By-

Rakesh Ranjan
Dept. of political Science,
Patna University, Patna
 Fred W. Riggs is propounder of Ecological Approach in Public
Administration. He wrote the book “The Ecology of Public
Administration” in 1962 in which he threw light on the
relationship & interaction of an administration with its external
surroundings.

 Riggs was well known for his studies in Comparative Public

Administration specially ‘Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model’. He
developed the model for understanding the administrative
structures and organizational behaviour. The main thrust of his
model is that Western Models are relatively less relevant to the
developing countries, which have unique environment/contexts-
social structures, economic life, cultural practices, political
symbols, allocation of power, division of labour, etc. Unlike the
developed nations, the administrative systems in these
countries are considerably shaped by the ecology.
In the study of Comparative Public Administration, Riggs
identified three major trends-
(A) the shift form a Normative Approach to a more Empirical
Approach,
(B) the transformation from Ideographic Approach ( studies of a
single agency or country) to a Nomothetic Approach ( giving
greater priority to generalizations, laws and theory building based
on regular patterns of administrative institution) and
(C) the shift from a Non-ecological approach ( study of formal
administrative institutions without considering contextual influence
) to a more Ecological Approach ( that emphasis on interaction
between institutions and their contextual factors such as social
structure, tradition, culture ).
Riggs emphasized the need to study administrative
systems in the ecological perspective so as to gain a
comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the
administrative dynamics.
 The Ecological Approach to the study of public administration was first
initiated by J. M Gaus, Robert Dhal and Robert A. Merton. Latter
Riggs made distinctive contribution to the approach.

 Ecology of public administration includes the study of people

place/property; physical and social technology; personality and
aspirations of people; emergency conditions/ catastrophes.
Gaus argued that administrative systems are influenced by its
surrounding factors. Furthering this concept, Riggs analyzed the
relationship between administrative systems and ecological factors-
history, social structures, traditions, customs, economic situation,
political symbols, technology and communication, etc, in a larger
perspective. On the basis of his studies in Thailand and Philippines,
he explained how environmental conditions influence administrative
systems.
 Riggs analysis of public administration primarily relies upon a
Structural- Functional Approach. He refers to structure as a
society’s pattern of activity. Riggs attempted to explain the various
societies. The traditional agrarian societies, highly developed
industrial societies, and developing societies are functionally and
structurally distinct.
 He termed functionally diffused societies as ‘Fused societies’ (in
traditional societies various social functions and social structures
are highly functionally diffuse, that is, there is no organized
division of labour) and functionally specific’s societies are
‘Diffracted societies’ (as found with in an industrialized societies).
In addition to these two diametrically opposed extremes i.e. lack of
division of labour society versus a highly specific’s society, there is
a third society called ‘prismatic society’- Riggs’ most popular
model. Riggs emphasized that ‘Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted models’
are designed to be ‘ideal‘ types not to be found in any actual
society. Nevertheless these models would help us to understand
and analyze the societies and function of administrative systems.

 The ideal models of fused, prismatic and diffracted societies aimed
at studying the prehistoric, developing and developed societies.
While explaining the concept of structural- functional approach, it
was mentioned that social structures may perform large no of
functions in some societies. This is called multi-functionality and
such social structures are called “functionally diffuse”. On the other
hand ‘functionally specific’ social structures perform only
prescribed limited functions.

 Riggs calls functionally diffuse societies as “Fused” and the

functionally specific societies as “Diffracted”. The society which is
intermediate between these types of societies is called “Prismatic"
society. Prismatic society has features of both fused and diffracted
societies. Riggs emphasized that all societies are generally
prismatic and no society could be called purely fused or diffracted.
It should be noted that Riggs developed fused-prismatic-diffracted
models only for heuristic purposes and their exact characteristics
are not found in any actual society.
Based on experiences in imperial China and pre-revolutionary Thailand,
Riggs proposed the concept and characteristics of fused societies:

 (i) In these societies, a single structure carries out a number of

functions.

 (ii)These societies heavily depend on agriculture with no

industrialization and modernization.

 (iii) The economic system is based on law of exchange and barter

system.

 (iv) The King and royal family members and officials nominated by the
king carry out all administrative, economic and other activities by
themselves.
 Riggs maintained that the administrative systems in
fused societies are based on the structure of family,
and it strives to protect the special interests of the
family and certain sects rather than aiming at universal
happiness and overall development.

 These societies do not differentiate between justice

and injustice; formal and informal setups and
governmental and nongovernmental activities.
Ascriptive values play a dominant role in the society
and the behaviour of people are highly traditional. Age
old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways of living
enable people to live together and control their
behaviours.

Riggs uses American society as a model of diffracted society.
According to him characteristics of diffracted societies are:
 (i) Diffracted society is with a high degree of specialization and
each structure carries out a specialized function.
 (ii) All organizations and structures in the society are created and
based on scientific rational.
 (iii) Ascriptive values cease to exist, giving way to the attainment of
values in the society.
 (iv) Governments are responsive to the needs of people and
protection of human rights. People bring pressure on the
government to get their demands fulfilled.
 (v) There is general consensus among the people on all basic
aspects of social life.
 (vi) The economic system of this type of society is centered on
market mechanism. The influence of market has both direct and
indirect effects on the other facets of the society. Riggs described
this as marketised society.
 Riggs devoted much of his efforts on Prismatic
Model to explain the nature and administration in
the post-colonial emergent nations. While doing his
field work in Thailand and teaching in Philippines,
he articulated prismatic model based on the
metaphor of prism as the fused white sunlight
passes through a prism, it becomes diffracted into
several separate colours. Here the fused light
signifies fused structures of a traditional society;
the diffracted colours represent the specialized or
diffracted structures of modern society ; and the
situation within the prism reflects the conditions in
developing nations, which Riggs regarded as
prismatic societies.
According to Riggs, prismatic society has three
important characteristics, which are:
(i) Heterogeneity:
There exists modern features of society side by
side with traditional features.
The people are not integrated but divided on line
of religion etc.
Un equal level of development.
Highly westernized and modern urban sector
co-exists with rural irrational sector.
 (ii) Formalism:
Formalism is the deference between the
prescribed and the practiced.
Level of formalism is dependent on the nature
of pressure for development. If the pressure
comes from outside, level of formalism
increases.
In Formalistic situation, values and norms may
receive lip service but ignored in real practice.
 (iii) Functional overlapping :
 In a prismatic society similar functions are
performed by different institutions. This features
shows that differentiated structures co-exist with
undifferentiated structures. Overlapping is manifest
in a prismatic society by many features e. g.
nepotism, poly-communalism or poly -
normavativism, lack of consensus, separation of
authority and control.
 Due to these features, the social change in a
prismatic society is inconsistent, incomplete and
irresponsive.
 Riggs termed the administrative systems in
prismatic societies as ‘sala’, which has variety of
meanings; in diffracted societies it is known as
such as bureau or office and in fused society it is
termed as chamber.
 The sala has certain features of diffracted bureau
and fused chamber. The administrative rationality
and efficiency found in bureau are absent in the
sala. Riggs explained that in the prismatic
societies, family, community, nepotism etc., play
important role in the appointment to various
administrative positions and in taking decisions or
performing administrative functions.

 Characteristics:
 (i) Nepotism: In contrast to the diffracted society, in
prismatic society the considerations of caste,
religion, family and loyalty etc. are the deciding
factors in official recruitment. In diffracted society
universalism is the criteria for official recruitment.
This is due to the fact that in prismatic society
‘selectivism’ which is intermediate between
‘universalism’ and ‘particularism’ prevails i. e.
sometimes universalism is followed while at others
particularism is followed.
 (ii) Poly-Communalism: Poly-communalism refers to the
simultaneous existence in a society of various ethnic,
religious and racial groups which remain quite hostile to
each other while in existence. These groups are termed as
‘clects’ by Riggs and they are characterized by attainment
norms, selectivism and poly-functionalism.
 (iii) Poly-Normativism (Lack of consensus): This means that
the traditional behaviour pattern co-exists with ‘new’ sets of
norms. This results in lack of consensus on norms of
behaviour. Sala officials though publicly claim to follow
objective, universalistic and achievement oriented norms
actually follow subjective, particularistic and ascriptive
behaviour .
 (iv) Separation of Authority and Control: In a prismatic
society the authority and control structures are separated.
There is a separation of ‘de-jure’ authority (legitimate power)
from ‘de-facto’ control (illegitimate power). The upper hand
of bureaucrats in the exercise of power makes the political
process weak and the administration becomes unresponsive
in prismatic societies. This results in nepotism in
recruitment, corruption and inefficiency in the administration
of laws.
 (v) Bazaar-Canteen Model: Economic sub-system of
prismatic society was termed as ‘bazaar – canteen’ by
Riggs. In prismatic societies the prices charged for the
public services vary according to the relationship between
the sala official and his clientele.
 (1) Critique of Riggs’ theory identifies the scope of the
‘fused-prismatic-diffracted model’ as being too broad and
abstract. Riggs’ structural -function studies, which include
several cultural factors – including economic, social, and
political - are difficult to follow.
 (2) Scholars have found that in some cases the fused-
prismatic-diffracted model ignores certain variables. For
example, factors such as historical background, the political
structure of post-colonial countries, territorial size, the status
of hierarchical power, and the role of the military, as well as
social ideologies were left out.
 (3) Riggs uses American society as his model of a
diffracted society. Although American society is developed
and industrialized but, it is wrong to infer that it is free of
formalism and no longer a prismatic society.
 (4) Another critique of the “fused-prismatic-
diffracted” model argues that while it is predicated
on the notion of deduction, there is little empirical
evidence to support it.
 (5) Riggs has considered the impact of external
socio-cultural, economic and political factors on
sala but he has not much considered the impact of
sala on socio-cultural and economic factors.
 (6) Riggsian models do not look into possibility of
relative independence of various ‘social structures’.
 The ideal type models of Riggs have influenced
much research in Comparative Public
Administration. Ecological models help qualitative
comparisons among various societies. The
ecological model has brought consciousness of
interaction between administrative system and the
social environment around it. It enables
comparative public administration scholars to
comprehend each country’s administrative
attributes and differences. The model has also to a
great extent explained the problems of inefficiency
in developing countries of the world.