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CHAPTER TWO
Man and Society
THE BASIC NATURE OF MAN & SOCIETY:
All institutional arrangements are ultimately mediated through individual action. The consequences of
any institutional arrangement, therefore, depend, at least in part, upon its effect on the human personality,
broadly conceived.
Discussion of human nature and society usually focus of themes like;
What is the basic nature of man, is he good or evil, socially responsible or a self-centered egotist? How
much of what we find in man is inborn, how much a product of his environment? What if any, are the
universal qualities or components of the human personality? and so on.
Among humanists, the most popular view of man stresses his uniqueness, his diversity, the constant
change in his mood and perspective, as in Montaigne‘s remark that man is ―a marvelous, vain, fickle and
unstable subject, on whom it is hard to form any certain and uniform judgment.‖
Hobbesian image of man is portrayed as; under influence of social drives of a self-centred sort, man seeks
to secure for himself, or for his group, as much wealth, power, and prestige as he possibly can, and cares
for no man except as he may be either a necessary condition for, or source of, those personal satisfactions
which drive every man. In this view, every man is enemy to every other man and only the power of the
state prevents the war of each against all and all against each.
By contrast, most sociologists stress the regularity of man‘s behavior, the repetition of certain socially
relevant actions, and the resulting orderliness and calculability of social life which follows from this. The
sociologists thus call attention to man as a creature of social habit. If man were indeed as many humanists
depict him, so sociologists argue, we could have none of our familiar institutions nor indeed any
organized social life at all. In this regard, sociologists put their view of social man, a creature whose
animal instincts are tamed and transformed by the process of socialization. Sociologists seldom deny the
irrational component in man‘s makeup. They stress society‘s capacity to prevent its manifestation, or
through sanctions to control its effects. They emphasize man‘s persistent and purposeful pursuit of the
social and personal goals which his culture and time define as appropriate.
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WHAT IT IS TO BE LOCATED IN SOCIETY:
Society as a prison; A key to sociological thinking is the basic idea that society guides
our actions and life choices. In this diagram, human beings are located at the centre of numerous social forces. Think about the forces that have
shaped your own life – and consider how your life would be very different if you were born into other languages, institutions or societies.
Social Location involves OUR BEING as well as OUR CONDUCT. Berger, uses five themes to
understand how an individual becomes located (imprisoned) in a society.
1. social location of "self"
2. social control mechanisms
3. social stratification (class)
4. the "definition of the situation"
5. Institutions
SOCIAL LOCATION OF "SELF"
As children we learn who we are by locating ourselves in relation to other people we are given
"assigned coordinates" by parents, family, and authorities (especially schools) & it becomes
normal for us to believe in them.
"social location" tells the individual:
a. just what he may do and not do
b. what he can expect from life
"location in society constitutes a definition of rules which have to be obeyed"
SOCIAL CONTROL MECHANISMS
Berger discusses six mechanisms of social control how an individual
1. Violence
a. physical force
b. Threat of violence
Restraining influence of the generally known availability of the means of violence.
2. Economic Pressure
Both fear of being fired and fear of NOT being hired
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3. Verbal/Mental Pressure - Group pressures and mechanisms
a. Persuasion
b. Ridicule and gossip
c. Ostracism
d. Fraud (fraudulent claims)
-"Making claims" which others pay attention to
4. Morality, Customs, & Manners
-Some are legal sanctions---most are informally enforced.
-adjustment - oriented groups can define some as "sick"
5. Occupational Controls
a. Formal
-licensing
-professionalism
-being in trade unions
-formal rules and regulations of employers
b. Informal
-from colleagues and co-workers
-In BOTH: "Code of Conduct"
-to behave in a certain way (within bounds)
6. Family and Personal Friends
-"Far more serious Psychological weight"
-"American Familism" (as a place of peace and harmony)
-set of values that strongly emphasizes the home as a place of refuge from the tensions of the
world and a place of personal fulfillment.
-Home as the "sphere of the intimate"
-our major source of "self-definition"
-likely to maintain as much harmony as possible so our sense of ourselves is maintained
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
a. Class is the fundamental unit of stratification determines Position of an individual in society
in terms of income;
-How differences in income leads to differences in quality of life.
b. Caste / Race differentiates members of a society in terms of birth and colors respectively.
DEFINITION O F THE SITUATION
-Definition of a social situation is what it is defined to be by its participants which matters
reality.
-A whole life policy & personality follows from DOS‘
INSTITUTIONS
Institutions provide procedures through which human conduct is patterned, compelled to go, in
grooves deemed desirable by society.
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SOCIETY:
The simplest definition of society is a group of people who share a defined territory and a culture. In
sociology we take it further by arguing that society is also the social structure and interactions of that
group of people. Social structure is the relatively enduring patterns of behavior and relationships within a
society. Thus, a society is not only the group of people and their culture, but the relationships between the
people and the institutions within that group.
More exactly, and using the term in a concrete sense, a society is any group of individuals who have more
or less conscious relations to each other. Society is constituted by the mental interaction of individuals
and exists wherever two or three individuals have reciprocal conscious relations to each other.
Society, therefore, is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behavior which
mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior. In
short, society is web of social relationship.
TYPES OF SOCIETY:
PREINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES:
Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies were small, rural, and
dependent largely on local resources.
Hunter-Gatherer
Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the
various types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure of human society until about
10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter-gatherers
relied on their surroundings for survival—they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated
plants for food. When resources to find sustenance, meaning they were nomadic.
Pastoral
Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the domestication of animals
where circumstances permitted. Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to recognize
their ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants. Pastoral
societies rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival. Unlike earlier hunter-
gatherers who depended entirely on existing resources to stay alive, pastoral groups were able to
breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, creating a surplus of goods. Herding, or
pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were forced to follow their animals to fresh
feeding grounds.
Horticultural
Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of society developed,
based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and cultivate plants. Horticultural
societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops.
These societies were able to start permanent settlements.
Agricultural
While pastoral and horticultural societies used small, temporary tools such as digging sticks or
hoes, agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival. Around 3000 B.C.E., an
explosion of new technology known as the Agricultural Revolution made farming possible—and
profitable.
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Feudal
The ninth century gave rise to feudal societies. These societies contained a strict hierarchical
system of power based around land ownership and protection. The nobility, known as lords,
placed vassals in charge of pieces of land. In return for the resources that the land provided,
vassals promised to fight for their lords.
These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the lower class. In return
for maintaining the land, peasants were guaranteed a place to live and protection from outside
enemies.
Industrial Society
In the 18th century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention, ushering in an era
known as the Industrial Revolution. One of the results of increased productivity and technology was the
rise of urban centers. Workers flocked to factories for jobs, and the populations of cities became
increasingly diverse. Life was changing quickly and the long-established traditions of the agricultural eras
did not apply to life in the larger cities. Social scientists emerged to study the relationship between the
individual members of society and society as a whole. It was during this time that power moved from the
hands of the aristocracy and ―old money‖ to business-savvy newcomers who amassed fortunes in their
lifetimes.
Postindustrial Society
Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a recent
development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of material goods, information
societies are based on the production of information and services.
ENVIRONMENT:
The word Environment refers to everything that surrounds or environs human beings. It consists of
all types of surroundings and influences whatsoever present whenever an event occurs. It refers to
those forces, situations, or stimuli that affect the event from outside. It is a complex phenomenon,
which consists of various forms that are very much interrelated.
Physical Environment
Physical environment refers to the natural phenomena. It composed of those conditions that are provided
by nature. It includes the earth surface with all its physical features and natural resources. The distribution
of water, mountains, hills, plains, minerals, plants and animals, the climatic and all the cosmic forces
(gravity, electric, universal) that play upon the earth and affect the life of people.
The topography or physical condition affects the human habitation, diet, dress and agriculture and animal
husbandry. It also affects physical structure (skin color, hair quality, color, body size and structure, shape
of nose, eye etc.) of human being.
Social Environment:
Social environment refers to social life of human beings. It consists of those aspects of human group life,
which are created by human beings as the course of their group experience.
The social environment consists of three forms;
1. Economic Environment;
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Economic environment consists of all the economic goods, houses, lands, plants and animals,
machines, tools, etc. which people have made to survive and for comfort, luxury and social status.
Economic order is and order of everyday life which people have built up for satisfying of their
needs through production, distribution and consumption of resources.
2. Cultural Environment
The cultural environment includes the custom, traditions, laws, and modes of thought,
knowledge, and beliefs. Every important aspect of life such as sexual relationship, ownership,
exchange of goods and services is ordered, maintained and controlled by elaborate system of
usage called tradition.
3. Psychosocial Environment
The psychosocial environment is the most pervasive of all the environments. It refers to the
supernatural beliefs of a group of people. Religion is a part of such environment.
SOCIALIZATION:
Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. Human beings are
social animals and they learn the cultural and behavioural patterns of the group they belong too. The
process of socialization brings about a change in the individual personality as the new generation learns
appropriate patterns of behaviour, develops ability to understand various social responsibilities and social
obligations according to the expectations of society. Therefore the socialization is a process
of training individual according to the norms of society.
According to Anthony Giddens, ―Socialization is a process by which the helpless infant gradually
becomes self aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of culture into which he or she is born.‖
Lundberg, defines ―Socialization as a process of interaction where the individual learns habits, skills,
beliefs and standard of judgments which are necessary for effective participation at social groups and
communities.‖
THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION :
The social order is maintained largely by socialization. It is said that the process of socialization begins
long before a child is born. Direct socialization begins after birth. Instincts are said to have some
influence on human behaviour. The process of socialization involves different stages.
a. Imitation
Copying by an individual of the actions of another is imitation. G.H Mead defines it as ‗self-
conscious assumption of another‘s acts or roles.
b. Suggestion
Suggestion is the process of communicating information. It may be conveyed through language,
pictures or some similar medium. Suggestion influences not only behavior with others but also
one‘s own private and individual behaviour.
c. Identification
In the early age, the child cannot make a difference between his/her own organism and the
environment. Most of their actions are random. As they grow in age, they come to know of the
nature of things which satisfy their needs. Such things become the objects of their identification.
Thus the toys with which they play, the picture-book which they enjoy looking at, the mothers
who feed them etc become objects of identification.
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d. Language
It is the medium of social interaction. In the beginning the child does not know how to speak. At
first the child utters some random syllables which have no meaning. Gradually the child learns by
hearing the parents and all those with whom he is associated with. The mother tongue is learnt
this moulds the personality of the individual from infancy.
THE FACTORS OF SOCIALIZATION :
1. Family
Being the first group which has influence over the individual, the child learns his first lessons in
socialization from the family. From his parents s/he learns her/his speech and language. S/He
learns respect for persons in authority. The child gets his first lessons in co-operation, tolerance,
love and affection in the family. The child develops his sense of self through observing the
reactions of his parents.
The family has tremendous influence on the character and morality of the person.
2. Peer Groups
The first peer group is the neighbourhood play group; children who hang out together in the
neighbourhood and play different games. They begin to spend more time together than in their
own families. The first neighbourhood playgroups are breeding grounds for leaders. Later in life,
peer groups become more influential in school and the workplace.
3. The School
The school is considered to be an important formal setting where the child spends many hours
together with friends and teachers. Here the child learns to recognize and obey rules, practice
skills, and relate to people in positions of authority.
4. Mass Media :
In the present-day society, mass media play a significant, although subtle role in the socialization
process. Media imparts information through audio visual and print. Mass media refers to all
instruments of communication such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, movies, and
records.
5. Workplace :
As the individual grows into an adult person, work becomes part of life. Occupation brings about
reality in front of the person as the individual earns for survival to fulfill his ambition. The
individual learns to cooperate, adjust with others at the work place.
SOCIAL INTERACTION:
The Meaning:
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann argued that society is created by humans and human interaction,
which they call habitualization. Habitualization describes how ―any action that is repeated frequently
becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be … performed again in the future in the same manner and
with the same economical effort‖ (Berger and Luckmann 1966). Not only do we construct our own
society, but we accept it as it is because others have created it before us. Society is, in fact, ―habit.‖
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Man as a social-cultural being, always lives in various groups and associations. As a member of these
groups he acts and behaves in a certain manner. The behavior of each individual is affected by the
behavior of others. Which is what we call interaction is the essence of social life. Without interaction
there would be no social or group life. Thus interaction is the basic ingredient of social relationships.
Weber understands social interaction along with two behavioral components; the first is the action or the
behavior itself and the second is the meaning that the actor attaches to his/r behavior. That meaning is
how a person perceives his behavior in relationship to the other people. It is that knowledge of another
who is affected that makes an action or interaction social. Similarly, Park & Burgess define social
interaction is of a dual nature, of persons with persons and of groups with groups. The two essential
conditions here employed are; Social contact and Communication.
According to Dawson and Gettys, ―Social interaction is a process whereby men interpenetrate the minds
of each other.‖
The social interaction means to the entire range of social relationships, wherein there is reciprocal
stimulation and response between individuals. A person's actions is influenced by the actions of others or
by an awareness of others.
Thus, social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of
society. By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they
seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it.
Through Others We Become Ourselves.
SOCIO-CULTURAL PROCESS:
Society is the network of social interaction and interrelationship, which automatically signifies
the social relationships that exist among the people. Such as the relationships between the teacher
and student, sun and father, leader and follower merchant and customers, between friends and enemies,
etc. Such relationship is the fundamental features of the human society. Social relationship involves
obligation, status, reciprocal ends and means between two or more individual in mutual contact.
This relationship ignites the interaction between the people which usually takes place in the form of
cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These forms of social interaction are
also designated as social process. Society is an expression of different social processes.
Social relationship may be studied by the kind or mode of social interaction which an individual exhibits.
This kind or mode of interaction which is the repetitive pattern in social life are called social process. It is
the fundamental way in which a man intact and built social relationship.
Definition:
―The term social process refers to the repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in
social life.‖ – Horton and Hunt
―Social process means the various modes of interaction between individuals or groups including
cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay.‖ -
Ginsberg
On the basis of these definitions, it may be concluded that social process is the repetitive pattern of social
interaction found in social life.
The most common forms of Social processes are;
a. Cooperation
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Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a
common end. -Merrill & Eldredge.
Cooperation is the process by which individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less
organized way for the attainment of common objective. –Fairchild
b. Competition
Competition as Woodward and Maxwell understand is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous
struggle between individuals or groups for satisfaction which, because of their limited supply.
According to Bogardus, Competition is a contest to obtain something which does not exist in a
quantity sufficient to meet the demand.
c. Conflict
Conflict is the social process in which individuals or groups seek their ends by directly
challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence – Gillin & Gillin.
A W Green defines conflict as the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce the will of
another or others.
d. Accommodation
Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which generally means adjusting oneself to the new
environment.
MacIver defines accommodation as it refers particularly to the process in which man attains a
sense of harmony with his environment.
According to Horton and Hunt, accommodation is a process of developing temporary working
agreements between conflicting individuals or groups.
e. Assimilation
Bogardus defines assimilation as a process whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and
thus develop into a united group.
Similarly, Nimkoff knows assimilation as the process whereby individuals or groups once
dissimilar become similar, and identified in their interest and outlook.
f. Integration
Integration is the harmonizing or unifying process whereby the various structural components of
society are properly organized. The aim of integration is to maintain a harmonious and active
relationship between the various structural components of society.
g. Isolation
Isolation is understood as the absence of communicative interaction or social contact. It is the
situation of deprivation of social contacts which may apply to both individuals and the groups.
SOCIAL CHANGE:
The Meaning:
Change is law of nature. Human society has always been experiencing change. The term ―change‖
denotes alteration, modifications of anything observed over some period of time. Social change, therefore,
would mean observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of time.
Lundberg et al. believe that, Social Change refers to any modification in established patterns of inter-
human relationship and standards of conduct.
Jones defines social change as the term used to describe variations in, or modifications of , any aspect of
social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization.
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Social Changes in terms of Gillin and Gillin are known as variations from the accepted modes of life;
whether due to alteration in geographical conditions, in cultural equipment, composition of the
population, in ideologies and whether brought about by diffusion or inventions within the group.
Causes of Social Change:
Changes to technology, social institutions, population, and the environment, alone or in some
combination, create change.
Technology
According to Thomas Friedman, technology is a driving force behind globalization, while the other forces
of social change (social institutions, population, environment) play comparatively minor roles. He
suggests that we can view globalization as occurring in three distinct periods. First, globalization was
driven by military expansion, powered by horsepower and windpower.
The second shorter period consisted of a globalizing economy. Steam and rail power were the guiding
forces of social change and globalization in this period. Finally, Friedman brings us to the post-millennial
era. In this period of globalization, change is driven by technology, particularly the internet.
Social Institutions
Each change in a single social institution leads to changes in all social institutions. For example, the
industrialization of society meant that there was no longer a need for large families to produce enough
manual labor to run a farm. Further, new job opportunities were in close proximity to urban centers
where living space was at a premium. The result is that the average family size shrunk significantly.
Population
Population composition is changing at every level of society. Births increase in one nation and decrease in
another. Population trends have a tremendous interrelated impact on all other aspects of society. There is
concern about labor shortages, not to mention the knowledge gap as the most senior and accomplished
leaders in different sectors start to leave. Further, as this large generation leaves the workforce, the loss of
tax income and pressure on pension and retirement plans means that the financial stability of the country
is threatened. On a macro level, the increased population, particularly in the poorest parts of the globe,
also leads to increased stress on the planet‘s resources.
The Environment
Turning to human ecology, we know that individuals and the environment affect each other. As human
populations move into more vulnerable areas, we see an increase in the number of people affected by
natural disasters. It cannot be denied that floods, earthquakes, excessive rain, drought, change of season
etc. have significant effect upon social relationships.
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