the dark side of competitive advantage ” and he goes on to observe that Sustainable
understanding of competitive disadvantage is considerably underdeveloped. competitive
In Powell’s (2001, 877) view competitive disadvantage relates to the “non-existence”
of resources that give competitive advantage and also a “failure to satisfy the advantage
minimum success requirements . . . required of any firm” in an industry with
implications for firm economic rents. The key point made in this paper on competitive
disadvantage is that BOD and management teams need to constantly monitor their 177
firm and the environment, including competitors, to ascertain if and when competitive
disadvantage exists or is emerging. Where a competitive disadvantage is identified it
should be considered a prompt for quick, effective managerial action to address the
situation and mitigate weakness in organization performance that may emerge or is
already present. The consequences for the firm not addressing the existence or
emergence of competitive disadvantage are potentially devastating (Tushman and
O’Reilly, 2004) and may include a deterioration in non-financial and/or financial
dimensions of organization performance.
This research area in relation to competitive advantage lends itself to a variety of
future possibilities. Both quantitative and qualitative longitudinal research in this area
would be useful in shedding further light on the definition of constructs, research
propositions, arguments and insights presented here. In particular, the addition of the
perceived environmental uncertainty construct to the model tested by Newbert (2008)
may provide interesting quantitative results. This RBV research area does though lend
itself to a variety of methods. Newbert (2008) successfully evidences a quantitative
approach while there is also some recognition in the strategy discipline that a case
study based approach allows the researcher to get close to the firm, its key
decision-makers and some understanding of the unique, socially complex, difficult to
imitate, rare set of circumstances that underpins resource configuration in a successful
firm (Yin, 1994). An action learning interview and case study approach by a researcher
embedded in an organization could be quite effective here. Certainly the case study
based approach helps to understand the unique circumstances of particular firms in
particular industries, especially the socially complex human side to the development of
rare and valuable resources (Miles and Huberman, 1994). Discussion of the application
of quantitative and qualitative methods separately invites discussion of a mixed
method approach to exploring the issues discussed in this paper (Jick, 1979). Certainly
an approach that commences with qualitative interviews and/or a case study and
then proceeds to a quantitative survey would yield interesting results and allow an
interesting cross-check of findings across the methods. In this way there is room
to integrate inductive qualitative research with positivistic deductive methods. This is
an intriguing research area and one in which the strategy field should look critically
and with an open mind to improve our understanding.

6. Conclusion
Competitive advantage remains a poorly understood construct in the strategy
literature and the subject of much discussion. This paper sets out to make its
contribution by clarifying terminology in this area and developing propositions for
future research. To achieve this outcome the paper has undertaken a synthesis of
classic and contemporary insights into the competitive advantage construct and
distinguished competitive advantage from organization performance. There has been
JSMA some confusion in the strategy literature on this point for many years. This paper also
1,2 provides a useful and timely contribution in relation to the circumstances around
which a firm may experience sustained competitive advantage or possibly temporary
competitive advantage. By introducing the perceived environmental uncertainty
construct to discussion on the relationship between firm resources, competitive
advantage and organization performance, understanding of sustained competitive
178 advantage and temporary competitive advantage has been enhanced. A number of
useful suggestions for future research have been made including the benefits of a
mixed method approach, going beyond only a positivistic deductive approach.

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JSMA About the author
Tim O’Shannassy (PhD, Monash University) is a Senior Lecturer in the Graduate School of
1,2 Business at RMIT University. He coordinates the Creating Strategy and Entrepreneurship
courses in the RMIT MBA Program and also Research Methods in the DBA Program. His work
appears in Journal of Management and Organization, Singapore Management Review and the
conference proceedings of the United States Academy of Management, Strategic Management
Society, British Academy of Management, the Australian and New Zealand Academy of
180 Management and the Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy. Tim’s major research
interests are environmental uncertainty, strategy-making, competitive advantage and
organization performance in large, medium and small enterprise settings.

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